Index

AAL (ATM adaptation layer), 34Abort chunks, 502ABR (Associative-Based Routing) Protocol,

521–522Abstract syntax notation one (ASN.1)

language, 242Access points, 131Accounting, network management for, 241Accuracy of routing algorithms, 173ACK frames, 140Acknowledgment (ACK) field, 211, 213Acknowledgment number field, 210Acronyms, 563–568Ad-hoc networks

MANETs. See Mobile ad-hoc networks(MANETs)

WMN support for, 165Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector

(AODV) protocolnew nodes for, 528route discovery and establishment in,

524–526route maintenance in, 526–528routing process in, 523–524

Adaptability of routing algorithms, 173Adapters for ARP, 105Adaptive modulation, 79–80

Adaptive protocols, 514Adaptive reservation schemes, 339Add cyclic prefixes, 81Additional information field, 231–232Additive increase, multiplicative decrease

congestion control, 217–219Address autoconfiguration procedure,

161–162Address field, 139Address family identifier field, 185Address mapping in DNS, 230–231Address Resolution Protocol (ARP),

105–106Addresses

ATM, 38IP. See IP addressesin mobile IP, 156–158in network-layer routing, 173–174routing tables. See Routing tables

Admission control, 324ADSL (asymmetric DSL), 54ADUs (application data units), 491Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)

protocol, 259Agent address field, 245Agents

H.323, 488–489

583

584 Index

Agents (continued)mobile IP, 156–159network management, 241SIP, 484–485

Aggregate technique in CIDR, 28All-optical networks, 392All-optical switches, 391, 395–398Aloha-based protocols, 83–84Alphabets in lossy compression, 463Amplifiers in optical networks, 382Amplitude shift keying (ASK), 52–53Answer field, 231Antennas

in cellular networks, 143–144WiMAX, 164for wireless links, 74–76

Anycast addresses, 32AODV. See Ad-Hoc On-Demand Distance

Vector (AODV) protocolApplication data units (ADUs), 491Application layer, 225–226

DNS, 227–232email, 235–236exercises, 246–247FTP, 237network management, 239–245overview, 226–227remote login protocols, 232–235summary, 245–246in TCP/IP protocol model, 21WWW, 237–239

Application-specific type RTCP packets,494

Arbitration elements, 64Area ID field, 189ARP (Address Resolution Protocol),

105–106ARQ (automatic repeat request)

in channel coding, 79in TCP, 209

Arrival rate in multipath buffered crossbars,374

ASK (amplitude shift keying), 52–53ASN.1 (abstract syntax notation one)

language, 242Associative-Based Routing (ABR) Protocol,

521–522Associativity in ABR, 521Associativity ticks, 521Assured forwarding PHBs, 336Asymmetric DSL (ADSL), 54Asymmetric encryption, 260Asynchronous MAC protocols, 106–107Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

technology, 33–34cell structure, 36, 38–39M/D/1 model for, 298protocol structure, 34–37resource allocation in, 340–344

ATM layer, 34ATM adaptation layer (AAL), 34Attacks

on ad-hoc networks, 529–530categories, 251–255

Attenuation, bit, 89Audio, streaming, 462–463Authentication, 263–264

categories, 256–257in cellular networks, 150digital signatures for, 265SHA, 263–265

Authentication field, 190Authentication data field, 266Authentication type field, 190Authenticity

in ad-hoc networks, 530in security, 250

Authoritative servers, 230Authority field, 231–232Authorization in ad-hoc networks, 530Automatic discovery of services, 513

Index 585

Automatic repeat request (ARQ)in channel coding, 79in TCP, 209

Automatic routing table updates, 120–121Autonomous systems, 10Average queue length in RED, 199Await-reply packets, 522

B (bidirectional) frames, 462Back-off mode, 109Back-off time, 135Back-pressure signaling, 196–197Backbones

Internet, 480MBone, 413–414

Balance equations in queueing, 289–292Bandwidth

ADSL, 55TCP, 217

Bandwidth brokers, 336Banyan networks, 355Base stations

cellular networks, 142–143ICR, 554sensor networks, 537

Basic encoding rules in H.323, 486Batch arrival models

queuing, 298–299self-similarity with, 503–506

Batches of traffic units, 503Bellman-Ford algorithm, 178–180, 184Benes networks, 356–357Bernulli random variables, 576Bernulli trials, 574Best-effort models, 316, 338BGMP (Border Gateway Multicast

Protocol), 417BGP (border gateway protocol), 190–191

details, 192MBGP, 414–415in MPLS, 438

packets, 192–194path-vector routing in, 191–192

Bidirectional (B) frames, 462Bidirectional congestion control, 197–198Billing, network management for, 241Binary exponential backoff, 113Binomial coefficients, 371Binomial random variables, 576Binomial trials, 574Bipoint connections, 372Birth-and-death process

in M/M/1/b queueing systems, 289overview, 278–279

Bit-sliced organization, 368Black-and-white images, 456Black-hole attacks, 529Blocking

cellular calls, 145in Clos networks, 360–361link, 200–202TDM, 47–49

Blocking switches, 350–351, 353Banyan networks, 355Benes networks, 356–357Delta networks, 355–356Omega networks, 353–355in optical networks, 386

Blue-tooth communications, 72Bluetooth LANs, 134Boolean splitting multicast algorithm,

420–422Border Gateway Multicast Protocol

(BGMP), 417Border gateway protocol (BGP), 190–191

details, 192MBGP, 414–415in MPLS, 438packets, 192–194path-vector routing in, 191–192

Border routers, 9–10

586 Index

Bridgesin LANs, 58–59, 116–124in wireless networks, 134–135in WMNs, 164

Broadband networks, 4Broadcast-and-prune algorithm, 405–406Broadcast translated circuits (BTCs), 420Broadcasts

in optical networks, 388in star topologies, 103in switching networks, 351

Brownian random process, 504, 580Browsers, 238BTCs (broadcast translated circuits), 420Bucket depth in traffic shaping, 323Buffered switching networks, 351, 366–367Buffers

in optical networks, 382, 385router, 60, 64–66

Burke’s theorem, 299–304Bursts

in ATM, 33, 342in multimedia networking, 503–506

Bus topology, 102Busy states in queuing, 280Busy time of CSMA channels, 112BYE packets, 494Bypass state in token-ring, 115

Cable modems, 56–57Caching, Web, 238–239Calls in cellular networks. See Cellular

networksCANCEL messages, 486Cantor networks, 367–368Capacity

in cellular networks, 146–147in wireless channels, 79

Carrier protocols, 435Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

protocol, 108–113

Cascaded nodes, Burke’s theorem for,299–304

Case studiesall-optical switches, 395–398FAX compression, 470–472multipath buffered crossbar, 368–375sensor network simulation, 557–559

CBR (constant bit rate), 35, 340–341CBT (core-based trees) protocol, 413CCK (complementary code keying), 137CDF (cumulative distribution function),

112, 575, 579CDMA (code-division multiple access),

85–87CDMA-based mobile wireless networks,

154–155CDNs (content distribution networks),

497–499Cell-delay variation (CDV), 341–342Cell-loss priority (CLP), 38, 343Cell-loss ratio, 342Cell sectoring, 148Cell splitting, 148Cell-transfer delay, 342Cells, ATM, 33, 36, 38–39, 342–344Cellular networks, 72, 142–143

CDMA-based, 154–155connectivity in, 143–145frequency reuse in, 146–149generations of, 154handoffs in, 149–150mobility management in, 150–154

Centralized access, 137–138Centralized clustering, 546Centralized protocols

for ad-hoc networks, 514MAC, 106

Centralized routingin network-layer routing, 176–177in sensor networks, 552

CFE (contention-free end) frames, 140

Index 587

CGSR (Cluster-Head Gateway SwitchRouting) protocol, 517

Channel access, 82–83CDMA, 85–87FDMA, 83SDMA, 87TDMA, 83–85

Channel-usage bandwidth, 154Channels

ADSL, 55cable modem, 56–57in CDMA-based wireless networks,

154–155in cellular networks, 145–149coding, 79FDM, 44TDM, 47–50WDM, 44–45for wireless links, 76–79

Chapman-Kolmogorov equation, 151, 582Checksums

Internet, 89in IP packets, 24in routers, 67in TCP segments, 211in UDP segments, 213–214

Chip rate, 154Choke packets, 196–197Chunks in SCTP, 501–502CIDR (Classless Interdomain Routing),

27–28Ciphertext, 257Circuit-switched networks, 4–5Cladding, optical cable, 74Class-based weighted fair queuing, 482Classes, IP address, 24–25Classifiers, packet, 325Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR),

27–28Clear packets, 521Clear to Send (CTS) frames, 140

Client/server model, 226–227Clipping in TDM, 49–50Clos Networks, 357–360

blocking probability estimates for,360–361

five-stage, 361–362CLP (cell-loss priority), 38, 343Cluster-Head Gateway Switch Routing

