introduction to analytical instrumentation

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1

ANALYSYS SCIENCESInstrumental in your success©

An Analytical chemist …

… tries to answer only two questions.

Given a sample …

What is it? Qualitative analysis

How much is it? Quantitative analysis

The science of analysis

Quantitative analysis

Separation techniques

Chromatography

Centrifugation

Ultrafiltration

Qualitative analysis

Spectroscopy

UV-vis spectroscopy

FTIR spectrometry

Mass spectrometry

NMR spectroscopy.

The evolution of analysis

1900’s Manual titration 1 mg 10-3 0.001 gm

1920’s TLC 1 µg 10-6 0.000001

1960’s GC 1 ng 10-9 0.000000001

1980’s HPLC 1 pg 10-12 0.0000000001

1990’s GC-MS 1 fg 10-15 0.000000000000001

2008 LCMS 1 ag 10-18 0.000000000000000001

2013 FTMS 1 zg 10-21 0.000000000000000000001

Instrumentation in the industry

Pharmaceutical industry Drug Discovery

Quality Assurance / Regulatory compliance

Clinical studies

Biotech Proteomics and Genomics

Microbiology Rapid microbiology

Food safety

Environmental applications Pollution control

Pesticide residue analysis

Laboratory automation Sample preparation

LIMS

Fundamental separation techniques

- An overview

Chromatography

Chromatography involves the separation of a sample mixture by making it interact with a stationary phase and a mobile phase.

Stationary phase can be a liquid that is bonded to a support matrix, or a solid that is packed into a column or coated onto a plate. Stationary phase has specific chemical properties.

Mobile phase can be a liquid, gas or supercritical fluid.

Plate theory Martin and Synge (1941)

Nobel in Chemistry, 1952 for “their

invention of partition chromatography”.

Chromatography column assumed to be

similar to a distillation column.

Separation occurs across a series of

theoretical plates.

Higher number of theoretical plates

improves column performance.

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Rate theory Dr JJ van Deemter (1956)

Plate theory does not explain band spreading and peak

broadening. Does not take into account packing material

properties, mobile phase flow rate and column geometry.

Rate theory takes into account various factors that cause

chromatographic peak broadening and reduction of

separation efficiency.

9

van Deemter Equation

linear velocity ( flow rate)

CH A B

10

van Deemter took into account several factors that

can affect HETP and column performance. He

formulated a mathematical equation that defined the

relationship between various chromatographic factors

and HETP.

This equation made it possible to numerically calculate

column performance, design better chromatography

stationary phases and improve separation efficiency.

High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

Premier separation technique of the 21st century.

Very sensitive.

High resolution and separating power.

Can be used for virtually any sample – organic or inorganic.

Can be fully automated for unattended use.

HPLC – Csaba Horvath.

Csaba Horvath (1930-2004)

Considered the father of

modern HPLC.

Designed and developed the

first HPLC instrument, at Yale

in 1964.

Coined the term “high-

performance liquid

chromatography”.

HPLC – Jim Waters (1925 - )

Designed and

manufactured the first

commercial GPC

instrument, in 1963.

Founded Waters

Associates, now known

as Waters Corporation.

HPLC – the system

Complex mixtures are separated using high-performance columns containing specialised packing material.

Typically, SS columns are used. Column dimensions vary from 1 mm to 200 mm dia, and from 5 cm to several feet in length.

HPLC packings vary from 1 m to 3000 m particle size, and come in a wide range of chemistries.

Samples analysed can be as little as a few nanograms, to hundreds of kilograms.

HPLC – the system

High-efficiency pumps capable of delivering organic solvents at very precise flow-rates.

Sample injector systems that can precisely inject very small amounts of sample

High-performance separation columns

Sensitive detectors that can identify analytes at low concentrations.

Sophisticated data systems for data analysis and system control.

Typical HPLC systems

Basic HPLC system with two pumps, manual injector, UV detector and

PC.

