WHAT IS POLLUTION?

Pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty and unsafe

or unsuitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a contaminant into a natural

environment, but the contaminant doesn't need to be tangible. Things as simple as light, sound and

temperature can be considered pollutants when introduced artificially into an environment.

Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, according to Pure Earth, a non-profit

environmental organization. In some of the world’s worst polluted places, babies are born with birth

defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy may be as low as 45 years because of

cancers and other diseases. Read on to find out more about specific types of pollution.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF POLLUTION

Land pollution

Land pollution means degradation or destruction of earth’s surface and soil, directly or indirectly as a

result of human activities. Anthropogenic activities are conducted citing development, and the same

affects the land drastically, we witness land pollution; by drastic we are referring to any activity that

lessens the quality and/or productivity of the land as an ideal place for agriculture, forestation,

construction etc. The degradation of land that could be used constructively in other words is land

pollution.

Land Pollution has led to a series of issues that we have come to realize in recent times, after decades of

neglect. The increasing numbers of barren land plots and the decreasing numbers of forest cover is at an

alarming ratio. Moreover the extension of cities and towns due to increasing population is leading to

further exploitation of the land. Land fills and reclamations are being planned and executed to meet the

increased demand of lands. This leads to further deterioration of land, and pollution caused by the land

fill contents. Also due to the lack of green cover, the land gets affected in several ways like soil erosion

occurs washing away the fertile portions of the land. Or even a landslide can be seen as an example.

CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION

The causes of land pollution can be divided into two categories. The first is manmade and one

that can be controlled. The second is created through natural reactions that are not easily

controlled.

Manmade Land Pollution

Land pollution comes in many manmade forms such as accidental disasters, Brownfields, waste

management and landfills, pesticides and agricultural practices, clear cutting, urban development and

energy production. Each has a long-lasting negative impact on the environment, but each has a solution.

Accidental Disasters

The 2010 BP Oil Spill in the Gulf of Mexico in just one example of an extreme accident that killed people

and aquatic life. The spill impacted environmental and economical sectors and even reached the

shorelines,destroying wetlands and recreational beach proprieties.

Brownfields, a Big Pollution Problem

A Brownfield is land that has been abandoned and often contains hazardous pollutants or substances

left behind by industries and factories. Brownfields can also be old mines as well as former industrial

dump sites. The EPA's (Environmental Protection Agency) Brownfields Program was created to reclaim

these pieces of real estate and through cleanup and redevelopment, make them usable and valuable

pieces of properties once more.

Storm water runoff is a major concern for this type of property since it can create water pollution and

spread pollutants and contaminants to other lands as well as water sources. It's in the community's best

interest to participate in a Brownfields Program, which includes grants as well as valuable information

how a community can practice land revitalization.

Once contaminants are cleaned up, the properties can be reused to alleviate some of the stress placed

on communities for new land development. This recycling of land also encourages the conservation of

pristine lands. According to the EPA, Brownfields Program cleanups increase surrounding residential

property value by as much as three percent. There are more than 450,000 Brownfields throughout the

United States that could benefit through the EPA Brownfields Program. For a community, the benefits

are reaped in more usable lands that equal more property taxes, attract more industry into the area,

which then create new jobs.

Energy production

Coal Mining: The mining process requires the displacement of soil and introduces chemicals and other

pollutants into the environment.

Natural Gas: Extracting natural gas creates erosion and disrupts the natural plant and animal life.

Nuclear plants: The production of nuclear power plants have a negative impact not just on the water

used for cooling the reactors, but also create land pollution from the processes.

Oil Refiners: Risks of spills and contaminates can pollute surrounding land.

Waste Management and Landfills

Solid waste management must be handled with a forward thinking process to limit the impact to land

and runoff water. This goal is compounded from illegally dumped chemicals. Underground storage tanks

corrode and leach into the soil and require different storage methods. The debris sent to landfills create

a buildup of deadly methane gas.

Pesticides and Agricultural Practices

Harmful chemicals used in agriculture collect in the soil and eventually create contaminated land as well

as water runoff that finds its way into streams and rivers to other land and eventually the oceans.

Logging and Clear Cutting

Irresponsible methods of harvesting trees can lead to soil erosion and serious land changes. According

to the EPA, the practice of clearing land to make room for agriculture was the highest between the

1830s and 1950s. The biggest threat to forests today is the clearing for urban developments.

Unpaved Roads

One of the most overlooked causes of land pollution, but probably one of the worst is unpaved roads.

These roads erode very easily and once the process begin, they deteriorate very quickly. Chunks of the

dirt road falls into ditches and when it rains, fill very quickly, which can lead to the flooding of these

roads and creating further erosion. Any oil and gas within the roadbed is carried by the water to a river,

stream or other land, typically to crop fields or grazing pastures.

The unpaved roads within forests can create the worst type of erosion and land pollution since most of

the road grades are usually severe or steep. It's important to note that even road construction can

create severe land pollution by displacing soil with the use of heavy equipment that disturbs the

roadbed and surrounding soil.

Naturally Occurring Land Pollution

Many natural processes can create soil pollution. They include:

Erosion: The natural processes of erosion can lead to severe pollution as sediment finds its way into

streams, rivers and oceans. As the sediment dumps into the oceans, it can upset fragile aquatic

eco-systems and marine life.

Floods: A raging river swollen by rain or a heavy snow thawing too quickly create land pollution. Rivers

that run over the banks into communities sweep away automobiles, homes, propane tanks and

hundreds of other pollutants that eventually find their way into the soil once the waters recede.

Forest fires: Lightning strikes can create massive forest fires as easily as one created by a careless

camper or passerby. Fire destroys entire forests and impacts the wildlife dependent upon the vegetation

for its sustenance.

Heavy metals: Many people are surprised to learn that soil can be contaminated from natural elements

such as heavy metals that include lead, arsenic, chromium, selenium and cadmium. These can also leach

into water supplies; however, the instances are fairly rare.

Radon: This is a serious pollutant gas that appears naturally in soil as a result of the uranium breakdown

process. When inhaled, this gas can cause lung cancer.

Storm erosion: Natural disasters such as earthquakes, tornadoes and hurricanes destroy manmade

structures and carry contaminates and hazardous materials into waterways and oceans. These

pollutants disrupt the natural order of marine life and aquatic systems.