(CGSR) protocol, 517Cluster heads, 517, 557–559Cluster-member tables, 517Clustering, 545

classification of, 546DEEP, 547–551LEACH, 546–547in sensor networks, 536–537

Coaxial cable, 73Cochannel cells, 146–147Code-division multiple access (CDMA),

85–87Code efficiency in compression, 467Coding for flat fading, 79–80Collisions

MAC protocols for, 107–114in wireless environments, 84

Collocated foreign addresses, 159Combined switching networks, 367Command field, 185–186Common SCTP headers, 501Communication energy model, 540–545Complementary code keying (CCK), 137Complements of events, 573Complexity of switching networks, 351Compression, 449–450

digital voice, 451–455exercises, 472–477FAX, 470–472lossless, 467–470lossy, 463–467moving images, 461–463overview, 450–451

588 Index

Compression (continued)still images, 455–461summary, 472

Compression ratio, 467Concatenation of networks, 352Concentration switches, 361–364Conditional functions in probability, 575Conferencing, ad-hoc networks for, 513Confidentiality in security, 250Configuration, network management for,

240Congestion

at network layer, 194–196bidirectional, 197–198link blocking, 200–202RED, 198–200unidirectional, 196–197

in routers, 63–65TCP. See Transmission Control Protocol

(TCP)in VoIP, 482

Congestion threshold, 219Congestion window, 217–218Connection accept packets, 13Connection admission control, 342–343Connection-oriented networks, 10–11,

13–14Connection release packet, 13Connection reliability, 156Connection request packets, 13Connection rules in link blocking, 200–

202Connection setup for TCP, 212–213Connectionless networks, 10–13Connectionless routing, 521Connectivity in cellular networks, 143–145Constant bit rate (CBR), 35, 340–341Content distribution networks (CDNs),

497–499Content providers, 498

Contention-access MAC protocols,107–108

CSMA, 108–113IEEE 802.3 standard, 113–114

Contention-free end (CFE) frames, 140Contention resolution

in optical networks, 385–386in routers, 64–65

Continuous probability functions, 575–576Continuous-time Markov chains, 581–582Continuous time stochastic processes, 579Contributing source count field, 493Contributing source identifier field, 493Control channels, 145Control chunks, 502Control frames, 140Control plane, 35–36Control signals, 548Controlled GFC, 38Controlled-load service classes, 316Controllers

in cellular networks, 143–144in routers, 64–65

Convergencein ATM, 34–35in RIP, 187in routing algorithms, 173

Cookie acknowledgment chunks, 502Core, optical cable, 74Core-based trees (CBT) protocol, 413Core LSRs, 439–440Core points

in CBT, 413in sparse-mode algorithm, 406

Costs, routing, 176, 182Costumer edge routers, 443Count field, 494Counting in probability, 574Couplers in optical networks, 384, 388CRC field

in IEEE 802.11, 140

Index 589

in SSH Packets, 235CRCs. See Cyclic redundancy checks

(CRCs)Cross talk, 88, 386Crossbar switching, 352–353

multipath buffered crossbars, 368–375in optical networks, 387–388

Crossovers in optical networks, 386Crosspoints

in crossbar switch fabrics, 352–353in multipath buffered crossbars, 368–369

Cryptographic techniques, 255–256. Seealso Encryption

Cryptography, 255CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)

protocol, 108–113CSMA/CA method, 135CTS (Clear to Send) frames, 140Cumulative distribution function (CDF),

112, 575, 579Cumulative number of packets lost field,

496Custom queuing, 482Cut-through switching, 14Cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs), 89–90

effectiveness of, 93–94implementation of, 94at receivers, 90–92in routers, 67at transmitters, 90

Data-acquisition phase in ICR, 556Data frames, 140Data-carrying frames, 140Data/CFE-ACK frames, 141Data/CFE ACK/CFE-Poll frames, 141Data/CFE-Poll frames, 141Data Encryption Standard (DES) protocol,

257–259Data links, 71

channel access on, 82–87

error detection and correction in, 87–94exercises, 99–100flow control, 94–98overview, 72–73summary, 98–99wired, 73–74wireless. See Wireless links

Data transfer in RTP, 491–492Database description packets, 190Datagram networks, 10–13DCF (distributed coordination function)

algorithm, 138–139DCT (discrete cosine transform) process,

458–459Decentralized clustering, 546Decentralized Energy-Efficient Cluster

Propagation (DEEP) protocol,547–551

Decision-feedback equalizers (DFEs),80–81

Decryptionin AES, 259in RSA, 261–262

DEEP (Decentralized Energy-EfficientCluster Propagation) protocol,547–551

Deep fading, 77–78Deficit round-robin (DRR) scheduler,

333–334Definitions in switching networks, 351–352Deflected packets, 351Deflection routing, 181, 385Delay. See also Packet queues and delay

analysisin connectionless networks, 12–13in CSMA, 111–113in multipath buffered crossbars, 374–375in optical networks, 382packet size in, 14–16in priority queues, 330queueing systems for, 292–293

590 Index

Delay (continued)in VoIP, 481

Delay since last SR field, 496Delta networks, 355–356Delta routing, 160Demapping in OFDM, 81Denial-of-service attacks, 254–255Dense-mode algorithm, 405–406Dense-mode PIM, 410Dependency

wavelength allocation with, 394–395wavelength allocation without, 393–394

DES (Data Encryption Standard) protocol,257–259

Destination address fieldEthernet LAN frames, 114IP packets, 24IPv6 packets, 31

Destination port fieldTCP segments, 210UDP segments, 213–214

Destination port number field, 501Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector

(DSDV) protocol, 515–517DFEs (decision-feedback equalizers), 80–81DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol), 174Differentiated services code points

(DSCPs), 336Differentiated services (DS) QoS, 335–337Diffie-Hillman key-exchange protocol, 262DiffServ field, 336Diffused configuration, 132DIFS (distributed IFS coordination

function), 139Digital modulation techniques, 52–54Digital signatures, 265Digital subscriber line (DSL) modems,

54–55Digital voice compression

quantization and distortion in, 452–455

signal sampling in, 451–452Dijkstra’s algorithm, 177–178, 409–410Direct paths for wireless links, 76Direct routing

in mobile IP, 160in sensor networks, 552–553

Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)in CDMA, 86, 155in physical layer, 136

Directed beam configuration, 132Directed diffusion, 552Directional antennas, 76Directional couplers, 384Directional transmission links, 72–73Discarded packets, 351Discovery

mobile IP agents, 157–158route. See Route discovery

Discrete cosine transform (DCT) process,458–459

Discrete probability functions, 575Discrete-time Markov chains, 581Discrete time stochastic processes, 579Distance tables, 518Distance vector algorithm, 522Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol

(DVMRP), 407Distance vector routing, 183–185Distortion in voice compression, 452–455Distributed access, 137–138Distributed coordination function (DCF)

algorithm, 138–139Distributed denial-of-service attacks, 254Distributed IFS coordination function

(DIFS), 139Distributed MAC protocols, 106Distributed multimedia networking,

497–500Distributed protocols, 514Distributed routing

algorithms for, 176–177

Index 591

in sensor networks, 552Distribution networks, 364–365Distribution of sensor network loads,

557–558Diversity

in CDMA frequency, 86for flat fading, 79–80

DNS. See Domain Name System (DNS)and servers

Domain name space, 228–229Domain Name System (DNS) and servers,

227–228CDN interactions with, 498–499domain name space in, 228–229in H.323, 487hacking attacks on, 251–252message format, 231–232name/address mapping in, 230–231in SIP, 484–485

Domainshighjacking attacks on, 252in packet-switched networks, 10

Doppler frequency shift, 78Dot-decimal notation, 25Downstream bandwidth, 55Downstream on demand schemes, 442Droppers in DiffServ, 335Dropping cellular network calls, 145DRR (deficit round-robin) scheduler,

333–334DS (differentiated services) QoS, 335–337DSCPs (differentiated services code points),

336DSDV (Destination-Sequenced Distance

Vector) protocol, 515–517DSL (digital subscriber line) modems,

54–55DSR (Dynamic Source Routing) protocol,

519–520DSSS (direct-sequence spread spectrum)

in CDMA, 86, 155

in physical layer, 136Duration/connection ID (D/I) field, 139DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast

Routing Protocol), 407Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP), 174Dynamic routing, 177Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol,

519–520

EAP (Extensible Authentication Protocol),268

EAR (energy-aware routing), 556–557Earliest deadline first (EDF) scheduler, 335Echo, 88, 482Echo cancelers, 88EDF (earliest deadline first) scheduler, 335EDPAS (erbium-doped fiber amplifiers),

382Egress LSRs, 439–441Electro-optic switches, 384Electronic mail (email), 235–236Electrooptical switches, 384Email (electronic mail), 235–236Encapsulation

in routers, 63in VPNs, 434–435

Encoding in compression, 460–461Encryption

in ad-hoc networks, 530cryptographic techniques, 255–256public-key, 260–262secret-key, 257–259in SSH, 234

