Individuals in school

Self Efficacy is a person’s judgment about his or her capability to organize and execute a course of action that is required to attain a certain level of performance

(Bandura, 1997)

Beliefs about capabilities: Self Efficacy theory

Self Efficacy expectations develop from a variety of sources, including performance and feedback, previous history and social influence. However, self efficacy is postulated to develop from four primary sources of experience:

Mastery experiences Modeling Verbal persuasion Physiological arousal

Development of Self Efficacy

Performance successes and failures (i.e. actual experiences) in completing tasks have strong effect on self efficacy.

Mastery Experience

Modeling affect self perception of efficacy through two processes.

First, it provides knowledge by watching an expert completing a task.

Second, people partly judge their capabilities using social comparison and observing people modeling certain behaviors, individuals convince themselves that if others can do it, they can at least achieve some improvement in their own performance.

Modeling

Verbal persuasion is widely used to try to talk people into believing that they have the capacity to achieve what they want to accomplish.

Verbal Persuasion

People also rely partly on information from their physiological state to judge their capabilities and another way to modify beliefs of self efficacy for individuals to enhance their physical well being and to reduce their stress.

Physiological arousal

Self efficacy Is an important motivational factor that influences a number of behavioral

and performance outcomes.Self efficacy is learned through a variety of

experiences and is dynamic, it can change over time as new information and experiences are acquired.

Teacher efficacy as the extent to which teachers believed that they could control the reinforcement of their actions.

According to Bandura, teacher efficacy as a type of self efficacy i.e. the outcome of cognitive process in which people construct beliefs about their capacity to perform well.

Teacher Efficacy

Teacher efficacy is the teacher’s belief in his or her capability to organize and execute courses of action required to successfully accomplish a specific teaching task in a particular context.

Teacher efficacy is context specific, teachers do not feel equally efficacious for all teaching situations teacher fell efficacious for teaching particular subjects to certain students in specific settings, but often feel more or less efficacious under different circumstances.

A model of Teacher Efficacy

There are two components: Analysis of the teaching task. Assessment of teaching competence.Analysis of the teaching task: Teachers assess what will

be required as they engage in teaching . Assessment of teaching competence: In assessing the

teaching competence, the teacher judges personal capabilities such as skills, knowledge, strategies, or personality traits balanced against personal weaknesses or liabilities in the particular teaching context.

Components that lead to judgment about self efficacy

Sources of efficacy

A Model of teacher efficacy

•Physiological cues•Verbal persuasion•Modeling•Mastery Experiences

Cognitive processing

Analysis of teaching task

Assessment of teaching competence

Teacher efficacy

Consequences of teacher efficacy•Effort•Persistence•Success

Performance

Collective teacher efficacy is a shared perception of teachers in a school that the efforts of the faculty as a whole will have a positive effect on students.

There are four primary sources of collective teacher efficacy these are mastery experiences, modeling and vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and physiological state.

A Model of collective teacher efficacy

Consistent with the model of teacher efficacy described earlier, two key elements in the development of collective teaching efficacy are analysis of the teaching task and the assessment of teaching competence.

Teachers access what will be required as they engage in teaching, we call this process analysis of the teaching task. Such analysis occur at two levels : the individual and the school.

At the school level, the analysis produces inferences about the challenges of teaching in that school, that is, what it would take for the school to be successful. Teacher analyze the means needed to make school successful, the barriers or limitations to be overcome, and the resources that are available.

At the school level, the analysis of teaching competence leads to inferences about the faculty’s teaching skills, methods, training and expertise. Teachers make explicit judgments of the teaching competence of their colleagues in view of an analysis of the teaching task in their specific school.

Sources of efficacy

A Model of Collective efficacy

•Mastery experience•Vicarious Experiences•Social persuasion•Affective state

Analysis attributions & Interpretations

Analysis of teaching task

Assessment of teaching competence

Estimation of collective

Teacher efficacy

Consequences of teacher efficacy•Effort•Persistence•Success

Performance

Motivation is generally defined as an internal state that stimulates, directs and maintain behavior .

There are two types of motivation Intrinsic and extrinsic. Motivation that comes from factors such as interest and curiosity is called intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to seek and accept challenges as we peruse personal interest and exercise capabilities.

Extrinsic motivation is based on rewards and punishment and it stimulates us to act with incentives and disincentives.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

Merit pay is a compensation system in which pay is based on an individuals performance with at least portion of a person’s financial compensation being a performance bonus.

The idea was to find a way to raise salaries in order to reward better teacher and attractable recruits without spending a lot on mediocre people.

Application of the Extrinsic Motivation : Merit pay

Merit pay does not appear to be a viable approach to redistribute economic or status rewards in school settings. Even in the most favorable circumstances, true merit pay schemes are not likely to succeed. And are not a promising way to strengthen incentives in school.

For the most part, teachers oppose merit pay because they tend to cause dissension, competition and conflict among teachers.