For routine QC work.

High-end HPLC system

Automated HPLC with autoinjector, UV

detector and fraction collector

Preparative HPLC system

Large columns are

used

For gram to kilogram

quantities

Key applications:

Phytochemicals

High-value API’s

Process-scale HPLC

For large-scale manufacture of

high-value products.

Typical application:

Final-stage purification of

human insulin.

Current trends in HPLC

Use of very short HPLC

columns, with packings <1.7

nm in diameter. Much faster

run times, higher separation

power, lower limits of

detection.

Technique is called Ultra-

performance LC, or UPLC.

Gas Chromatography

21http://analysciences.com

Gas Chromatography

Mobile phase is a gas.

Used for volatile, heat stable samples

only. eg. Petroleum products, volatile

oils, perfumeries.

… Or analytes that can be converted to

volatile derivatives, eg. amino acid silyl

derivatives, fatty acid methyl esters.


Gas chromatography – the pioneers.

Erika Cremer, Univ of Innsbruck, Austria, 1944, developed the theory and use of gas chromatography.

She was assisted by her PhD student, Fritz Prior.


Why GC?

Minimal sample prep.

Fast analysis time. High separation

efficiency.

Easier to automate. Easier to

upgrade to hyphenated methods like

GC-MS.

Lower capital costs and running

costs.

Given a choice between HPLC and

GC, choose GC!


Restricted to analytes that are volatile

and thermo-stable … or to analytes that

can be derivatised.

GC – The system Commonly used carrier gases in GC are Helium or Nitrogen.

Samples are injected through sealed, heated injection ports.

GC separation columns are long, coiled tubes, filled or coated with specific packings.

Sensitive detection systems are used, like flame ionisation, thermal conductivity and electron capture detectors.

Carrier gas

Filters/traps

Injector

Detector

Column oven

Column

Data system

GC Schematics

Packed columns


Made of SS, glass or copper tubing, filled with porous packing material, which may be coated with a viscous liquid phase.

Packed columns contain a finely divided, inert, solid support material (usually based on diatomaceous earth ) coated with liquid stationary phase. Most packed columns are 1.5 - 10m in length and have an internal diameter of 2 - 4mm.

Capillary columns Made from fused silica.

Have an internal diameter of a few

tenths of a millimeter, usually

0.32mm and 0.53 mm.

Length between 3m to 30m.

Capillary columns are more efficient

than packed columns.

Much higher plate counts >30,000

plates per meter.


Current GC systems.

Tracera GC from Shimadzu Corporation, Japan.

Introduced in 2014.

Fully automated. Can be controlled via Internet.

Latest detection system – barrier discharge

ionisation detector.

Can detect analytes down to parts-per-billion.

Current GC systems – portable GC;s.

Current GC’s – made in India.

Dual-column, dual

injector GC, made in

Bangalore.

Fully automated.

Portable GC, made in

Bangalore.

Fully automated.

Planar Chromatography

© AnalySys Sciences

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TLC – The early days.

Egon Stahl (1924-1986) first coined the term „thin-layer chromatography‟.

Standardised TLC as a method.

Developed sorbents for TLC and many TLC methods for natural products.



Thin Layer Chromatography

Uses thin film on a support like glass or Al-foil.

Sample applied via capillary and developed in glass chamber.

Mobile phases are organic solvents.

Spots detected using spray or dip reagents eg Dragendorf reagent for alkaloids, Ninhydrin for amino acids.

Current status - High performance thin

layer chromatography

HPTLC – The system

Samples are spotted or sprayed

on TLC plates using automated

sample applicators

TLC plates are developed in

automated chambers

Developed plates are scanned in

a densitometer

Data is analysed and recorded.

A typical HPTLC result.

Forced flow TLC

The TLC plate is sandwiched between two metal plates that are sealed by gaskets.