End-to-end encryption, 255End-to-end protocols. See Transport and

end-to-end protocolsEnergy-aware routing (EAR), 556–557Energy-exhaustion attacks, 530Enterprise field, 245Entropy in lossy compression, 464–465

592 Index

Equal-sized packets model. SeeAsynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM) technology

Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDPAS),382

Erlang-B blocking probability, 293Erlang-C formula, 290Error detection and correction, 87–89

CRC, 89–94in IPv6 packets, 31in routers, 67

Error index field, 244Error status field, 244Ethernet LANs, 113–114Events in probability, 573–574Exclude mode in IGMP, 408Exp field, 439Expansion switches, 364–365Expected value, 577–578Expedited forwarding PHBs, 336Explicit routing, 441–442Exponential random variables, 577Express multicast, 417Extended highest sequence number received

field, 496Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP),

268Extension (X) field, 492Extension headers in IPv6, 32Extra data in TCP, 222Extranet VPNs, 433

Fading, 77–80Failures, network management for, 240Fair-queueing (FQ) scheduler, 331–332Fairness index, 340Fast Fourier transform (FFT), 81–82Fast retransmit method, 216, 220–221FAX compression, 470–472FCFS (first come, first served) queuing

systems, 280

FDM (frequency-division multiplexing),44

FDMA (frequency-division multipleaccess), 83

FEC (forward equivalence class), 439,441–442

FEC (forward error correction), 79Feedback models, 304–305FFT (fast Fourier transform), 81–82FHSS (frequency-hopping spread

spectrum), 136Fiber-optic communications, 72FIFO (first-in, first-out) queuing systems.

See Markovian FIFO queueingsystems

FIFO (first-in, first-out) schedulers,326–327

File Transfer Protocol (FTP), 237Filters

in optical networks, 382–383, 388packet, 270

Finished (FIN) field, 211, 213Firewalls

operation of, 269–270with VPNs, 436–437

First come, first served (FCFS) queuingsystems, 280

First-in, first-out (FIFO) queuing systems.See Markovian FIFO queueingsystems

First-in, first-out (FIFO) schedulers,326–327

5-layer TCP/IP protocol model, 20–22Five-stage Clos networks, 361–362Fixed reservation schemes, 339Fixed routing, 120Fixed-size switch elements, 395–396Flag field, 501Flags field

DNS, 231IP packets, 24, 29

Index 593

Flags/code field, 159Flat fading, 77–80Flood attacks, 254–255Flood routing, 180–181Flow-based switches, 59Flow control, 94–95

sliding-window, 96–98stop-and-wait, 95–96in switching networks, 351

Flow label field, 31Foreign addresses in mobile IP, 157, 159Foreign agents in mobile IP, 157Foreign networks in mobile IP, 156–157Forward equivalence class (FEC), 439,

441–442Forward error correction (FEC), 79Forward links, 154FQ (fair-queueing) scheduler, 331–332Fraction loss field, 495Fragment offset field, 24Fragmentation

packet, 6, 28–29, 33in routers, 60

Frame body field, 140Frame check sequence, 67Frame check sequence field, 114Frame control (FC) field, 139Frame delay analysis, 110Frame-switch mode, 103Frames

LAN, 102MAC, 139–141MPEG, 461–462packet-switched networks, 5–6

Free-memory lists, 62Frequency borrowing, 148Frequency-division multiple access

(FDMA), 83Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM),

44Frequency hopping, 85

Frequency-hopping spread spectrum(FHSS), 136

Frequency ranges, 72Frequency reuse, 146–149Frequency shift, 78Frequency shift keying (FSK), 52–53FTP (File Transfer Protocol), 237Full-duplex links, 73Functions

probability, 575–576random variable, 578–579

Gatekeepers, 487–489Gateway/bridges

wireless routers with, 141in WMNs, 164

GatewaysH.323, 487LAN, 116

Gaussian noise, 88Gaussian (normal) random variables, 577General distributions, 295–296Generating polynomials for CRC, 92Generator values for CRC, 92–93Generators, checking, 90–91Generic flow control (GFC) field, 36, 38Generic routing encapsulation (GRE), 434Geometric distributions, 285Geometric random variables, 576Geosynchronous orbit satellite systems, 131Get PDUs, 244GFC (generic flow control) field, 36, 38GFR (guaranteed frame rate) service, 343GIF (graphics interchange format) file

compression, 457Global packet resequencers, 66Global positioning systems (GPSs), 539,

551Glossary of acronyms, 563–568Goodbye packets, 494

594 Index

GPSs (global positioning systems), 539,551

Grant flows, 370Graphics interchange format (GIF) file

compression, 457GRE (generic routing encapsulation), 434Guaranteed frame rate (GFR) service, 343Guaranteed service classes, 316Guard space, 200Guided missiles, 72Guided transmission links, 72–73

H.323 protocols, 486–490Hacking attacks, 251–252Half-duplex links, 73Handoffs in cellular networks, 145,

149–150Hardware firewalls, 269Hardware security, 163Hash functions, 263HDSL (high-bit-rate digital subscriber

line), 55HDTV (high-definition television), 461Header decoders, 64Header error control (HEC) field, 38–39Header length (HL) field

IP packets, 23TCP segments, 210

HeadersATM, 33, 36, 38IP, 23IPsec, 266IPv6, 31–32LAN, 102MPLS, 438–439OSPF, 189packet-switched networks, 5–6RIP, 185–187RTCP, 494–496RTP, 492–493SCTP, 501–502

Heartbeat acknowledgment chunks, 502Heartbeat request chunks, 502Heavy-tailed distributions, 503, 505–506HEC (header error control) field, 38–39HELLO messages, 527–528Hello packets, 190HFC (hybrid fiber-coaxial) networks, 56Hidden-terminal problem, 84Hierarchical wireless networks, 131High-bit-rate digital subscriber line

(HDSL), 55High-definition television (HDTV), 461Higher layers in ATM, 34Highjacking attacks, 252Hold state in RIP, 187Home addresses in mobile IP, 156–157Home agent field, 159Home agents, 156–157, 159Home networks, 513Home RF LANs, 134Hop limit field, 31Host based resource allocation, 339Host IDs

in IP addresses, 24in subnet addressing, 26

Hostsaddress assignments for, 173–174in intradomain routing protocols, 182ISP, 8

Hot-potato routing, 181Hotspots in WiFi, 142HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol),

238–239Hubs

in LANs, 116–124purpose, 57–58in star topologies, 103

Huffman encoding, 468–469Hurst parameter, 504Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) networks, 56Hybrid multiple-access techniques, 87

Index 595

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP),238–239

I (interactive) frames, 462I-TCP (Indirect Transmission Control

Protocol), 215–216ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned

Names and Numbers), 174ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol),

29–30ICR (Intercluster Energy-Conscious

Routing), 554–557Identification field

DNS, 231IP packets, 24mobile IP, 159

Idle states in queuing, 280IEEE 802.3 standard, 113–114IEEE 802.5 standard, 116IEEE 802.11 standard, 134–136

MAC layer, 137–141physical layer, 136–137security for, 267–268for WiFi technology, 141–142

IEEE 802.15.4 standard, 559–560IEEE 802.16 standard, 163–164IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force),

266IFS (interframe space) technique, 138–139IGMP (Internet Group Management

Protocol), 407–409IID (independent and identically

distributed) processes, 280,580

In-phase QAM components, 54Include mode in IGMP, 408Incoming label map tables, 440Independent and identically distributed

(IID) processes, 280, 580Independent events, 574Independent random variables, 579

Indirect Transmission Control Protocol(I-TCP), 215–216

Information-compression process, 451Information leakage attacks, 252Information-level attacks, 252Information-source process, 450–451Information theory for lossy compression,

463–464Infrared frequency spectrum, 72Infrared LANs, 132–133Ingress LSRs, 439–440Initial sequence numbers (ISNs), 210Initiation chunks, 502Initiation acknowledgment chunks, 502Input port buffers, 370Input port processors (IPPs), 60–63, 423Insertion loss, 383, 386Integrated layer processing, 491Integrated services QoS, 316–317

admission control in, 324packet scheduling in, 325–335RSVP, 324–325traffic shaping in, 317–324

Integrityin ad-hoc networks, 530in security, 250

Interactive (I) frames, 462Interarrival jitter field, 496Intercluster Energy-Conscious Routing

(ICR), 554–557Intercluster routing protocols, 551,

554–557Interdomain routing protocols, 190

BGP, 190–194multicast, 414

BGMP, 417MBGP, 414–415MSDP, 415–417

Interest signals, 554Interference, 36–38, 78–79Interframe space (IFS) technique, 138–139

596 Index

Interleaving, 79–80Internet, 6–9Internet access devices, 50–57Internet backbones, 480Internet checksums, 89Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP),