Water pollution

Water

pollution is the contamination of natural water bodies by chemical, physical, radioactive or pathogenic

microbial substances. Adverse alteration of water quality presently produces large scale illness and

deaths, accounting for approximately 50 million deaths per year worldwide, most of these deaths

occurring in Africa and Asia. In China, for example, about 75 percent of the population (or 1.1 billion

people) are without access to unpolluted drinking water, according to China's own standards.[1]

Widespread consequences of water pollution upon ecosystems include species mortality, biodiversity

reduction and loss of ecosystem services. Some consider that water pollution may occur from natural

causes such as sedimentation from severe rainfall events; however, natural causes, including volcanic

eruptions and algae blooms from natural causes constitute a minute amount of the instances of world

water pollution. The most problematic of water pollutants are microbes that induce disease, since their

sources may be construed as natural, but a preponderance of these instances result from human

intervention in the environment or human overpopulation phenomena.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of water pollution can be seen

as Point and Non Point.

Point refer to the pollutants that belong to a single source. An example of this would be emissions from

factories into the water.

Non Point on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple sources. Contaminated water

after rains that has traveled through several regions may also be considered as a Non point source of

pollution.

CAUSES OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic chemicals

and pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our environment. They

contain pollutants such as lead, mercury, sulphur, asbestos, nitrates and many other harmful

chemicals. Many industries do not have proper waste management system and drain the waste

in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals and later in to sea. The toxic chemicals have

the capability to change the color of water, increase the amount of minerals, also known as

Eutrophication, change the temperature of water and pose serious hazard to water organisms.

2. Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each household is

chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries harmful

bacteria and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are known as a

common water pollutant; The sewers of cities house several pathogens and thereby diseases.

Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very deadly diseases and become the

breeding grounds for other creatures that act like carriers. These carriers inflict these diseases

via various forms of contact onto an individual. A very common example of this process would

be Malaria.

3. Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other

minerals from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contains harmful

chemicals and can increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which may

result in health problems. Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from the

rocks and is harmful for the water.

4. Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper, aluminum,

rubber, glass, plastic, food if collected and deposited into the sea in some countries. These

items take from 2 weeks to 200 years to decompose. When such items enters the sea, they not

only cause water pollution but also harm animals in the sea.

5. Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into the sea

and does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine wildlife such as fish,

birds and sea otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil may spill oil if met with an

accident and can cause varying damage to species in the ocean depending on the quantity of oil

spill, size of ocean, toxicity of pollutant.

6. Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial amount of

ash in the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when mixed with water

vapor result in acid rain. Also, carbon dioxide is released from burning of fossil fuels which

result in global warming.

7. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by farmers to

protect crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth. However, when

these chemicals are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and animals. Also, when it

rains, the chemicals mixes up with rainwater and flow down into rivers and canals which pose

serious damages for aquatic animals.

8. Leakage from sewer lines: A small leakage from the sewer lines can contaminate the

underground water and make it unfit for the people to drink. Also, when not repaired on time,

the leaking water can come on to the surface and become a breeding ground for insects and

mosquitoes.

9. Global warming: An increase in earth’s temperature due to greenhouse effect results in

global warming. It increases the water temperature and result in death of aquatic animals and

marine species which later results in water pollution.

10. Radioactive waste: Nuclear energy is produced using nuclear fission or fusion. The element

that is used in production of nuclear energy is Uranium which is highly toxic chemical. The

nuclear waste that is produced by radioactive material needs to be disposed off to prevent any

nuclear accident. Nuclear waste can have serious environmental hazards if not disposed off

properly. Few major accidents have already taken place in Russia and Japan.

11. Urban development: As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food and

cloth. As more cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increase use of fertilizers

to produce more food, soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in construction activities,

inadequate sewer collection and treatment, landfills as more garbage is produced, increase in

chemicals from industries to produce more materials.

12. Leakage from the landfills: Landfills are nothing but huge pile of garbage that produces

awful smell and can be seen across the city. When it rains, the landfills may leak and the leaking

landfills can pollute the underground water with large variety of contaminants.

13. Animal waste: The waste produce produce by animals is washed away into the rivers when

it rains. It gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water borne diseases

like cholera, diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery and typhoid.

14. Underground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products

through underground pipes is well known. Accidentals leakage may happen anytime and may

cause damage to environment and result in soil erosion.

Water pollutants also include both organic and inorganic factors. Organic factors include

volatile organic compounds, fuels, waste from trees, plants etc. Inorganic factors include

ammonia, chemical waste from factories, discarded cosmetics etc. The water that travels via

fields is usually contaminated with all forms of waste inclusive of fertilizers that it swept along

the way. This infected water makes its way to our water bodies and sometimes to the seas

endangering the flora, fauna and humans that use it along its path.

Air pollution

The air we breathe has a very exact chemical composition; 99 percent of it is made up of nitrogen,

oxygen, water vapor and inert gases. Air pollution occurs when things that aren’t normally there are

added to the air. A common type of air pollution happens when people release particles into the air

from burning fuels. This pollution looks like soot, containing millions of tiny particles, floating in the air.

Another common type of air pollution is dangerous gases, such as sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide,

nitrogen oxides and chemical vapors. These can take part in further chemical reactions once they are in

the atmosphere, creating acid rain and smog. Other sources of air pollution can come from within

buildings, such as secondhand smoke.

Finally, air pollution can take the form of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide,

which are warming the planet through the greenhouse effect. According to the EPA, the greenhouse

effect is when gases absorb the infrared radiation that is released from the Earth, preventing the heat

from escaping. This is a natural process that keeps our atmosphere warm. If too many gasses are

introduced into the atmosphere, though, more heat is trapped and this can make the planet artificially

warm, according to Columbia University.

TYPES OF AIR POLLUTION

Smog:The first type of the air pollution is the smog. It is defined as when the smoke present in the

atmosphere after emitting from different sources is combined with the fog present in the air, a mixture

formed that is referred to as smog. Basically different types of factories or the industries are responsible

for the formation of the smog. when the industries do their production from different materials, they

can use different types of chemicals for the cleaning, refining or some kind of production processes, as a

result these chemicals can produce different types of toxic materials that can emits in the form of the

smoke from the chimney of the factory and form a bond of with the fog and cause different harmful

diseases. Living in the smog is equal to the living with smokers; it can cause serious respiratory diseases.

Green House Effect:Another type of the air pollution is the green house effect. It is that type of air

pollution that is formed due to the contamination of several important gases with the air. it is

characterized when the gases called as green house gases when move upward and combine with the

atmosphere and then return back to the earth and destroy different types of things such as crops,

plants, human lives, livestock etc. These gases are basically six in number and they are; methane,

sulphur, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen and ozone. Basically the pollution is raised due to the

burning of fossil fuel. it is very harmful for the human skin and can also cause some kind of cancer.