The upper plate is fitted with three conduits. The first conduit supplies mobile phase to one end of the plate; the second conduit is used to place the sample onto the plate at a position a little in advance of the solvent supply conduit; at the other end of the plate there is the third conduit that allows the solvent to leave the chromatographic system.

If the forced flow system is employed in a two dimensional manner, then a system is provided that cannot be simply emulated by normal LC systems.



Centrifugal TLC Centrifugally accelerated device for

preparative thin layer radial separations

TLC plate is a rotor coated with the stationary phase.

The compound to be separated is applied inside the adsorbent ring of the rotor

The mobile phase is then pumped through the adsorbent layer effectively separating the individual components. As the individual rings reach the outer rim of the Rotor they are spun off the edge of the glass and collected in the special circular trough.

The angle of the trough allows the eluent to collect at the bottom and drop out the collection port.



Overpressured layer chromatography

The sorbent flat bed is completely covered by a flexible Teflon membrane and maintained under pressure in a vapor-free state.

The eluent is pushed across the flat sorbent bed at a controlled flowrate.

The chromatographic support is supplied in 200μm layers, with 3 μmparticles.

OPLC provides a wide choice of established detection methods (UV, visible, fluorescence…) and selective visualisation of compounds.




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Emerging Technologies in

Chromatography.



Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC).

A supercritical fluid is any substance at a temperature and pressure above its thermodynamic critical point.

It can diffuse through solids like a gas, and dissolve materials like a liquid.

Close to the critical point, small changes in pressure or temperature result in large changes in density, allowing many properties to be "tuned".

Supercritical fluids are suitable as a substitute for organic solvents in a range of industrial and laboratory processes.

Carbon dioxide and water are the most commonly used supercritical fluids.



Advantages of Supercritical fluids

Relatively rapid extraction of analytes, because of low viscosities and high diffusivities of supercritical fluids.

The extraction can be selective by controlling the density (pressure) of the medium.

The extracted material is easily recovered by simply depressurising, allowing the supercritical fluid to return to gas phase and evaporate leaving no or little solvent residues.

Carbon dioxide is the most common supercritical solvent.



SFC SFC combines many of the advantages of HPLC and

GC.

Can use capillary GC columns and HPLC columns as well.

It can be used with non-volatile and thermally labile analytes (unlike GC) and can be used with the universal flame ionization detector (unlike HPLC)

Produces narrower peaks due to rapid diffusion, allowing the analysis of complex samples.

The purity of the final products is very high, but the cost makes it suitable only for high-value compounds such as pharmaceuticals.



SFC - instrumentation

HPLC pumps used

Columns can be GC capillary columns or HPLC packed columns.

UPLC or microbore columns can also be used.

Detectors can be HPC detectors like UV, fluorescence or DAD.

Or GC detectors like FID.

Or MS detectors



SFC - applications

Chiral separations, preparative scale

Herbals and phytochemicals

LC-MS applications, for clinical studies and drug discovery.



HILIC Hydrophilic Interaction Chromatography.

Term coined in 1990 to distinguish it from normal-phase. Alpert J.Chromatography, 499 (1990) 177-196

HILIC is a variation of normal-phase chromatography without the disadvantages of using solvents that are not miscible with water.

Stationary phase is a POLAR material such as silica, cyano, amino, diol, etc.

The mobile phase is highly organic (> 80%) with a small amount of aqueous/polar solvent.

Water (or the polar solvent(s)) is the strong, eluting solvent



How does HILIC work?

HILIC Mechanisms on Silica

Polar analyte partitions into and out of adsorbed water layer

Charged polar analyte can undergo cation exchange with charged silanol groups

Combination of these mechanisms results in enhanced polar retention

Lack of either of these mechanisms results in no polar retention



HILIC - applications

Highly polar analytes that would be

un-retained by reversed-phase

chromatography

Complementary selectivity to

reversed-phase

Enhanced sensitivity in mass

spectrometry

High organic mobile phase enhances

ESI-MS response

Shortens sample preparation time.