29–30Internet Corporation for Assigned Names

and Numbers (ICANN), 174Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),

266Internet Group Management Protocol

(IGMP), 407–409Internet Protocol (IP) layer, 23

addressing in. See IP addressesCIDR, 27–28ICMP, 29–30IPv6, 30–33mobile. See Mobile IPpacket fragmentation and reassembly,

28–29packets, 23–24security, 266–267subnet addressing and masking, 25–27telephony. See Voice over IP (VoIP)

Internet service providers (ISPs), 7–9Internetwork components, 9Interoperability in mobile IP, 156Interruption attacks, 253Intersection of events, 573Intersymbol interference (ISI), 80–81Intracluster communication, 551Intracluster routing protocols, 552–554Intradomain protocols, 182–183

multicast, 406–407CBT, 413DVMRP, 407IGMP, 407–409MBone, 413–414MOSPF, 409–410PIM, 410–413

OSPF, 187–190RIP, 183–187

Intranet VPNs, 433INVITE messages, 486IP. See Internet Protocol (IP) layerIP addresses, 23–24

LAN, 104–106multicast, 403–404NAT for, 174–176RIP, 185RTP, 491

IP Security (IPsec) protocol, 267–268IP telephone administrative domains

(ITADs), 486IP version 6 (IPv6), 30–31

addressing format in, 32extension headers in, 32mobile IP routing with, 161–163packet fragmentation in, 33

IPPs (input port processors), 60–63, 423IPsec (IP Security) protocol, 267–268IS-95 reverse links, 155ISI (intersymbol interference), 80–81ISNs (initial sequence numbers), 210Isotropic antennas, 75, 87ISPs (Internet service providers), 7–9ITADs (IP telephone administrative

domains), 486Iterative mapping, 230–231

Jackets, optical cable, 74Jackson’s theorem, 304–308Jitter

description, 88–89in RTCP, 496–497in VoIP, 481–482

Join messages, 411Joint cumulative density function, 578Joint entropy, 465Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG)

compression, 455–461

Index 597

Joint probability functions, 578

Keep-alive messages, 192Keep-alive packets, 193–194Kendal’s notations, 279–281Keys

in ad-hoc networks, 529public-key encryption, 256, 260–262secret-key encryption, 256–259

Knockout switching networks, 363–364

L2F (Layer 2 Forwarding) protocol, 433L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol),

433–434Label Distribution Protocol (LDP), 440,

442Label switch paths (LSPs), 439Label switch routers (LSRs), 438–441Label value field, 439Labels

for domain names, 228–229in MPLS, 438

LANs. See Local area networks (LANs)Large-scale optical switches, 386–388Lasers, 72, 382Last come, first served (LCFS) queuing

systems, 280Last SR timestamp field, 496Latency. See DelayLaw enforcement, ad-hoc networks for, 513Layer 2 and 3 switches, 124–125Layer 2 Forwarding (L2F) protocol, 433Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP),

433–434LBSs (local base stations), 554LCFS (last come, first served) queuing

systems, 280LDP (Label Distribution Protocol), 440,

442LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering

Hierarchy) protocol, 546–547

Leaky-bucket traffic shaping, 318–324Least-cost-path algorithms

Bellman-Ford, 178–180Dijkstra’s, 177–178

Least-cost paths, 176Leave group messages, 408Lee’s method, 200–201Lempel-Ziv encoding, 469–470Length field

RTCP packets, 494SCTP packets, 501SSH Packets, 235

Length/Type field, 114Lifetime field, 159Light frequency spectrum, 72Light networks. See Optical networksLightpaths, 380Line cards, 60Line coding methods, 50–52Link-cost tables, 518Link costs, 176Link layer, 20Link reversal, 521Link-state acknowledgment packets, 190Link-state multicast, 409Link-state request packets, 190Link-state routing, 188Link-state update packets, 190Link utilization, 14–15Links

attacks on, 252–253blocking, 200–202data. See Data linksencrypting, 256ISP, 8in mobile wireless networks, 154–155in optical networks, 380wireless. See Wireless links

Listen state in token-ring, 115Little’s theorem, 276–278LLC (logical-link layer), 103–104

598 Index

LLC data field, 114Load balancing, 173Load distribution, 557–558Local area networks (LANs), 9, 101–102

exercises, 126–128IP addresses for, 104–106MAC protocol for, 106

classification, 106–107contention-access, 107–114round-robin-access, 114–116

networks of, 116–125protocol design for, 103–104repeaters, hubs, and bridges for, 116–124summary, 125–126switches for, 124–125topologies, 102–103wireless, 131–134

Local base stations (LBSs), 554Local handoffs, 149–150Local Internet service providers, 8–9Location-disclosure attacks, 529Location management in cellular networks,

150Location servers in SIP, 484–485Logical congestion, 194Logical-link layer (LLC), 103–104Logical links, 208Logins, remote, 232–235Lossless compression, 450, 467–468

Huffman encoding, 468–469Lempel-Ziv encoding, 469–470run-length encoding, 468

Lossy compression, 450, 463compression ratio and code efficiency in,

467entropy in, 464–465information theory for, 463–464Shannon’s coding theorem in, 465–467

Low-earth orbit satellite systems, 130Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy

(LEACH) protocol, 546–547

Low-frequency spectrum, 72LSPs (label switch paths), 439LSRs (label switch routers), 438–441

M/D/1 queueing systems, 298M/G/1 queueing systems, 295–298M/M/1 queueing systems, 281

mean delay and queue length in, 285number of packets in, 283–285packet arrival and service model in,

281–283M/M/1/b queueing systems, 286

balance equations in, 289–292M/M/a, 287–288mean number of packets in, 287

M/M/8 queueing systems, 293–295M/M/a queueing systems, 287–288M/M/a/a queueing systems, 292–293MAC (medium access control) protocols

classification of, 106–107contention-access, 107–108

CSMA, 108–113IEEE 802.3 standard, 113–114

for LANs, 104round-robin-access, 114–116in sensor networks, 538

MAC addresses, 104–106MAC frames, 139–141MAC layers

IEEE 802.11, 137–141in WMNs, 167

Main router buffers, 66Manageability in multicasting, 402Managed devices, 241Management frames, 140Management information base (MIB),

242–243Management plane, 35–36Managers, network management, 241Manchester encoding method, 52

Index 599

MANETs. See Mobile ad-hoc networks(MANETs)

Mappingname/address, 230–231in OFDM, 81

Marginal CDF, 579Marginal PDF, 579Marginal PMF, 579Marker field, 493Markers in DiffServ, 335Markov chains

in birth-and-death process, 278–279for multipath buffered crossbars,

371–374in probability, 580–582

Markovian FIFO queueing systems, 281M/M/1, 281–285M/M/1/b, 286–292M/M/8, 293–295M/M/a/a, 292–293

MASC (Multicast Address-Set Claim)protocol, 417

Masking, 25–27Masquerading attacks, 252Max response time field, 408Maximum segment size (MSS) option, 211Maximum transmission units (MTUs)

in IP, 28–29in IPv6, 33

Maximum window size, 217–218MBCs (multipath buffered crossbars),

368–369Markov chain model for, 371–374queueing model for, 369–370throughput and delay in, 374–375

MBGP (multiprotocol BGP), 414–415MBone (multicast backbone), 407,

413–414MCUs (multipoint control units), 487MD5 hash algorithm, 263

Mean delayin M/M/1 queueing systems, 285in M/M/1/b queueing systems, 290

Mean number of packets in queueingsystems, 287

Mechanical optical switches, 384Media sessions in SIP, 486Medium access control. See MAC (medium

access control) protocolsMedium orbit satellite systems, 130Membership-search signals, 548, 550Memory control in switch fabrics, 366Memory units in sensor networks, 539–540Mesh networks, wireless, 163

applications, 164–166physical and MAC layers in, 167WiMAX technology for, 163–164

Mesh users, 164Message authentication, 256–257, 263Message transmission-list tables, 518Messages in packet-switched networks, 5–6Meters in DiffServ, 335Metric field, 185–186MF (more-fragment) bit, 29MIB (management information base),

242–243Microcells, 148Microwave frequency spectrum, 72Microwave systems, 72Middle-man attacks, 252Military, ad-hoc networks for, 513MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output)

systems, 167Minimum number of hops, 176Mirror of networks, 352Misrouting attacks, 254Mixer relays, 492Mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs), 511

exercises, 531–534overview, 512protocols for, 515

600 Index

Mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) (con-tinued)

protocols for (continued)ABR, 521–522AODV, 522–528CGSR, 517DSDV, 515–517DSR, 519–520TORA, 520–521WRP, 517–519

routing in, 513–515security of, 528–531summary, 531

Mobile IP, 155–156addresses and agents in, 156–158DHCP for, 174registration in, 158–159routing for, 159–163security in, 163

Mobile switching centers (MSCs)in cellular networks, 143–144, 150in I-TCP, 215in mobile IP, 156–157

Mobile transport protocolsTCP, 215–216UDP, 216–217

Mobile unit setup, 144Mobility management, 150–154Modems, 50

cable, 56–57digital modulation techniques, 52–54DSL, 54–55line coding methods, 50–52