Accidental air Pollution: It is the type of pollution that is characterized due to the causes that are

accidentally in nature. Commonly it is defined as the type of air pollution that is generated due to the

different types of fuel consumption by the vehicles or when the forest are burnt different types of gases

are evolved that are mixed with the air and pollute the air. Some times this pollution is also spread due

to the plant leakage or different types of blasts in the furnaces of the manufacturing plants.

Industrial Air Pollution: Another type of air pollution that pollutes the environment as a result of the

industrial processes is called as industrial pollution. Commonly it is characterized due to the working of

the thermal plants and also the different plants that are used to manufacture different types of

fertilizers or pesticides. The reactions that are used to produce different types of building material such

as cement or steel etc also encourage the production or toxic materials for producing air pollution. On

the whole the air pollution due to the industrial wastes is called as industrial air pollution. Different type

of atomic units also contributes in that type of pollution.

Transport Related Air Pollution:It is that type of air pollution that is characterized due to the smoke

emitting by different types of vehicles used for transportation. As fuel such as petrol or diesel burnt in

the engine can emit different types of poisonous gases in the form of smoke. This pollution can cause

different types of harmful diseases.

AIR POLLUTANTS, TYPES AND CLASSIFICATION

Air pollutants come in the form of gases and finely divided solid and liquid aerosols.Aerosols are loosely

defined as “any solid or liquid particles suspended in the air”.Air pollutants can also be of primary or

secondary nature.Primary air pollutants are the ones that are emitted directly into the atmosphere by

the sources (such as power-generating plants).Secondary air pollutants are the ones that are formed as

a result of reactions between primary pollutants and other elements in the atmosphere, such as

ozone.Possibly one of the most important characteristics of air pollutants is their transboundary nature -

they can easily travel and affect the areas far away from their points of origination.

GASEOUS AIR POLLUTANTS

Renowned author Jeremy Colls identifies the following three main types of gaseous air pollutants:

1.Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

2.Oxides of nitrogen (NOx = NO + NO2)

3.Ozone (O3)

Sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide (NO) are the primary air pollutants, and ozone is a secondary pollutant

(though there are negligible direct emissions of the gas itself).

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is both a primary and secondary air pollutant.

Other important gaseous pollutants are: ammonia, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide is a colorless gas with a pungent, suffocating odor. It is a dangerous air pollutant because

it is corrosive to organic materials and it irritates the eyes, nose and lungs.

Anthropogenic Sources of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

Sulfur is contained within all fossil fuels, and is released in the form of sulfur dioxide (SO2) during fossil

fuel combustion. Fossil fuel combustion accounts for almost all anthropogenic (human-caused) sulfur

emissions.

Sulfur contents in fossil fuels range between 0.1% and 4% in oil, oil by-products and coal, and up to 40%

in natural gas (when immediately extracted from the well; however, the sulfur is efficiently removed

during the processing of gas before distribution ; therefore, combustion of natural gas is not a major

source of sulfur emissions.

Below is a breakdown of all the significant sources of sulfur dioxide emissions

Energy Production

1.Electric power generation

2.Petroleum refining

3.Other combustion

Commercial and residential use

Combustion for industry use

Production processes

Extraction and distribution of fossil fuels

Transport

1.Road transport

2.Other Transport (such as aviation, ships, trains).

Currently, the most important sources of sulfur dioxide emissions (as a result of fossil fuel combustion)

are electric power generating plants.

The biggest sulfur dioxide emitters: US, China and Russia.

In fact, you may be surprised to learn that just one Siberian city in Russia – Norilsk – produces 1% of the

total global emissions of sulfur dioxide. In 2007, Norilsk was considered to be one of the most polluted

places on Earth.

Natural Sources of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions

There are also significant sulfur emissions generated by natural sources.

The main natural sulfur emissions come in the reduced forms of sulfur compounds such as:

1.hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

2.carbon disulfide (CS2)

3.carbonyl sulfide (COS)

In organic forms:

1.methyl mercaptan (CH3SH)

2.dimethyl sulfide (DMS) (CH3SCH3)

3.dimethyl disulfide (DMDS) (CH3SSCH3)

Most of these compounds get oxidized to sulfur dioxide or to sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere.

Marine phytoplankton produce dimethyl sulfide (DMS) which is then oxidized to SO2 in the atmosphere;

decay processes in soil and vegetation produce H2S (as one of sulfur compounds); and SO2 is emitted

into the atmosphere by volcanoes.Around 90% of all natural sulfur emissions come in the form of

DMS.Most recently the natural sources have been by far surpassed by anthropogenic sources. Natural

sources have been estimated to produce around 24% of all sulfur dioxide emissions, whereas

human-caused emissions made up around 76%.

AIR POLLUTION IN INDIA

Air pollution is the fifth leading cause of death in India after high blood pressure, indoor air pollution,

tobacco smoking and poor nutrition, with about 620,000 premature deaths occurring from air

pollution-related diseases. Like China, India faces an unprecedented public health crisis due to air

pollution, the Centre for Science and Environment's (CSE) analysis of government data and the Global

Burden of Disease report's data on India has shown. The green think tank released its own assessment

and the global study's India specific data on Wednesday warning that the number of premature deaths

due to air pollution had increased six fold over the last 10 years. Air pollution is now the seventh leading

cause behind the loss of about 18 million healthy years of life in India due to illness. It comes after

indoor air pollution, tobacco smoking, high blood pressure, childhood underweight, low nutritional

status, and alcohol use. CSE's own assessment of the air pollution data generated by the government

painted the grim facts that are leading to the public health crisis. "Close to half of cities are reeling under

severe particulate pollution while newer pollutants like nitrogen oxides, ozone and- air toxics are

worsening the public health challenge," CSE estimates say. Half of the urban population breathes air

laced with particulate pollution that has exceeded the safety standards. As much as one third of urban

population is exposed to critical level of particulate pollution. Smaller cities are among the most polluted

in the country. The data is a damning indictment of India's supposed growing urban regions. Out of the

180 cities that are monitored for only two towns — Malapuram and Pathanamthitta — in Kerala meet

the low pollution norms (pollution levels remaining at 50% below the standard) for all pollutants. About

78% cities (141 cities) exceed the standard set or particulate matter of size below 10 microns (PM10).