Centrifugation

Centrifuge

A centrifuge is a device that

uses centrifugal force to

separate molecules of various

densities.

The material to be separated

is placed in a tube and

inserted into a rotor, that is

spun at high speed.

Theodore Svedberg 1884-1971

Discovered and

developed the technique

of ultracentrifugation, for

the separation of

proteins.

Nobel in Chemistry, 1926.

Edward Greydon Pickels.

Developed the first

commercial vaccum

ultracentrifuge, in

1946.

Founded Spinco, now

part of Beckman

Instruments.

Centrifuges.

High-speed centrifuge Upto 30,000 rpm.

80,000 g.

Ultracentrifuge 100,000 rpm and more

>800,000 g.

Microcentrifuge Small, desktop centrifuge.

Upto 30,000 rpm.

Rotors.

Swing-out rotor

Fixed-angle rotor

Vertical tube rotor

Density gradient separation. A density gradient is created by gently

overlaying lower concentrations of sucrose

on higher concentrations in a centrifuge

tube, from 10% to about 70% sucrose.

Gradient mixers can be used to form a

gradient.

The sample is placed on top of the gradient

and centrifuged at forces in excess of

150,000 x g.

The particles travel through the gradient until

they reach their isopycnic point, i.e. the point

in the gradient at which their density

matches that of the surrounding sucrose.

This fraction can then be removed and

analyzed.

Ultrafiltration

Pressure or concentration gradient causes separation through a semipermeablemembrane.

Suspended solids and solutes of high molecular weight are retained, while low molecular weight solutes pass through the membrane in the permeate.

UF - Current trends – Cross-flow filtration.

The feed flow travels tangentially across the surface of the filter, rather than into the filter.

The advantage is that the filter cake is washed away during the filtration process, increasing the life of the filter.

It can be a continuous process, unlike dead-end filtration.

Cross-flow – Biotech applications.

Lab-scale cross-flow

system from

Sartorius, for protein

purification.

Cross-flow: Biotech applications.

Cross-flow system

for downstream

vaccine purification.

Spectroscopy –

An overview

Spectroscopic Techniques

Spectroscopy studies the interaction of atoms and

molecules with electromagnetic radiation.

The electromagnetic spectrum

180 – 380 nm Ultraviolet

380 – 800 nm Visible

3000 nm – 8000 nm Mid-Infrared

1nm = 10-9 meter.

UV-visible spectroscopy

UV-visible region. (190 – 900 nm)

In this region of the electromagnetic spectrum, molecules undergo electronic transitions. UV-visible spectroscopy deals with transitions from the ground state to the excited state.

Absorption spectra are generated that can be used for structure elucidation and for quantitative estimations.

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Spectroscopy - basics

Transmittance

Absorbance

Expressed as absorbance units. (AU)

0

% 100P

TP

10

1logA

T

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Beer’s Law(Beer-Lambert-Bouguer law)

A = ebc

A = absorbance

ε = molar absorptivity (L mol-1 cm-1)

b = path length of the sample (cm).

c = concentration of the analyte (mol/L)

Pierre Bouguer (1698 –1758)

French mathematician and

astronomer.

The original creator of Beer’s

Law, circa 1729.

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UV – visible sources Low pressure Hg lamp

Emits lines at 253.7 nm (very strong), 313 nm, 365

nm, 407 nm, 435.8 nm, 546.1 nm, 577 nm, 579.1

nm

Deuterium lamp

Emits a continuum from 180 to 700 nm

Xenon arc lamp

Intense continuum from 180 to 1100 nm

Tungsten-halide lamp

Continuum from 280 nm to 1100 nm

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Dispersion devices

Diffraction Gratings

Reflecting or transparent substrate surface with fine parallel grooves or rulings.

Diffractive and mutual interference effects occur, and light is reflected or transmitted in discrete directions, called orders.