Modification attacks, 253–254Modulation techniques, 52–54Modulo-2 arithmetic, 90–91Monochrome images, 456More-fragment (MF) bit, 29MOSPF (multicast OSPF) protocol,

409–410Moving images compression, 461–463

Moving Pictures Expert Group (MPEG)compression, 461–463

MP3 technology, 462–463MPLS. See Multiprotocol label switching

(MPLS)MSCs (mobile switching centers)

in cellular networks, 143–144, 150in I-TCP, 215in mobile IP, 156–157

MSDP (Multicast Source DiscoveryProtocol), 415–417

MSS (maximum segment size) option, 211MTUs (maximum transmission units)

in IP, 28–29in IPv6, 33

Multi-hop communication efficiency,542–545

Multicarrier modulation, 81Multicast Address-Set Claim (MASC)

protocol, 417Multicast addresses, 32Multicast backbone (MBone), 413–414Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) protocol,

409–410Multicast Source Discovery Protocol

(MSDP), 415–417Multicast tables, 423Multicasting techniques and protocols,

401–402definitions and techniques, 402–403exercises, 427–430interdomain, 414–417intradomain, 406–407

CBT, 413DVMRP, 407IGMP, 407–409MBone, 413–414MOSPF, 409–410PIM, 410–413

IP addresses, 403–404node-level

Index 601

Boolean splitting, 420–422packet recirculation, 423–424three-dimensional switches, 424–426tree-based, 418–420

in routers, 63summary, 426–427switching networks, 351tree algorithms, 404–406

Multichannel multitransceiver MAC, 167Multichannel single-transceiver MAC, 167Multihop routing, 552–553Multimedia networking

compression in. See Compressiondistributed, 497–500exercises, 507–509real-time media transport protocols,

490–497SCTP, 500–502self-similarity and non-Markovian

streaming analysis in, 503–506summary, 506–507Voice over IP. See Voice over IP (VoIP)

Multimedia terminals, 487Multipath buffered crossbars (MBCs),

368–369Markov chain model for, 371–374queueing model for, 369–370throughput and delay in, 374–375

Multipath effects, 86Multipath switching networks, 350Multiple access, 82–83

CDMA, 85–87FDMA, 83hybrid techniques, 87TDMA, 83–85

Multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO)systems, 167

Multiple random variables, 578–579Multiplexers, 43–44

FDM, 44in packet-switched networks, 9

TDM, 45–50WDM, 44–45

Multipoint control units (MCUs), 487Multiprotocol BGP (MBGP), 414–415Multiprotocol label switching (MPLS),

437–438operation of, 438–439routing in, 439–441traffic engineering in, 442–443tunneling in, 441–442for VPNs, 443–444

N-stage planar architecture, 388Name/address mapping, 230–231NAPs (network access points), 7Narrowband RF LANs, 133NAT (network address translation),

174–176NAT translation tables, 175National Internet service providers, 7–8Natural nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) line

coding, 51–52Network access points (NAPs), 7Network-access servers, 433Network address translation (NAT),

174–176Network communication protocols, 19

ATM, 33–34cell structure, 36, 38–39protocol structure, 34–37

exercises, 39Internet. See Internet Protocol (IP) layerOSI, 22summary, 39TCP/IP, 20–22

Network IDs, 24Network interface cards (NICs), 164Network latency, 481Network layer

congestion control at, 194–196bidirectional, 197–198

602 Index

Network layer (continued)congestion control at (continued)

link blocking, 200–202RED, 198–200unidirectional, 196–197

routing at, 172–173address assignments in, 173–174classification of algorithms for,

176–177NAT for, 174–176route costs in, 176

in TCP/IP protocol model, 20, 23transport layer interaction with, 209

Network-layer readability field, 194Network management, 239–241

elements of, 241MIB, 242–243SMI, 241SNMP, 243–245

Network-node interface (NNI), 36–38Network security. See SecurityNetwork-to-network interface (NNI), 381Network topology, 6, 102–103Network virtual terminals (NVTs), 233Networking devices, 43

exercises, 67–69modems, 50–57multiplexers, 43–50routers, 60–67summary, 67switching and routing, 57–59

Networkscellular. See Cellular networksLANs. See Local area networks (LANs)mobile ad-hoc. See Mobile ad-hoc

networks (MANETs)optical. See Optical networkspacket-switched. See Packet-switched

networksof queues, 299–308sensor. See Sensor networks

switching. See Switch fabricswireless. See Wireless networks

Next header fieldin IPsec, 266in IPv6 packets, 31

NICs (network interface cards), 164NNI (network-node interface), 36–38NNI (network-to-network interface), 381Node-level multicast algorithms

Boolean splitting, 420–422packet recirculation, 423–424three-dimensional switches, 424–426tree-based, 418–420

Nodesad-hoc networks, 528–530cascaded, 299–304optical networks, 380, 388–391packet-switched networks, 5sensor networks, 538–540

Noise, 88Non-least-cost-path routing, 176–177,

180–181Non-Markovian models

arrival, 298queuing, 295–298streaming analysis, 503–506

Non-Poisson models, 298arrival, 298queuing, 295

Non-preemptive priority queues, 327–329Non-real-time packets, 326Nonblocking switch fabrics, 350–351,

357–360blocking probability estimates for,

360–361five-stage Clos networks, 361–362

Non-electro-optical switches, 384Nonpersistent CSMA, 108Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) line coding,

51–52Normal (Gaussian) random variables, 577

Index 603

Normalized method, 222Notification packets, 193–194NRZ (natural nonreturn-to-zero) line

coding, 51–52NRZ-inverted line coding, 51–52NTP timestamp field, 495Number of additional records field, 231Number of answers field, 231Number of authoritative records field, 231Number of questions field, 231NVTs (network virtual terminals), 233Nyquist theorem, 451

OFDM (orthogonal frequency divisionmultiplexing), 81–82, 136–137

OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing)protocol, 142

Omega networks, 353–355Omnidirectional configuration, 1321-persistent CSMA, 108, 113Ongoing calls, 145Opaque optical switches, 391Open networks, Jackson’s theorem on,

305–308Open packets in BGP, 192–194Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocol

MOSPF, 409–410operation of, 187–190

Open systems interconnection (OSI)model, 22

Operation error chunks, 502OPPs (output port processors), 65–67, 423Optical cross-connect (OXC) switches, 384Optical fiber, 73Optical networks, 379–380

amplifiers in, 382contention resolution in, 385–386delay elements in, 382exercises, 399–400filters in, 382–383, 388overview, 380

protocol models and standards for,380–382

routers in, 388–391summary, 398–399switches in, 384–388, 395–398tunable lasers for, 382wavelength allocation in, 391–395WDMs in, 383

Optimal quantizers, 455Optimality

packet size, 14–16routing algorithm, 173

Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)protocol, 142

Options fieldIP packets, 23–24TCP segments, 211–212

OPTIONS messages, 486OQPSK (orthogonal QPSK), 155Originated calls, 144Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing

(OFDM), 81–82, 136–137Orthogonal QPSK (OQPSK), 155OSI (Open systems interconnection)

model, 22OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) protocol

MOSPF, 409–410operation of, 187–190

Outcomes in probability, 573Output port buffers, 370Output port processors (OPPs), 65–67,

423Overlay models, 381Overlay networks, 444–446OXC (optical cross-connect) switches, 384

P (predictive) frames, 462P-NNI (private NNI), 36P-persistent CSMA, 108P2P (peer-to-peer) protocols, 445–446Packet-by-packet switches, 59

604 Index

Packet-drop probability, 198Packet length field, 189Packet loss, 482Packet-mistreatment attacks, 253–254Packet queues and delay analysis, 275–276

birth-and-death process, 278–279in connectionless networks, 12exercises, 309–314Little’s theorem, 276–278Markovian FIFO queueing systems, 281

M/M/1, 281–285M/M/1/b, 286–292M/M/8, 293–295M/M/a/a, 292–293

networks of queues, 299Burke’s theorem, 299–304Jackson’s theorem, 304–308

non-Markovian models, 295–298queueing disciplines, 279–281self-similarity and batch-arrival models,

298–299summary, 308

Packet recirculation multicast algorithm,423–424

Packet-reservation multiple-access (PRMA)scheme, 84–85

Packet scheduling, 325–326deficit round-robin, 333–334earliest deadline first, 335fair queueing, 331–332first in, first out, 326–327priority queueing, 327–331weighted fair queueing, 332–333

Packet-switched networks, 3connection-oriented, 13–14connectionless, 10–13exercises, 17–18Internet, 6–9ISPs and internetwork components, 9–10messages, packets, and frames in, 5–6packet size in, 14–16

packet switching vs. circuit switching,4–5

summary, 16Packet type field, 494Packets, 4

BGP, 192–194encapsulation, 63filtering, 270fragmentation and reassembly, 6, 28–29,