As many as 90 cities have critical levels of PM10 and of this, 26 cities have most critical levels of PM10,

exceed the standard by more than 3 times. Gwalior, West Singbhum, Ghaziabad, Raipur, and Delhi are

top five critically polluted cities. The data analysis shows the situation is only getting worse with time.

"The PM10 monitoring network has doubled between 2005 and 2010 - it has increased from 96 to 180

cities. During this period the cities with low level of pollution has fallen from 10 to 2 and the number of

critically polluted cities have increased from 49 to 89 cities. In 2005 about 75% of cities exceeded the

standard. In 2010, a total of 78% of cities are exceeding the standard," CSE said. Warning that vehicular

pollution will continue to be the most important reason for concern in coming years as cities grow and

get more densely populated, CSE has advocated that the National Ambient Air Quality Standards should

be made legally binding. It has criticized the new Auto Fuel Policy Committee that is to set the

benchmarks for up to 2025 for fuel quality used by vehicles. It has warned that the committee is not

mandated to link the fuel standards to air pollution levels and keep public health as a parameter when

setting the schedule for improvement in technology.

(TIMES OF INDIA)

Noise pollution

Even though humans can’t see or smell noise pollution, it still affects the environment. Noise pollution

happens when the sound coming from planes, industry or other sources reaches harmful levels.

Research has shown direct links between noise and health, including stress-related illnesses, high blood

pressure, speech interference and hearing loss. For example, a study by the WHO Noise Environmental

Burden on Disease working group found that noise pollution may contribute to hundreds of thousands

of deaths per year by increasing the rates of coronary heart disease. Underwater noise pollution coming

from ships has been shown to upset whales’ navigation systems and kill other species that depend on

the natural underwater world. Noise also makes wild species communicate louder, which can shorten

their lifespan.

Light pollution

Most people can't imagine living without the modern convenience of electric lights. For the natural

world, though, lights have changed the way that days and nights work. Some consequences of light

pollution are:

Some birds sing at unnatural hours in the presence of artificial light.

Scientists have determined that long artificial days can affect migration schedules, as they allow for

longer feeding times.

Streetlights can confuse newly hatched sea turtles that rely on starlight reflecting off the waves to guide

them from the beach to the ocean. They often head in the wrong direction.

Light pollution, called sky glow, also makes it difficult for astronomers, both professional and amateur,

to properly see the stars.

Plant's flowering and developmental patterns can be entirely disrupted by artificial light.

According to a study by the American Geophysical Union, light pollution could also be making smog

worse by destroying nitrate radicals that helps the dispersion of smog.

Turning on so many lights may not be necessary. Research published by International Journal of Science

and Research estimates that over-illumination wastes about 2 million barrels of oil per day and lighting

is responsible for one-fourth of all energy consumption worldwide.

Effects Of Air Pollution

Mortality and Morbidity

The

harmful effects of air pollution on human health have been recognized for centuries. It is estimated, that

globally 8,000 people die every day from diseases related to air pollution exposure. Each year 60,000

deaths in the United States and 500,000 deaths in China occur due to air pollution. Several

epidemiological studies have established a direct relationship between the pollutants and health

hazards ranging from morbidity (illness) to mortality (death from illness).

Excess mortality:

The London fog incident in 1952 conclusively established an association between air pollution

and increased mortality (Logan, 1952). Since then, several epidemiological studies in the USA

and Europe have established a clear relationship between air pollution exposure and excess

mortality. Air pollution is associated with increased risk of acute respiratory infections, the

principal cause of infant and child mortality in developing countries. Each 10μg/m3 increase in

annual average PM2.5 level may lead to 4%, 6% and 8% rise in the risk of all-cause,

cardio-pulmonary, and lung cancer mortally respectively. An increase in PM10 by 10μg/m3 has

been reported to cause 0.76% excess deaths from cardiovascular causes and 0.58% excess

mortality from respiratory diseases.

Particulates and health impact:

Mortality and morbidity associated with air pollution are primarily due to the toxic effects of

particulates. Associations have also been reported with gaseous air pollutants viz. ozone,

nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. Compared with particulates, however,

the relationship between gaseous pollutants and mortality is less

consistent.

Direct relationship between death air pollution level:

Dockery and his co-workers (1993) showed an association between mortality rates and PM10

levels not only from lung cancer but also from cardio-pulmonary diseases. They estimated 3.4%

excess deaths from respiratory diseases and 1.4% from cardiovascular diseases for every

10μg/m3 increase of PM10. The overall increase in mortality was calculated as 1% for every

10μg/m3 rise in

Most deaths are from heart diseases:

The association between air pollution exposure and adverse health outcome has been

summarized by Dockery (2001). He noted that although the relative risk for effects of particles is

greater for respiratory than for cardiovascular deaths, the actual number of deaths are greater

for cardiovascular than for respiratory causes.

Increased morbidity:

Besides mortality, air pollution could initiate and/or aggravate several diseases. Excess

morbidity is often reflected in absenteeism from school and work, restricted activity spent at

home, more attendance to outpatient medical services; emergency visits to clinics and

hospitalization. Air pollution-related pulmonary diseases for which hospital admissions are

usually required are acute bronchitis, pneumonia, emphysema, bronchiectasis, chronic airway

obstruction and attacks of asthma. Besides lung diseases, air pollution is significantly associated

with cardio-vascular diseases.

Air pollution and rise in the prevalence of respiratory

symptoms:

Symptoms are a form of signals that act as an indicator of any underlying illness or disease.

Epidemiological studies on respiratory and mental health are generally based on collection of data on

the prevalence of respiratory and neurobehavioral symptoms to get an estimate of the disease.

Allergic rhinitis:

It is an inflammation of the membrane lining the nose and throat due to allergic reaction. The

presence of rhinitis is indicated by itchy sensation in the nose, frequent sneezing, watery eyes,

and running nose. The symptoms are commonly found following exposure to high level of

particulate air pollution and benzene. Diesel exhaust particle have been identified as the major

contributing factor to allergy.

Sore throat:

If the function of muco-ciliary escalator is impaired by high pollution exposure, the mucous is

not cleared from the airways. The retained mucous traps inhaled pathogens resulting in damage

to the airways, thickening and scarring of epithelium leading to fibrosis. This is associated by

sore throat, an indicator of pharyngitis and tonsillitis, and respiratory or right heart failure.

Chronic cough, bronchitis, sinusitis:

Cough is an important symptom frequently reported following exposures to air pollution. It is

a reflex response to irritation from mucous or any foreign particle in the upper respiratory tract.