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Monochromator configurations

Czerny-TurnerLittrow Mount

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PMT’s

Very sensitive

Take time to stabilise

Finite response time

Tracking error at high scan

speeds

Tunable sensitivity and gain

Dark current and baseline

noise at high gain.

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Photodiodes - 2

Short warm-up time

Rapid response

Inexpensive

Not as sensitive as PMT‟s

Best used as diode arrays.

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Photoelectric effect

Upon exposing a metallic surface to electromagnetic radiation, the photons are absorbed and current is produced.

The energy of the photon is absorbed by the electron and, if sufficient, the electron can escape from the material with a finite kinetic enrrgy.

A single photon can only eject a single electron, as the energy of one photon may only be absorbed by one electron. The electrons that are emitted are termed photoelectrons.

Modern-day UV spectrophotometer.

Infrared Spectroscopy

Deals with the mid-infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum. (3000 nm – 8000 nm)

Molecules display absorbance at specific frequencies in the IR region, at which they rotate or vibrate.

A transmittance or absorbance spectrum is produced.

Analysis of the IR spectrum reveals details about the molecular structure of the sample.


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Mass Spectrometry

Francis William Aston (1877-1945).

Designed the first

mass

spectrometer in

1919.

Won Nobel in

1922.

Mass SpectrometryA mass spectrometer breaks up

molecules into charged fragments and separates those fragments according to their mass/charge ratio.

The mass spectrum so generated is specific to that molecule and can used to conclusively identify the molecule, even in very complex mixtures.

Mass spectrometry is a very sensitive and highly selective technique.



Introduction

Designed to separate gas phase ions according to their m/z (mass to charge ratio).

A mass analyser separates the gas phase ions, via electrical or magnetic fields, or combination of both, to move the ions to a detector, where they produce a signal which is amplified.

The analyser is under high vacuum, so that the ions can travel to the detector with a sufficient yield.



Mass spectrum



MS Schematic



Electron Impact ionisation

The most widely used of all ionization

methods

Sample is vaporized into the mass

spectrometer ion source, where it is

impacted by a beam of electrons with

sufficient energy to ionize the molecule.

For most organic molecules, the ion yield

is a maximum at 70 eV energy.



Chemical Ionisation

“Soft” ionisation technique.

Used when no molecular ion is observed in EI mass spectrum, or when you want to confirm the m/z of the molecular ion.

Same ion source device as in EI. Reagent gas (e.g. ammonia) is first subjected to electron impact. Sample ions are formed by the interaction of reagent gas ions and sample molecules.

Reagent gas molecules are present in the ratio of about 100:1 with respect to sample molecules.

Positive ions and negative ions are formed in the CI process. Depending on the setup of the instrument (source voltages, detector, etc...) only positive ions or only negative ions are recorded.

Eg. Mass spec of trisilyl derivatives of amino acids.



Electrospray Ionisation

Analyte is introduced to the source at low flow rates. Passes through the electrospray needle at high potential difference.

This forces the spraying of charged droplets from the needle.

Solvent evaporation occurs. The droplet shrinks until the surface tension can no longer sustain the charge (the Rayleigh limit) at which point a "Coulombic explosion" occurs.

This produces smaller droplets that repeat the process, until complete ionisation occurs. A very soft method of ionisation.



Atmospheric pressure (APCI)

Analogous ionisation method to chemical ionisation.

The significant difference is that APCI occurs at atmospheric pressure.

Cannot be used for thermo-labile compounds

Can be used at high flow rates (1 ml/min) unlike ESI.



APCI - 2

Analyte solution is introduced into a pneumatic nebulizer and desolvated in a heated quartz tube before interacting with the corona discharge creating ions.

The corona discharge replaces the electron filament in CI and produces primary ions by electron ionisation.

These primary ions collide with the vaporized solvent molecules to form secondary reactant gas ions.

These reactant gas ions then undergo repeated collisions with the analyte resulting in the formation of analyte ions.