33, 60IGMP, 408–409IP, 23–24LANs, 102MPLS, 438–439OSPF, 189–190packet-switched networks, 5–6RIP, 185–187RTCP, 494–496RTP, 492–493SCTP, 501–502size, 14–16SSH, 235TCP, 210–212TORA, 521

Pad field, 114Pad length field, 266Padding field

IP packets, 24IPsec headers, 266RTCP packets, 494RTP packets, 492SSH Packets, 235

Paging channels, 155Paging in cellular networks, 144PAM (pulse amplitude modulation), 451Parallel connections

in link blocking, 200–202in switching networks, 352

Parallel nodes, Burke’s theorem on,302–304

Parallel-plane switching networks, 367–368

Index 605

Parallel-to-serial multiplexing, 65Pareto distributions, 505–506Parity bits, 89Parity check methods, 89Path attributes field, 194Path-discovery, 527Path loss

in optical networks, 386in wireless links, 76–77

Path-vector routing, 191–192Payload data chunks, 502Payload data field, 266Payload length field, 31Payload type field

ATM cells, 38RTP packets, 493

Payloads in ATM cells, 36, 38PCF (point-coordination function), 139PCM (pulse code modulation), 480PCR (peak cell rate), 342PDF (probability density function), 112,

575, 579PDUs (protocol data units), 243–245, 501Peak cell rate (PCR), 342Peer-to-peer networks

optical, 381wireless, 131WMNs for, 165

Peer-to-peer (P2P) protocols, 445–446Per hop behaviors (PHBs), 336–337Performance

network management for, 240switch fabrics, 366–368

Period data in ICR, 554–555Permutations

in AES, 259in switching networks, 352

Phase shift keying (PSK), 52–54PHBs (per hop behaviors), 336–337Photographs, 456Photonic switches, 391

Physical congestion, 194Physical layer

ATM, 34IEEE 802.11, 136–137TCP/IP protocol model, 20WMNs, 167

Physical medium in ATM, 34Pictures, 456PIFS (point IFS coordination function),

139Pilot channels, 154PIM (protocol-independent multicast),

410–413, 416Pin attacks, 529Ping of death, 254Pixels, 470Plug-and-play protocols, 174PMF (probability mass function), 575, 579Point-coordination function (PCF), 139Point IFS coordination function (PIFS),

139Point-to-point connections, 372Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), 434Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP),

433, 435Poisoned-reverse rule, 185Poisoning attacks, 252–253Poisson distribution, 111–113Poisson random variables, 576–577Polar NRZ line coding, 51Policing

in cell scheduling, 343traffic, 196–197, 318

Pollaczek-Khinchin formula, 295–298Polling feature, 139Polynomial CRC interpretation, 92Port forwarding, 234–235Port numbers

NAT, 175RTP, 491

Power ratio, 340

606 Index

Power save-poll (PS-Poll) frames, 140Power supplies for ad-hoc networks, 528PPM (pulse position modulation), 136,

451PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), 434PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol),

433, 435PQ (priority queueing) schedulers, 327Preamble field, 113Predictive (P) frames, 462Preemption queuing systems, 280Preemptive priority queues, 329–331Prefixes in CIDR, 27Presentation layer, 22Priority queueing, 280

non-preemptive, 327–329preemptive, 329–331in VoIP, 482

Priority queueing (PQ) schedulers, 327Privacy in CDMA, 86Private NNI (P-NNI), 36PRMA (packet-reservation multiple-access)

scheme, 84–85Proactive distributed routing, 552Probability, 573–574

blocking, 293, 360–361expected value and variance in, 577–578Markov chains in, 580–582random variables in, 574–577stochastic processes, 579–580TDM blocking, 47–48TDM clipping, 49–50

Probability density function (PDF), 112,575, 579

Probability mass function (PMF), 575, 579Processing units, 539–540Protocol converters, 116Protocol data units (PDUs), 243–245, 501Protocol field, 24Protocol immunization, 530

Protocol-independent multicast (PIM),410–413, 416

Protocolsad-hoc networks, 515–528LANs, 103–104network management, 241optical networks, 380–382sensor networks, 537–538VoIP, 482–490

Providing routers, 443Proxy servers

SIP, 484–485Web, 238–239

Prune messages, 411Pseudonoise signals, 85PSK (phase shift keying), 52–54Public-key encryption, 256

protocols, 260–262in SSH, 234

Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM), 451Pulse code modulation (PCM), 480Pulse position modulation (PPM), 136,

451Pulse stuffing, 46Pulse-type plots, 220Pulse width modulation (PWM), 451Push (PSH) field, 211

QAM (quadrature amplitude modulation),52–55, 81

QoS. See Quality of service (QoS)QPSK (quadrature phase shift keying), 56,

81Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM),

52–55, 81Quadrature-phase components, 54Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK), 56,

81Quality of service (QoS), 315–316

differentiated services, 335–337exercises, 344–348

Index 607

integrated services, 316–317admission control in, 324packet scheduling in, 325–335RSVP, 324–325traffic shaping in, 317–324

network management for, 240overview, 316resource allocation, 337–338

ATM networks, 340–344classification of, 338–339fairness in, 340management in, 338

for streaming, 499–500summary, 344VoIP, 481–482WMNs, 166

Quantization in compressionimages, 459–460voice, 452–455

Query messages, 231Query packets

ABR, 522TORA, 521

Question field, 231–232Queue sets, 370Queues

delay-sensitive traffic, 292–293multipath buffered crossbars, 369–370,

374packet. See Packet queues and delay

analysispriority, 327–331RED, 199routers, 62VoIP, 482

Radar, 72Radio frequency (RF) spectrum, 72Radio link security, 163Radio systems, 72RADIUS protocol, 268

Rake receivers, 85–87RAMA (root-addressed multicast

architecture), 417Random-access TDMA techniques, 83–85Random early detection (RED) technique,

198–200Random padding field, 235Random processes

in lossy compression, 463in probability, 579–580

Random service queuing systems, 280Random variables

functions of, 578–579in probability, 574–577

Randomizing traffic, 367RARP (Reverse Address Resolution

Protocol), 106Rate-based resource allocation, 339Raw-image sampling, 456–459Reactive distributed routing, 552Reactive routing protocols, 529Real-Time Control Protocol (RTCP),

493–496Real-time media transport protocols,

490–491RTCP, 493–496RTP, 480–481, 491–493

Real-time packets, 326Real-time sessions, 491–492Real-time transport protocol (RTP),

480–481, 491–493Rearrangeably nonblocking, 350, 386Reassembly, packet, 28–29, 66Receiver report (RR) packets, 494–496Receivers, CRC generation at, 90–92Recirculation

in packet recirculation multicastalgorithm, 423–424

in switching networks, 367Reclustering, 551Recursive mapping, 230

608 Index

Recycling in packet recirculation multicastalgorithm, 423

RED (random early detection) technique,198–200

Redirect messages in ICMP, 30Redirect servers, 485Reflection paths, 76Regional handoffs, 149–150Regional Internet service providers, 7–9REGISTER messages, 486Registrar servers, 485Registrars in DNS, 232Registration in mobile IP, 156, 158–159Relays in RTP, 492Reliability in mobile IP, 156Reliable data delivery, 137Remote-access VPN, 433Remote controls, 72Remote login protocols, 232–233

SSH, 234–235Telnet, 233–234

Rendezvous points, 406Repeaters, 57–58

LANs, 116–124ring topology, 102token-ring access protocol, 115

Replication attacks, 254Reply messages, 231Reply packets, 522Request-expiration timers, 524, 526Request ID field, 244Request-to-send/clear-to-send (RTS/CTS)

scheme, 137Request to Send (RTS) frames, 140Requests, mobile IP registration, 158Requests for comments (RFCs), 569–571RERR (route-error) messages, 520, 527Rescue operations, ad-hoc networks for,

512Resequencers, 66Reservation-access MAC protocols, 107

Reservation-based protocols, 83–85Reservations in RSVP, 324–325Reset (RST) field, 211, 213Resource allocation, 337–338

ATM networks, 340–344classification of, 338–339fairness in, 340management in, 338

Resource oriented traffic engineering, 442Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP),

324–325Responses, mobile IP registration, 158Reuse cluster of cells, 146Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

(RARP), 106Reverse links, 154–155RF (radio frequency) spectrum, 72RFCs (requests for comments), 569–571Ring topology, 102RINGING signals, 486RIP (routing information protocol),

183–187, 515Rivert, Shamir, and Aldeman (RSA)

algorithm, 260–262Root-addressed multicast architecture

(RAMA), 417Root points, 406Root servers, 229Round-robin-access MAC protocols,

114–116Round robin queuing systems, 280Round-trip times (RTTs), 218, 221Rounds in LEACH, 546Route costs, 176, 182Route-creation process, 521Route discovery