When cough is accompanied by production of sputum it is termed productive or wet cough,

whereas cough without sputum is known as dry cough. Cough may be caused by inflammation

of the upper airways as a result of viral infections like common cold and influenza. Severe cough

may indicate damage to the lungs caused by inflammation associated with pneumonia and

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is often indicated by morning cough

producing sputum, frequent chest infection, especially during winter producing yellow or green

sputum, wheezing particularly after cough, and shortness of breath even after mild exertion.

Chest tightness, dyspnoea:

These symptoms along with rhinitis, nose and throat irritation and lung function abnormalities

have been observed in workers from a shoe manufacturing plant in Croatia where benzene level

was higher than allowable limit. High prevalence of cough with phlegm and rhinitis were

recorded among traffic policemen in Bangkok. Similarly high vehicle traffic resulted in asthma,

cough and wheeze in children who were additionally exposed to environmental tobacco smoke

in Germany.

Bronchial asthma:

It results from intermittent narrowing of the airways and consequent shortness of breath. Its

early symptoms are wheezing, tightening of chest, shortness of breath, difficulty in exhaling and

dry persistent cough. Although asthma is genetically controlled, exposure to air pollution can

increase the risk of asthma attacks. A strong association between severe asthma symptoms and

breath concentration of benzene has been demonstrated in children. Asthma and

bronchoconstriction have been linked to cumulative exposures to exhaust from diesel-fuelled

engines and occupational exposures to VOCs.

Lung function impairment:

Breathing and gas exchange is achieved by the lungs, chest wall, diaphragm, central nervous

system and the pulmonary circulation acting in concert. Pollutants from vehicular exhaust could

reach deep inside the lungs and result in the destruction of the alveoli or the proximal airways

resulting in the malfunctioning of any of the components, thereby hampering the balance. There

are two major patterns of abnormal lung function, namely restrictive and obstructive lung

function.

Pulmonary function can be affected by several factors including genetic predisposition, weather,

season, the time of the day, the basic respiratory health of the subject, smoking status, allergens

and air pollution [Schoenberg et al., 1978]. Lung function is a very important indicator of the

adverse effects of air pollution on the lungs since impaired lung function has been identified as

an independent risk factor for morbidity and mortality from heart diseases.

Systematic Effects of Air pollution:

Cardiovascular changes:

There are reports that indicate air pollution may affect blood pressure. Indeed, high blood

pressure (hypertension) is common among persons cumulatively exposed to high level of air

pollution. Hypertension is defined as systolic blood pressure at least 140 mm Hg, diastolic blood

pressure at least 90 mm Hg, or both. Elevated plasma viscosity, increased heart rate (>80

beats/min), reduced heart rate variability, and increased risk of arterial hypertension have been

reported in association with chronic air pollution exposure. Increase in heart rate in response to

air pollution has been shown to be most marked in individuals who have high blood viscosity.

Hypertension is one of the predictors of cardiovascular mortality with relative risk of up to 2.0 or

more

Air pollution exposure and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are intimately related, and it is a

growing concern worldwide. CVD associated with air pollution are angina, cardiac insufficiency,

hypertension and myocardial infarction (MI) i.e. heart attack. Studies conducted from the late

nineties have consistently shown that PM10 is associated with overall hospital admissions for

CVD. Air pollution has been associated with sudden death in patients with stable angina and

myocardial infarction. This makes CVDs the most prominent cause of death from air pollution

exposure. A study in Delhi, reported a higher risk of CVD and deaths at a younger age

compared to places with lesser pollution.

Hematotoxicity of air pollution:

Air pollution exposure is associated with a multitude of haematological alterations.

Neutrophilia:

DEP is a potent stimulus for release of neutrophils from the bone marrow and the transit from

blood to the airway tissues. Acute exposure to ambient particles accelerates the transit of PMN

from marrow to the circulation, whereas chronic exposure expands the size of the bone marrow

pool of PMN. The transit of neutrophils and other inflammatory cells from the blood into tissue

occurs in a highly regulated manner involving sequential upregulation of several adhesion

molecules on the endothelial cells and their respective ligands in the leucocytes, along with

release of chemoattractant from the epithelial and inflammatory cells. Moreover, chronic low

dose exposure to air pollution with intermittent acute high-dose exposures may elicit a response

that is different from acute response.

Altered platelet count:

Exposure to DEP has been associated with markedly elevated platelet number in peripheral

blood, i.e. thrombocytosis. Thrombocytosis has been described as an acute phase reaction

and has been linked to a range of inflammatory lung disorders. Thrombocytosis, especially in

elderly people compromised with cardiovascular function, may increase their risk of

developing strokes and coronary vessel thrombosis, thereby increasing cardiovascular

mortality and morbidity. An increased mean platelet volume is an indicator of larger and more

reactive platelets, and persons with these changes are at higher risk of myocardial infarction.

Hematotoxicity of benzene:

Volatile organic compounds (benzene, toluene and xylene) are haematotoxic, and exposures

to these pollutants are associated with higher prevalence of haematological abnormalities like

alterations in WBC, RBC and platelet count in children. Rapidly proliferating stem cells in the

bone marrow are most vulnerable to benzene toxicity. Benzene cause bone marrow

suppression, decreased erythrocyte, haemoglobin and haematocrit levels leading to anaemia,

suppression of WBC counts (leukopenia), and reduction in platelet number

(thrombocytopenia). Suppression of all three elements (RBC, WBC and platelets) is called

pancytopenia. Benzene exposure often leads to pancytopenia. Pancytopenia accompanied

by necrosis of the bone marrow, is diagnostic of aplastic anaemia caused by benzene. Bone

marrow dysplasia including dyserythropoiesis, eosinophilic dysplasia and abnormal

cytoplasmic granulation of neutrophilic precursors have been reported following occupational

benzene exposure.

Immunotoxicity of air pollution:

Small number of T-lymphocyte resides in the bronchial tissue of normal subjects: CD4+ cells

predominate in the submucosa and CD8+ cells in the epithelial. Following DEP exposure among

human volunteers, T-lymphocytes, mostly CD4+ cells, infiltrate the submucosa and bronchial

epithelium. The number of B lymphocytes in the bronchial tissue did not change, but their

numbers increased in the Broncho alveolar lavage fluid with a corresponding decrease in the

blood, suggesting trafficking of circulating B-cells to the bronchial lumen following DEP

exposure.

In recent decades, increased prevalence of allergic conditions has been observed in developed

countries. Although lifestyle, exposure to infection, and diet are important confounders, a

strong link between industrialization and allergy has been established. The underlying

mechanisms of hypersensitivity involved pollutant mediated stimulation of interleukin-5

production, immunoglobulin-E synthesis, eosinophil recruitment and bronchial hyperactivity.