MALDI

Soft ionization technique.

The ionization is triggered by a laser beam (normally a nitrogen-laser). A matrix is used to protect the analytefrom the laser beam.

The matrix consists of crystallized molecules.

The laser is fired at the crystals in the MALDI spot. The spot absorbs the laser energy and the matrix is ionized. The matrix transfers part of the charge to the analyte, thus ionizing it.

MALDI – Targets and matrices.

Common matrices:

3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic acid

(sinapinic acid)

α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid

(CHCA, alpha-cyano or alpha-matrix)

2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid (DHB).

An aqueous solution is made with

one of these matrices and the

protein. Trifluoroacetic acid and

acetonitrile or EtOH may also be

added.



Magnetic Sector

It uses an electric and/or magnetic field to affect the path and/or velocity charged particles.

The ions enter a magnetic or electric field which bends the ion paths depending on their mass-to-charge ratios (m/z), deflecting the more charged and faster-moving, lighter ions more.

The ions eventually reach the detector and their relative abundances are measured.

The analyzer can be used to select a narrow range of m/z's or to scan through a range of m/z's.



A typical Magnetic sector MS



Quadrupole

Two pairs of metallic rods. One set at a positive electrical potential, and the other one at a negative potential.

A combination of dc and rf voltages is applied on each set. Vrf/Vdc ratio determines the mass resolution.

For a given amplitude of the dc and rfvoltages, only the ions of a given m/z will resonate, have a stable trajectory to pass the quadrupole and be detected.

Other ions will be de-stabilized and hit the rods.



Q’pole - Modes

SIM mode (single ion monitoring)

The (amplitude of the dc and rf voltages ) are set to observe only

a specific mass, or a selection of specific masses. Provides the

highest sensitivity for specific ions or fragments.

More time can be spent on each mass (dwell time).

Scan mode

Amplitude of the dc and rf voltages are ramped (while keeping a

constant rf/dc ratio), to obtain a mass spectrum over the required

mass range.



Ion Traps



Ion Traps

Ring electrode and two end cap electrodes. The ions are stabilized in the trap by applying a RF voltage on the ring electrode.

He or N2 used as a damping gas to restrict ions to the center of the trap.By ramping the RF voltage, or by applying supplementary voltages on the end cap electrodes, or by combination of both, one can:

destabilise the ions, and eject them progressively from the trap (Scan mode)

keep only one ion of a given m/z value in the trap, and then eject it to observe it specifically (SIM mode)

keep only one ion in the trap, fragment it by inducing vibrations, and observe the fragments. (MS/MS).



Ion traps v/s Quads

Quads

Good resolution

Stable, reproducible.

Better suited for LC-MS

Need additional mass analyser(s) for MS-MS

Cost more than Traps

Traps

Compact, bench-top.

Do not need additional mass analysers for MS-MS.

Better suited for GC-MS.

Reproducibility issues.

Very sensitive to moisture.



Time-of-FlightIons formed in an ion source are extracted and accelerated to a high velocity by an electric field into a drift tube. The ions pass along the tube until they reach a detector.

The velocity reached by an ion is inversely proportional to the square root of its m/z value.

The time taken for an ion to traverse the analyser in a straight line is inversely proportional to the square root of its m/z value. i.e. heavier ions come out later.

Thus, each m/z value has its characteristic time–of–flight from the source to the detector.



Detection systems

An electron multiplier (continuous dynode electron multiplier) multiplies charge.

Ions induce emission of electrons on PbO coated metal.

If an electric potential is applied from one metal plate to the other, the emitted electrons will accelerate to the next metal plate and induce emission of more electrons.

12 stages of acceleration will usually give a gain in current of 10 million.



Tandem Mass Spec

Tandem mass spectrometry employs two or more stages of mass spectrometric analysis.

Each mass spectrometer might scan, select one ion or transmit all ions.

Dramatic increase in S/N and selectivity.