ABR, 522in ad-hoc networks, 530AODV, 524–526DSP, 519–520ICR, 555

Index 609

Route-error (RERR) messages, 520, 527Route maintenance, 526–528Route reconstruction, 522Route reply (RREP) packets, 519, 525–526Route request (RREQ) packets, 519,

524–525Router based resource allocation, 339Router ID field, 189Router line cards, 60Routers

address assignments for, 173–174attacks on, 253description, 59input port processors for, 60–63for ISPs, 7in LANs, 116, 124–125in MPLS, 443in optical networks, 388–391output port processors for, 65–67in packet-switched networks, 9–10in RED, 198–200switch controllers in, 64–65switch fabric of, 63–64wireless, 141in WMNs, 164

Routing and internetworking, 7, 171–172in ad-hoc networks, 513–515algorithm characteristics, 172–173in AODV, 523–524in cellular networks, 150congestion control. See Congestiondevices, 59exercises, 203–206interdomain routing protocols, 190–194intradomain routing protocols, 182–183

OSPF, 187–190RIP, 183–187

least-cost-path algorithms, 177–180for mobile IP, 159–163in MPLS domains, 439–441network-layer, 172–177

non-least-cost-path algorithms, 180–181in packet-switched networks, 10in sensor networks, 551–557summary, 202–203

Routing caching timeouts, 524, 526Routing information protocol (RIP),

183–187, 515Routing tables

AODV, 523automatic updates for, 120–121CGSR, 517DSDV, 515–516overflow attacks on, 529in packet-switched networks, 10poisoning attacks on, 252–253RIP, 185routers, 61–62WRP, 518

RR (receiver report) packets, 494–496RREP (route reply) packets, 519, 525–526RREQ (route request) packets, 519,

524–525RSA (Rivert, Shamir, and Aldeman)

algorithm, 260–262RSVP (Resource Reservation Protocol),

324–325RTCP (Real-Time Control Protocol),

493–496RTP (real-time transport protocol),

480–481, 491–493RTP timestamp field, 495RTS/CTS (request-to-send/clear-to-send)

scheme, 137RTTs (round-trip times), 218, 221Run-length encoding, 468

S field, 439S/P (serial-to-parallel) converters, 81Sample space, 573Sampling

in compression, 451–452, 456–459

610 Index

Sampling (continued)in probability, 574

Satellite systems, 72, 130–131Scalability

CDMA, 86multicasting, 402VPNs, 434WMNs, 165

Scattering paths, 76Schedules

cell, 343–344packet, 325–326

deficit round-robin, 333–334earliest deadline first, 335fair queueing, 331–332first in, first out, 326–327priority queueing, 327–331weighted fair queueing, 332–333

Scheduling discipline, 280SCP (Secure Copy Protocol), 237SCR (sustainable cell rate), 342SCTP (Stream Control Transmission

Protocol), 500–502SDES (source descriptor) packets, 494SDMA (space-division multiple access), 87SDP (Session Description Protocol), 484SDSL (symmetric digital subscriber line),

55Secret-key encryption, 256–259Secure Copy Protocol (SCP), 237Secure Hash Algorithm (SHA), 263–265Secure Shell (SSH) Protocol, 234–235Security, 249–250

in ad-hoc networks, 528–531authentication techniques, 256–257,

263–265cryptographic techniques, 255–256elements of, 250–251exercises, 271–272firewalls, 269–270IP, 266–267

mobile IP, 156, 163network management for, 240–241public-key encryption, 260–262secret-key encryption, 257–259summary, 270–271threats to, 251–255in VPNs, 436–437in wireless networks, 267–268

Security parameters index field, 266Segment field, 213–214Segments

TCP, 210–212, 218in transport-layer packets, 209UDP, 213–214

Selective acknowledgment chunks, 502Self-organized overlay networks, 445Self-organizing sensor networks, 535Self-power units, 540Self-routing, 397Self-similarity

in multimedia, 503–506in queuing models, 298–299

Self-similarity parameter, 504Self-stabilization, 513, 530Semi-optical routers, 391Sender report (SR) packets, 494–496Sender’s byte count field, 495Sender’s packet count field, 495Sensing units, 539Sensor networks, 535–536

clustering in, 536–537, 545–551communication energy model, 540–545exercises, 561node structure for, 538–540protocol stack for, 537–538related technologies, 559–560routing protocols in, 551–552

intercluster, 554–557intracluster, 552–554

simulation of, 557–559summary, 560–561

Index 611

Sequence control (SC) field, 140Sequence number field

IPsec, 266RTP packets, 493TCP segments, 210

Sequences and sequence numbersAODV, 523in Shannon’s coding theorem, 465–467TCP, 210

Sequential experiments, 574Serial connections, 200–202, 352Serial-to-parallel (S/P) converters, 81Serial-to-parallel multiplexing units, 63Servers

authoritative, 230DNS. See Domain Name System (DNS)

and serversin packet-switched networks, 10SIP, 484–485Web, 238–239

Service-level agreements (SLAs), 336Service models in queueing systems,

281–283Service-set identification (SSIDs), 134Service sharing queuing systems, 280Session Description Protocol (SDP), 484Session Initiation Protocol (SIP), 483–486Session layer, 22Sessions

H.323, 487–490RTCP, 494RTP, 491–492SIP, 485–486

Set and Trap PDUs, 2447-layer OSI model, 22Shadow fading, 77–78Shannon’s coding theorem, 465–467Shapers, 335Shared data buses, 368–369Shared-memory switch fabrics, 365–366Shared-tree technique, 406

Short IFS (SIFS) interval, 139Shortest paths in SSN, 397Shuffling property, 354Shutdown chunks, 502Shutdown acknowledgment chunks, 502Shutdown complete chunks, 502SIFS (short IFS) interval, 139Signal regeneration, 57–58Signal sampling, 451–452Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 76, 79Signaling protocols in VoIP, 480, 482–483

H.323, 486–490SIP, 483–486

Signaling servers, 480Signatures, digital, 265Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),

235–236Simple multicast, 417Simple Network Management Protocol

(SNMP), 243–245Simplicity of routing algorithms, 173Single-key encryption protocols, 257Single-path switching networks, 350Single-source denial-of-service attacks, 254SIP (Session Initiation Protocol), 483–486Site-to-site VPNs, 433–434Size, packet, 14–16SLAs (service-level agreements), 336Sliding-window flow control, 96–98Slow start congestion control method,

219–220SMI (structure of management

information), 241SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol),

235–236SNMP (Simple Network Management

Protocol), 243–245SNR (signal-to-noise ratio), 76, 79Software firewall programs, 269Solar cells, 537

612 Index

SONET (synchronous optical network)standard, 381

Sorted deadline lists, 335Source address field

Ethernet LAN frames, 114IGMP packets, 409IP packets, 24IPv6 packets, 31

Source-based congestion avoidance,221–222

Source coding systems, 450–451Source descriptor (SDES) packets, 494Source encoder units, 463Source identification in RTCP, 494Source-initiated protocols, 514–515Source port field

SCTP packets, 501TCP segments, 210UDP segments, 213–214

Source routing, 177Space-division multiple access (SDMA), 87Spanke-Benes switching networks, 387–388Spanning-tree algorithm, 123–124Sparse-mode algorithm, 406Sparse-mode PIM, 410–412, 416Spatial frequencies, 458Speed-up factor in switching networks, 367Spherical switching networks (SSNs),

395–398Spike noise, 88Split-horizon rule, 185Spread-spectrum techniques

in CDMA, 85–87in LANs, 133in physical layer, 136

Squared-error distortion, 452SR (sender report) packets, 494–496SSH (Secure Shell) protocol, 234–235SSIDs (service-set identification), 134SSNs (spherical switching networks),

395–398

SSRC field, 495Stability of routing algorithms, 173Stages in switching networks, 350Star couplers, 384, 388Star topology

for LANs, 102–103for wireless networks, 131

Start of frame field, 114State cookie error chunks, 502Static protocols, 514Static routing, 177Statistical multiplexing

TDM, 48–50for virtual paths, 342

Steady-state phase in LEACH, 546Still image compression, 455–461Stochastic processes, 579–580Stop-and-go model, 151–154Stop-and-wait flow control, 95–96Store-and-forward operation, 11Stream batches, 503Stream Control Transmission Protocol

(SCTP), 500–502Streaming

audio, 462–463non-Markovian, 503–506QoS for, 499–500

Strictly nonblocking networks, 351Structure of management information

(SMI), 241Subnet addressing, 25–27Subnet IDs, 26Superframe intervals, 139Supernetting, 27Superposition, 306Sustainable cell rate (SCR), 342Switch controllers, 64–65Switch fabrics, 349

blocking, 350–351, 353–357characteristics, 350complexity of, 351

Index 613

concentration and expansion switches,361–365

crossbar, 352–353definitions and symbols in, 351–352exercises, 376–378features of, 351multipath buffered crossbars, 368–369

Markov chain model for, 371–374queueing model for, 369–370throughput and delay in, 374–375

nonblocking, 350–351, 357–362performance of, 366–368router, 63–64shared-memory, 365–366summary, 375–376