Reproductive toxicity:

Particulate matter can significantly increase the adverse reproductive outcomes in both males

and females. Studies show relatively low level of air pollution (higher than 40 µg PM10/m3)

result in intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR) in the first gestational month in females and YY8

disomy in the sperms. Exposures to ambient air pollutants have also been associated with

adverse birth outcomes. Investigation for the effects of air pollutants on birth weight mediated

by reduced fatal growth among term infants who were born in California showed Ozone

exposure during the second and third trimesters and CO exposure during the first trimester

were associated with reduced birth weight and an increase of IUGR.

Air pollutants viz. benzene exerts toxic effects on mammalian foetuses. Disruption of embryonic

development following exposure of pregnant women to aromatic hydrocarbons is well

recognized. Benzene exposure induces a decrease in mean gestational age. Exposures to low

level of benzene in work places interrupt the function of hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis and

affect normal levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), pregnandiol-3-glucuronide (PgD) and

oestrone conjugate (EIC) with shortened luteal phase in female workers. Benzene has been

detected above the maximum allowable concentration in semen of workers exposed to organic

solvents, and the change has been attributed to abnormal pregnancy outcome among wives of

the benzene-exposed workers.

Neurotoxicity:

Besides physical health, air pollution exposure may lead to impairment of mental health,

because toxic effects of particulate matters on central and peripheral nervous system has been

reported. Difficulties with recall, response, concentration, and sleep disorders suggest central

nervous system impairment due to vehicular emission. Benzene produced discrete changes in

norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) turnover in certain areas of the hypothalamus. Tyrosine

hydroxylase is the key enzyme for biosynthesis of catecholamine and the hypothalamus is one of

the major association centres in the central nervous system. Inhalation of benzene in high doses

(>500 ppm) affects the functions of all these centres at an inhalation.

DEP selectively damages dopamine neurons through the phagocytic activation of microglial

NADPH oxidase and consequent oxidative insult. Several environmental toxicants promote or

interfere with neurotransmitter function and evoke neurodevelopmental abnormalities by

disrupting the timing or intensity of neurotrophic actions. This developmental neurotoxicity

extends to late phases of brain maturation including adolescence.

Genotoxic effects of air pollution:

Besides affecting the respiratory system, exposure to vehicular emission may cause genetic

changes as long-term adverse health effect. Urban atmospheres contain complex mixtures of air

pollutants including mutagenic and carcinogenic substances such as benzene, diesel soot, heavy

metals and PAHs. Different chemical agents or their metabolites may cause DNA strand breaks,

impairment of DNA repair system, dysregulation of cell cycle and induction of programmed cell

death i.e. apoptosis. DNA strand break usually occurs when reactive oxygen species interact

with DNA. Diesel exhaust particles, urban particulate cause DNA damage.

Chromosomal aberration and sister chromatid exchange have been reported following in vitro

exposure of benzene metabolites to bovine lymphocytes. In human the loss or gain of a whole

chromosome (aneuploidy) is common in the development of leukaemia and other cancers.

Chromosome 5 and 7 are highly sensitive to loss (monosomy) following hydroquinone and

benzenetriol exposure in vitro whereas chromosomes 8 and 21 are highly sensitive to gain

(trisomy).

Air pollution and cancer incidence:

There are a large number of carcinogens present in automobile exhausts, industrial and

household emissions. For example, cigarette smoke contains nearly 4,200 chemicals and 44 of

these chemicals are carcinogenic. The most important environmental carcinogens are benzene

and benzo-pyrene. Benzene is a Class 1 carcinogen (confirmed human carcinogen) while

benzo-pyrene and diesel exhaust particles belong to Class 2A (probably carcinogenic to humans)

human carcinogens. The association between chronic benzene exposure and development of

human leukaemia has been established by epidemiological and case studies (IARC 1982), most

of which have dealt with industrial exposures. Of the two major classes of leukaemia (myeloid

and lymphoid), the most consistent evidence for causal relationship in humans has been found

between benzene exposure and myeloid leukaemia.

Carcinogenicity of benzene results from its cellular metabolism. It is particularly carcinogenic to

the hematopoietic system. Chronic exposure to benzene results in progressive decline of

hematopoietic function inducing leukaemia, aplastic anaemia and myelodysplastic syndromes.

Damage to macromolecules resulting from benzene metabolites and disrepair of DNA lesions

may lead to changes in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) that give rise to leukemic clones.

Cumulative benzene exposures are strongly associated with acute myeloid leukaemia and to a

lesser extent with acute and chronic lymphocytic leukaemia. It affects the bone marrow through

the action of its highly reactive metabolites, especially p-benzoquinone.

Additive and synergistic effects of airborne pollutants

Following inhalation, air pollutants act on the target tissues in unison rather than individually. The

pollutants may also react with each other and some of the compounds generated in the process may be

more toxic than the primary pollutants.

The additive or cumulative response to a mixture is the sum of the effects induced by the individual

components of the mixture. Conceptually, the additive effect occurs only when the action of each

pollutant is independent. When a pollutant does not elicit a response when acting alone but increases

the effect of another co-occurring pollutant, the effect is called potentiation. Synergism refers to any

combination of action in which the result is more than which would be attained if the actions were

entirely independent of each other. In other words, in a synergistic process the whole is greater than the

sum of its parts. As for example smoking and exposure to vehicular emission or air pollution result in a

greatly increased probability of lung cancer compared to the risk of either smoking or asbestos exposure

alone.

Human exposure to complex mixtures of air pollutants is a challenge to the toxicologists and

epidemiologists because of the enormous range of variations and confounding factors making exposure

assessment, study design and data interpretation difficult. Therefore, it is debatable whether the

observed changes in human subjects could be attributed to benzene alone. To explore these points’

parallel experiments need to be conducted in experimental animals under controlled laboratory

conditions where the animals are exposed to measured doses of benzene in drinking water and also

inhalation. Comparing the health response following controlled benzene exposure to those obtained

from vehicular emission exposed population, can give an insight into the possible health effects of

benzene from vehicular emission.