Structure confirmation and identification.



Product ion MS (daughter ion)

MS1 is used to select a parent

ion, that is fragmented again.

Usually by CAD (collision-

activated dissociation) with

argon.

MS2 scans the daughter ion to

provide a mass spectrum.



MSMS – pesticide residues

Mass Spectrometry – general applications.

Proteomics

Analysis of protein/peptide structures

Biomarker identification

Pharmaceuticals

Bio-availability studies

Drug discovery

Food safety

Pesticide residues

Forensics / Toxicology

Drugs of abuse.

MALDI-TOF

MALDI ionisation

source, with TOF

mass analyser.

Especially useful for

peptide/protein

fingerprinting.

Database

Eg. Protein databases -

Non-redundant NCBI,

Swiss-Prot,

IPI, etc.

Peak Lists

In silico digest

820.7

842.5

1012.6

1296.6

1555.7

……...

Algorithm

compares peak

lists

Gel separation – 1D or 2D

Excise

Spot

Trypsin

Digest

Protein Peptides6 9 9 .0 1 1 5 9 .2 1 6 1 9 .4 2 0 7 9 .6 2 5 3 9 .8 3 0 0 0 .0

M a s s (m /z )

1 .6 E+4

0

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

8 0

9 0

1 0 0

% I

nte

ns

ity

4700 Reflector Spec #1 MC=>TR[BP = 1479.9, 15779]

14

79

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24

14

39

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67

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67

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76

11

63

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20

45

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73

92

7.5

58

2

18

81

.02

23

17

24

.92

72

13

05

.78

88

17

30

.77

23

13

99

.77

51

12

49

.69

54

18

95

.03

86

12

83

.78

81

14

33

.80

74

15

54

.74

37

16

40

.02

77

84

1.5

20

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55

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03

17

63

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20

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87

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15

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35

10

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79

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52

11

95

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43

78

9.5

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8

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8.5

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.35

01

Mass spectrum (MS)

Peak List820.7

842.5

1012.6

1296.6

1555.7

……...

Reports Protein

Identification

MALDI-TOF: Peptide mass fingerprinting.

Laboratory Automation

Virtually all laboratory functions are now automated.

WHY?

Higher number of samples

Higher precision

Lower cost-per-sample

Spares chemist from repetitive

tasks like dilution, weighing,

mixing, pipetting, etc…

Semi-automatic Dilutor

Can perform basic dilution tasks.

Programmable for liquid sample addition, solvent dilution, simple titration.

Automated sample injector

Can inject 200 samples

automatically onto HPLC

or GC.

Can do basic sample

processing before

injection, like dilution and

reagent addition.

Advanced sample processor

Can do 1000 samples

Performs many tasks like heating, cooling, mixing, derivatisation, filtration and injection.

Automated tablet dissolution

Can do automated tablet dissolution studies.

Can be linked to HPLC or spectrometer for full unattended operation.

Automated chemistry

Can do unattended organic synthesis including heating, cooling, mixing, stirring, HPLC analysis and purification

Automated microbiology

Automated sample

applicators

Automated colony

counters

Automated systems for

media and petridishes.

Automated microbial

identification

Antibiotic susceptibility

and zone reader

Laboratory Information Management

Software that is used in the

laboratory for the management of

samples, laboratory users,

instruments, standards and other

laboratory functions such as

invoicing, plate management, and

work flow automation.

Analytical Chemistry – The road ahead

Increased use of hyphenated techniques, like LC-

MS, GC-FTIR & LC-NMR.

Lower limits of detection.

“Walk-away” automation.

Intuitive software and data handling.

Increasing use of single-point control systems via

the Internet.

The Analytical Chemist in the 21st century

Full-time analytical chemist.

Part-time software engineer and EDP specialist.

AND…a knowledge of software platforms, data handling techniques and preferably, basic electronics.

Analysis … From

To

From

0.00000000000000000001 gm

1 gm

to