Switches, 57–59in LANs, 116, 124–125, 131in optical networks, 384–388, 395–398three-dimensional, 424–426

Switching nodes, 9Symbols

in switching networks, 351–352in wireless networks, 155

Symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL),55

Symmetric encryption, 257Synchronization channels, 154Synchronization source identifier field

RTCP packets, 494RTP packets, 493

Synchronize (SYN) field, 211–212Synchronous MAC protocols, 106–107Synchronous optical network (SONET)

standard, 381Synchronous TDM, 45–48System capacity in cellular networks,

146–147

Table-driven routing protocols, 514Tagging in cell scheduling, 343Tail-drop policy, 198

TCAs (traffic-conditioning agreements),336

TCP. See Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)

TCP/IP (Transmission ControlProtocol/Internet Protocol)model, 20–22

TCP normalized method, 222TDM (time-division multiplexing), 45

statistical, 48–50synchronous, 45–48

TDMA (time-division multiple access),83–85

Telephone Routing Over IP (TRIP)protocol, 486

Telephone systems, 72. See also Cellularnetworks; Voice over IP (VoIP)

Television systems, 72Telnet protocol, 233–234Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm

(TORA), 520–521Temporary address field, 159Thermo-optic switches, 384Threats to security

ad-hoc networks, 529–530categories, 251–255

Three-dimensional switches, 424–426Throughput

in CSMA, 111–113in multipath buffered crossbars, 374–375in TCP, 217, 222

Throughput to delay ratio, 340Time-division multiple access (TDMA),

83–85Time-division multiplexing (TDM), 45

statistical, 48–50synchronous, 45–48

Time to live fieldIP packets, 24MPLS packets, 439

614 Index

Timestamp fieldPDUs, 245RTP packets, 493

Token arrival rate, 323Token-bucket traffic shaping, 322–324Token-ring access protocol, 114–116Tokens

in token-bucket traffic shaping, 323in token-ring access protocol, 114

Topologies for LANs, 6, 102–103TORA (Temporally Ordered Routing

Algorithm), 520–521Torus-shaped topology, 396TOS (type of service) field

differentiated services QoS, 336IP packets, 24OSPF, 189

Total length field, 24Total path attributes length field, 194Total system delay in queues, 330Traffic channels

in cellular networks, 145in wireless networks, 155

Traffic class field, 31Traffic classifiers, 336Traffic conditioners, 335–336Traffic-conditioning agreements (TCAs),

336Traffic-congestion case, 337–338Traffic engineering, 437, 442–443Traffic oriented traffic engineering, 442Traffic policing, 196–197, 318Traffic shaping, 317–318

leaky-bucket, 318–324token-bucket, 322–324

Transceivers, 143–144Translator relays, 492Transmission control blocks, 210Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),

209–210applications of, 214

congestion control, 217additive increase, multiplicative

decrease congestion control,217–219

congestion avoidance, 221–222fast retransmit method, 220–221slow start method, 219–220

connection setup for, 212–213for mobility, 215–216segments in, 210–212

Transmission Control Protocol/InternetProtocol (TCP/IP) model, 20–22

Transmission convergence in ATM, 34–35Transmissions

data link. See Data linksSSN, 397–398

Transmit state in token-ring, 115Transmitters, CRC generation at, 90Transparent bridges, 121Transport and end-to-end protocols,

207–208congestion control, 217–222exercises, 223–224mobile, 215–217summary, 222–223TCP, 209–212transport layer for, 208–209UDP, 213–214

Transport layer, 21, 208–209Transport mode in IPsec, 267Tree algorithms, 404–406, 418–420Tree-based routing, 161TRIP (Telephone Routing Over IP)

protocol, 486TRYING signals, 486Tunable dispersion compensators, 382Tunable lasers, 382Tunable optical filters, 388, 392Tunneling

in IPsec, 267in MBone, 413–414

Index 615

in MPLS, 441–442in VPNs, 434–436

Turbo codes, 79Twisted-pair links, 73Two-key encryption, 260Two random variable functions, 578Type data in ICR, 554–555Type field

IGMP packets, 408for mobile IP, 159OSPF packets, 189–190SCTP packets, 501SSH Packets, 235

Type of service (ToS) fielddifferentiated services QoS, 336IP packets, 24OSPF, 189

UDP (User Datagram Protocol), 213applications, 214for mobility, 216–217segments, 213–214

UDP checksum field, 213–214UDP length field, 213–214UID (user information database), 484Ultrapure fused silica, 74Unbuffered switching networks, 351Uncontrolled GFC, 38Unguided transmission links, 72UNI (user-network interface), 36–38, 381Unicast addresses, 32Unidirectional congestion control, 196–197Uniform random variables, 577Uniform resource locators (URLs), 238Uniform switching networks, 352Union of events, 573Update packets, 190

BGP, 192–193TORA, 521

Updatesin ad-hoc networks, 530

automatic, 120–121RIP routing tables, 185

Upstream bandwidth, ADSL, 55Upstream grant processors, 65Urgent (URG) field, 211Urgent pointer field, 211URLs (uniform resource locators), 238Usage parameter control, 343User agents

H.323, 488–489SIP, 484–485

User authentication, 150User Datagram Protocol (UDP), 213

applications, 214for mobility, 216–217segments, 213–214

User information database (UID), 484User mailboxes, 236User-network interface (UNI), 36–38, 381User plane, 35–36User tracking in cellular networks, 150Utilization

in CSMA, 110in feedback models, 304link, 14–15in M/M/1 queueing systems, 284

Variable bit rate (VBR)ATM, 35sources, 342–343

Variables in probability, 574–577Variance in probability, 577–578VCCs (virtual channel connections),

341–342VCIs (virtual channel identifiers), 34, 38VDSL (very high bit-rate digital subscriber

line), 55Verification tag field, 501Version field

IP packets, 23IPv6 packets, 31

616 Index

Version field (continued)RTCP packets, 494RTP packets, 492

Version number fieldOSPF packets, 189RIP packets, 185–186

Very high bit-rate digital subscriber line(VDSL), 55

Virtual agents, 160Virtual channel connections (VCCs),

341–342Virtual channel identifiers (VCIs), 34, 38Virtual-circuit networks, 10–11, 13–14Virtual-circuit translation tables (VXTs), 64Virtual path connections (VPCs), 341–342Virtual path identifiers (VPIs), 34, 38Virtual private networks (VPNs), 431–432

Diffie-Hillman key-exchange protocolfor, 262

exercises, 447–448MPLS-based, 443–444remote-access, 433security in, 436–437site-to-site, 433–434summary, 446–447tunneling and PPP in, 434–436

Virtual registration, 160–161Voice compression

quantization and distortion in, 452–455signal sampling in, 451–452

Voice over IP (VoIP), 479–480overview, 480–481QoS, 481–482signaling protocols, 482–490

VPCs (virtual path connections), 341–342VPIs (virtual path identifiers), 34, 38VPNs. See Virtual private networks (VPNs)VXTs (virtual-circuit translation tables), 64

Walsh matrix, 155WANs (wide area networks), 9–10

Wavelength-conversion gain, 394Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM),

44–45, 383Wavelength in optical networks, 380

allocation, 391–395conversion, 385, 389–391

Wavelength routers, 388Wavelength routing nodes, 389–391WDM (wavelength-division multiplexing),

44–45, 383Web caching, 238–239Weighted-fair queueing (WFQ), 326

scheduler, 332–333in VoIP, 482

Weighted round-robin (WRR) scheduler,333

WEP (wired equivalent privacy) standard,267–268

White noise, 88Wide area networks (WANs), 9–10Wide-sense nonblocking networks, 350,

386Wiener random processes, 580WiFi (wireless fidelity) technology,

141–142WiMAX (worldwide interoperability for

microwave access) technology,163–164

Window based resource allocation, 339Window scale option, 212Window size field, 211Window size in TCP, 211, 217–218Wired equivalent privacy (WEP) standard,

267–268Wired links, 72–74Wireless fidelity (WiFi) technology,

141–142Wireless links, 72–74

antennas for, 74–76channels for, 76–79flat fading in, 79–80

Index 617

intersymbol interference in, 80–81OFDM for, 81–82

Wireless networks, 129ad-hoc. See Mobile ad-hoc networks

(MANETs)cellular. See Cellular networksexercises, 168–170IEEE 802.11, 134–142infrastructure of, 130–131LANs, 131–134mobile IP. See Mobile IPsecurity in, 267–268sensor. See Sensor networkssummary, 168WMNs, 163

applications of, 164–166

physical and MAC layers in, 167WiMAX technology for, 163–164

Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP),517–519

World Wide Web (WWW), 237–239Worldwide interoperability for microwave

access (WiMAX) technology,163–164

WRP (Wireless Routing Protocol),517–519

WRR (weighted round-robin) scheduler,333

WWW (World Wide Web), 237–239

ZigBee technology, 559–560