Economic valuation of the health impacts due to air pollution

(ECONOMIC COSTS OF AIR POLLUTION WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO INDIA

KSENIYA LVOVSKY

SOUTH ASIA ENVIRONMENT UNIT

WORLD BANK1

Prepared for the National Conference on Health and Environment Delhi,

India, July 7-9, 1998)

Valuation of a statistical life: general approaches and challenges. Everyday individual

actions in which people trade money against a small reduction in personal safety can be used to infer

the value of a statistical life (VOSL). This is not the same as valuing an actual life, and should not be

interpreted as such. Instead it involves valuing ex-ante changes in the level of risk people face and

then aggregating them. Since the exact identity of those at risk is unknown, valuing ex-ante changes

in the level of risk is the appropriate policy context.

The literature on the VOSL, or Willingness-To-Pay (WTP) to avoid a statistical premature death, is relatively

well-developed and there exist several analyses in which the empirical estimates, mainly from the US, are

reviewed, such as Fisher et al. (1989), Miller (1990), Viscusi (1992, 1993) and TER (1995). The two most

complete surveys of the existing literature suggested a mean VOSL of US$ 3.6 million (IEI, 1992) to US$ 4.8

million (US EPA, 1997) in 1990 dollars.

There is also a substantial literature on the valuation of life that relies on so-called ‘Human Capital’ approach.

Human capital is the present value of future labor income. The human capital and the WTP approach are not

entirely unconnected. More specifically, theory shows that human capital provides a lower bound to WTP (see

for example, Cropper and Sussman, 1990). However, the 'consumer surplus' from living can be shown to

exceed human capital by manytimes (compare the human capital mortality cost estimates in Table A.3

in Annex with the WTP estimates of US$ 3.6 - 4.8 million). Seemingly straightforward, the

application of human capital approach to developing countries can still be problematical due to

distorted wages, cross-subsidization of public services, difficulties with valuing various homemaking

services, high unemployment rates, etc. Given the wide disparity between the two measures it is

preferable to concentrate on the task of transferring the WTP estimates into the context of lives-lost

through poor air quality in countries with different income levels.

Attempting to stay on the conservative side within a range of reasonable estimates, this paper uses

the lower value of US$ 3.6 million for the US WTP to avoid a statistical premature death. This value,

however, can and should be only used as the basis for initiating the benefit transfer process which

involves a series of adjustments that are described below.

There are several uncertainties which complicate the transfer of available WTP estimates into the

context of premature deaths caused by air pollution in developing countries. A set of problems stem

from the fact that the existing results refer almost exclusively to lives lost as a result of accidents at

work rather than air pollution. More specifically, it is argued that remaining life-years of those who

die in occupational accidents is much greater than those who die as a result of poor air quality.

Further it is argued that those who are most at risk are already suffering from some underlying

condition that may affect the values to ba attached their lives. It is also argued that the contextual

effects are important and finally there is the issue of latency to consider. Finally (and most

importantly in quantitative terms), income levels differ greatly between the surveyed populations and

the 'target' populations of the developing countries that requires a significant adjustment in the

US-based VOSL. Since the assumed VOSL determines the damage cost estimates which emerge

from air pollution studies, these issues should be carefully interpreted in the approaches adopted to

placing a monetary value on the health outcomes of exposure to air pollution.

Age effects, underlying health conditions and social costs. If age effects are important in determining

VOSL and if the age profile of respondents to VOSL questionnaires does not match the age profile of those at

risk from poor air quality, then the effect of applying these VOSL estimates to the air pollution context will

introduce a bias. Labor market studies, upon which the VOSL estimates are usually drawn, measure

compensation for risk of instaneous death for people of about 40 years old and thus value approximately 35

years of life (Viscusi, 1993). The study of Philadelphia in the US found that the excess mortality due to air

pollution almost entirely falls on the age group of 65 and older (Schwartz and Dockery, 1992b), and other

studies that utilize age-specific mortality (except for Cropper et al., 1997) indicate that the vast majority of

deaths related to higher concentrations of particulates occur in the over-65 age category (Fairley, 1990;

Saldiva, 1992; Ostro et al., 1996; Sunyer et al. 1996). Because death from air pollution reduces life-years by

less than 35 years on average, the question is how a difference in age distribution of those involved in WTP

studies and those primarily affected by pollution should change the respective estimate of VOSL.

A possible approach was outlined by Moore and Viscusi (1988) who present a study of risk in the context of

the labor market, in which one of the explanatory variables is not the risk of death but the expected loss of

discounted life years. Comparison, for example, of the remaining years of life for the average respondent of

labor market studies and the average person from the age group ofover 65 in the USA (35 and 10 years

lost, respectively) at a 10% discount rate gives an adjustment factor of 0.64.

A particular benefit of this approach for the purposes of our analysis is that it addresses a concern regarding the

uncertainty of transferring the results of dose-response studies into a different context, highlighted by the

Cropper et al. (1997) study of air pollution in Delhi. The study found that, though mortality risk due to

exposure to particulates (measured as TSP) in Delhi considerably lower than in the US, the respective number

of life years lost is similar to that in the US. This result is not merely coincidental - a greater number of

life-years lost per an average death from air pollution occurs precisely due to the same age distribution of

deaths and major mortality causes that may account for a lower air pollution-related mortality risk for the

entire population. Thus, the use of the central estimate from PM10-based mortality studies, as suggested in the

previous section, in combination with the VOSL adjusted for a number of life years lost will result in a more

robust assessment of the mortality costs in cases like Delhi.

What is further important and advocated in this paper, is the need for aligning the economic

approaches to valuing sickness and premature death with the concept of Disability-Adjusted Life

Years (DALYs). DALYs are a standard measure of the burden of disease (WDR 1993; Murray and

Lopez, 1996) that combines life years lost due to premature death and fractions of years of healthy

life lost as a result of illness or disability. A weighting function that incorporates discounting is used

for years of life lost at each age to reflect the different social weights that are usually given to the

illness and premature mortality at different ages. Thus, it is possible to link the VOSL obtained from

labor market studies with the corresponding number of DALYs lost in order to estimate the implicit

value per DALY, and then to adjust the respective VOSL according to an average number of DALYs

lost in air pollution studies (as well as in any other specific study).

According to the age distribution of DALYs, the VOSL from US labor market studies that represent

people of around 40 years old corresponds to 22 DALYs lost while an average death of 65 year old

(assumed to be a mean age of those fatally affected by particulates) corresponds approximately to 10

DALYs lost. This implies that a value per DALY in the US is $ 164,000 and the WTP to avoid a

premature death due to air pollution should be scaled down to 45 percent (=10/22) of the mean

VOSL, or a value of US$ 1.6 million. This is a far greater adjustment as opposed to 64 percent based

on a simple discounting of life years lost at 10% rate. The reasons for such difference are: (a) in

using a much lower discount rate while calculating DALYs; (b) in the different social values

assigned to a year of life at different ages; and (c) in the different weights given to the healthy years

and years lived with disability, whose portion in the total years lost due to premature death increases

at older ages. The incorporation of the latter factor in the DALY measure is important because it

addresses another issue in the debate over the relationship between the mean VOSL and the value of

an average death caused by air pollution; namely, the WTP of the chronically sick.

