•Insulin is a hormone central regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body.

•Insulin causes liver cells, muscle cells and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen in the liver and muscle.

•Insulin is a peptide hormone composed of 51 amino acids and has a molecular weight of 5808 Da.

•Two chain polypeptide

•A chain – 21 AA ; B chain – 30 AA

•Held together by two disulfide bonds

• Insulin is produced and stored in the body as a hexamer , while the active form is the monomer.

•Hexamer is more stable then the monomer, which is better for practical reasons.

•Monomer is a much faster-reacting drug, it means that insulin injections do not have to precede mealtimes by hours.

•Facilitates glucose transport across the cell membrane

•Facilitates AA entry and synthesis of protein in muscle

• Insulin and its related proteins have been shown to be produced inside the brain, and reduced levels of these proteins are linked to Alzheimer’s disease.

•An all-encompassing term for hyperglycemia or excessive blood sugar.

Classification:•Type 1/Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM)•Type 2/Non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM)•Gestational diabetes • Impaired glucose tolerance and prediabetes

•Insulin is being produced biosynthetically using recombinant DNA technology.

•Introducing the human insulin gene into plants and in producing insulin to reduce production costs.

The first insulin injection was made on January 11, 1922, Leonard Thomson, a 14-year-old diabetic who lay dying at the Toronto General Hospital.

1st dose: extract was so impure and he suffered a severe allergic reaction

2nd dose: after12 days, a second dose – purified extract. The second injection was

- Successful - With no side-effects - Completely eliminating sign of

diabetes.

•Beef & pork insulin – 10,000 ppm of other proteins.

•By the direct extraction from pancreatic tissues of pigs and cattle.

•Disadvantage

Immunogenicity Availability

•There are many forms of insulin to treat diabetes. They are classified by how fast they start to work and how long their effects last.

• types of insulin include:1.Short-acting 2.Intermediate-acting (biphasic)3.Long-acting

•Addition of zinc•Addition of protein (protamine)

• Each type of insulin has an onset, a peak, and a duration time.

• The onset is how soon the insulin starts to lower your blood glucose after you take it.

• The peak is the time the insulin is working the hardest to lower your blood glucose.

• The duration is how long the insulin lasts-the length of time it keeps lowering your blood glucose

• Routes Pulmonary: - ExuberaSubcutaneous/ interamuscular -Humulin

•First recombinant insulin approved in USA(2006)•Given by pulmonary route•To cure hyperglycemia diabetes• Short acting insulin •Given within 10min of mealtime•Shows its max effect after 2hr of inhalation•Activity duration 6 h•Limitations: - Not given to patients having lungs disaeses - Not to the smokers

•Humalog (Insulin Lispro) is slow-acting insulin.•Chemically-modified, natural insulin.• Approved by the FDA in June, 1996• Intramuscular route.•More rapid onset of action•Earlier peak effect•Reaches to peak 0.5-2.5 h after injection• Injected 15 minutes before a meal as compared to regular insulin which is injected 30-60 minutes before a meal.