Research and Evaluation

Optimum characteristics of work motivation

Characteristics that diminish work motivation

Needs Work satisfies higher level needs Work satisfies low level needs

Type of goals

Realistic, challenging goals Very difficult or very easy goals

Attribution

Success and failure attributed to ability

Success and failure attributed to uncountable causes

Summary of Key Elements in Optimizing Work Motivation

Achievement motivation

Motivation by achievement Motivation to avoid failure

Optimum characteristics of work

motivation

Characteristics that diminish work

motivationBeliefs about equity

Fair and courteous treatment

Unfair and disrespectful treatment

Beliefs about ability

Incremental view Stable view

Self efficacy High self efficacy Low self efficacySource of motivation

Intrinsic extrinsic

Summary of Key Elements in Optimizing Work Motivation

MBO is an administrative process that identifies and accomplishes organizational purposes by joining superiors and subordinates in the pursuit of mutually agreed goals that are specific, measurable, time bound and joined to an action plan.

In educational settings, MBO is a system for motivating and integrating the efforts of schools employees towards common objectives.

Extrinsic Application : MBO

A typical scheme for designing and starting an MBO intervention in a school district would include the following five steps :

Develop a set of overall educational goals for the school district.

Establish goals for each job. Integrate the goals of the different positions so that every unit

of the school district is working to accomplish the same overall goals.

Establish plans for attaining the goals, methods for measuring the outcomes, and evaluation and feedback procedures.

Implement the MBO programs.

The research results on the effectiveness of MBO are generally supportive but not definitive. Although the research evidence seems generally positive, the relative benefits may be marginal because of the costs and difficulties of introducing an BMO program in educational setting.

Research and evaluation

Before starting an MBO program, however, three of Kondrasuk’s conclusions should be considered carefully.

1. MBO is more likely to succeed in the private sector than in the public sector.

2. MBO is more likely to succeed with administrative staff than with instructional staff.

3. MBO is more likely to succeed in a short term than in the long term.

Kondrasuk’s conclusion

Conflicting Claims Regarding MBO

Claims by MBO Proponents Counter claims by MBO critics

• Enhances individual motivation to work.

• Facilitates communication. • Focuses on achieving goals.• Evaluate results not politics.• Provides job improvements

and personal growth.• Yields common

understanding of organizational goals.

• Individuals are ready to assume increased self responsibility.

• Fails to engage lower level employees in objective settings.

• Increase paper work.• Emphasizes only

quantitative results.• Generate extra work.• Yield abstract goals.

The model suggests ways to design the job so that it is more meaningful and interesting. According to the model, the motivating potential of a job is a result of meaningfulness, autonomy and feedback. The theory specifies that an employee will experience internal or intrinsic motivation when the job generates these three critical psychological states.

An Intrinsic Application: Job-Characteristics Model

First feeling of meaningfulness of the work is the degree to which the individual experiences the job as valuable and worthwhile. For work to be meaningfulness, three necessary characteristics are hypothesized: skill variety, task identity, task significance.

Second feeling of responsibility of work is the degree to which the individual feels personally accountable for the results of the work he or she performs.

Third knowledge of result is the degree to which the individual knows and understands, on a continuous basis, how effectively he or she is performing the job. The focus is on feedback directly from the job.

1.Skill variety feeling of2.Task identity meaningfulness 3.Task significance High internal work 4.Autonomy feeling of responsibility motivation5.FeedbackKnowledge of Results

The job characteristic model

Core job Characteristic

s

Psychological states

Outcomes

ModeratorsKnowledge and skillGrowth need strengthContext satisfaction

John Kelly concludes that although job redesign guided by the job characteristics model appears to increase job satisfaction, no strong evidence was found that it motivates higher performance.

Hackman and Oldham acknowledge several shortcomings in their theory. Individual differences exist among people, and the best ways to define, measure, and include variations among individuals in the model remain open to question. The concept of feedback used in the model is not adequately defined. the relationship between objective properties of jobs and people’s perception of those properties are not clear.

Research and Evaluation

Diagnose the work system to determine the need for systematic change in the core job characteristics.

Focuses the redesign on the work itself…. Prepare the contingency plan ahead of time… Monitor and evaluate the redesign efforts… Confront the difficult problems as early as possible. Design the change processes to fit the goals of the job

redesign program.

Guidelines for job redesign

On the extrinsic side it is a system created to motivate teachers by structuring career opportunities in ways so that teachers can gain more status, get promoted, and earn more money. On the intrinsic side it is a plan to make the job increasingly more interesting and challenging.

Career ladder programs were seen as ways to attract and retain highly talented individuals to education. The goal of career ladder program is to enrich work and enlarge teacher responsibilities.

An integrated approach: Career ladder for teachers

Career ladder programs focus on recruitment, retention and performance incentives to enhance the characteristics of teaching.

Job enrichment is the enlargement of the job to include task at higher level of skills and responsibilities. By using job enrichment strategies, career ladder program can address some of the concerns about teaching jobs.

Beginning or novice teachersProfessional classroom teachersA simple enlargement of the regular

classroom teachers jobThe most advanced level, typically called

teacher leader or master teacher.

Steps for career ladder program

Job expansion and job redesign in career ladder program can be successfully implemented but they create confusion, conflicts and extra work for everyone in the school system. Teachers in the school with career ladder program exhibit more positive attitude than the teachers without this program.

Teachers prefer incentives programs with intrinsic incentives and career programs were preferred to merit program.

Research and evaluation