It is widely believed that those who succumb to the effects of poor air quality are likely to be suffering from

some underlying health condition and that a number of acute deaths from exposure to particulates merely

represent the “harvesting effect”. From the perspective of our approach to adjusting the mean VOSL, the issue

of underlying health conditions translates into the question of whether people who die from air pollution

causes have more severe disabilities (across all healthstates) than other people from the same age group

(65+ for rich countries) and, thus, whether the number of DALYs lost associated with such a death

would be smaller than for an average death from this age group. Unfortunately, there is no

information for a definite answer; however, the difference is unlikely to be near as substantial as for

the mean VOSL.

Contextual effects, latency effects, and the valuation of changes in life expectancy.

It is generally accepted that the value that individuals place on the avoidance of risk depends upon the nature

of the risk. Current VOSL estimates do not account satisfactorily for the characteristics of different risks.

Moreover most if not all estimates are calculated in the context of the job or transport related risks, so these

differences should certainly be considered when trying to transfer existing value of life estimates to

environmental policy analyses. One major difference between risks posed by air pollution and risks posed by

traffic or occupational accidents is that the former are involuntary. Increases in controllable risks are likely to

prompt greater avertive activity; thus, reducing the exposure of the individual up to the point where the

additional costs of the avertive behavior equal the expected benefits at the margin. This explains why an

increase in controllable risks may be valued less than uncontrollable risks. The extent to which this

under-values the cost of air pollution is uncertain.

Another important characteristic of air pollution is that it often presents latent rather than contemporaneous

risks. Cropper and Sussman (1990) convincingly demonstrate that the willingness to pay for a reduction in

future risks are to be discounted at the consumption rate of interest. An additional complexity, however, is that

it may be difficult to separate out issues relating to the quantity of life from those relating to the quality of life

for latent risks. Individuals may experience several years of pain before they die. Considering the pain and

suffering of a prolonged terminal illness one might expect that the WTP to reduce these sorts of risks would be

rather greater than to reduce risks of a death following an automobile accident.

This issue of latency has particular importance to air pollution studies when one considers the findings

reviewed in the previous section that the majority of premature deaths from particulate concentrations were

from chronic rather than acute disorders. The prevalence of latent effects of exposure to particulates over acute

effects as revealed by chronic exposure studies along with the controversy of valuing “harvested” deaths from

the acute exposure studies has led to a search for another approach to measure the impact of air pollution on

human health and mortality risk. Such an approach can be seen in quantifying and valuing changes in life

expectancy of the exposed population caused by variations in the air quality. This approach deals with both

chronic effects and the "harvesting" effect by making comparisons between the average life expectancy of

individuals exposed to different concentrations of particulates over a long term.

The life expectancy approach involves (Thurston et al., 1997): (a) estimating the change in life

expectancy by age group implied by the change in ambient particulates; (b) establishing a WTP for

the change in life expectancy by age group; and (c) multiplying these two values with each other and

by the population in each age group, and adding up. The major problem here is the lack of empirical

evidence regarding a WTP for an increase in life expectancy. Currently, only one study (Johannesson

and Johansson, 1996) conducted a contingent valuation survey in respect to changes in life

expectancy, with a large number of uncertainties attached to it, so that an extensive further research

is needed.

Generally, the approach to valuing changes in life expectancy as a result of long-term exposure to

air pollution seems very promising, not only because it addresses the uncertainties of adjusting the

WTP to avoid contemporaneous risks at the prime age to the air pollution context, but also due to a

high political sensitivity of the VOSL concept. It may be more politically acceptable to explicitly

incorporate the value of a change in average life expectancy in the design of environmental policies

than the VOSL.

Valuation of acute morbidity effects. Air pollution also affects human morbidity, and the valuation of

illness and disability is very important to assessing the social costs of air pollution and cost-benefit analysis of

control measures. The literature on WTP to avoid the morbidity effects is very limited in scope and based

entirely within the United States. An alternative, often employed for valuing morbidity, is the Cost Of Illness

(COI) approach, which uses estimates of the economic costs of health care and lost output up to recovery or

death. These comprise the sum of direct costs (hospital treatment, medical care, drugs, and so on) and indirect

costs, which is the value of output lost, usually calculated as the wage rate multiplied by lost hours, and often

using an imputed wage for home services (see Cropper, 1982). Although the COI approach is often viewed as

easily applicable to any country, subsidized and/or inadequate medical services and drug supply in many

developing countries make it difficult to calculate the economic costs of health care. More importantly, COI

will underestimate WTP because it fails to account for the disutility of illness. Since the disutility of illness is

likely to be a major component of WTP, the COI approach cannot ever be entirely satisfactory. As a result,

most preceding work on valuing the health effects of air pollution uses a combination of the WTP approach

where estimates are available and the COI approach where it is not.

One approach that has emerged to deal with the paucity of WTP literature and the inadequacy of the COI

literature is to integrate the health-status index literature with the available WTP literature. The health-status

index literature attempts to measure individuals' perceptions of the Quality of Well-Being (QWB) on a cardinal

scale from 0 (death) to 1 (perfect health). Any health state can be evaluated by considering its impact upon

various symptoms, its effect upon social activity, physical activity and mobility, and its duration. By these

means, the conceptually appropriate WTP values can be obtained for each and every morbidity impact that has

been described in the health-status index literature and investigated in the air pollution literature, given the

established correlation between WTP values and QWB scores. In making such extrapolations, it is important to

distinguish between acute effects and chronic effects, because the very fact of irreversibility of a poor health

state adds a significant component to WTP for avoiding this health state, that will not be captured by WTP

estimates to avoid temporary acute disorders. This approach has been taken in a paper by TER (1996) and is

followed in this paper. Table A.2 in the Annex contains the adopted base valuation parameters. It should be

noted that the WTP estimates are consistent with and rather close to the COI estimates, available for some

morbidity outcomes.

Valuation of chronic bronchitis. Chronic bronchitis (CB) is the most severe morbidity endpoint, for

which the dose-relationship is established (Abbey et al, 1993), that may last from the beginning of the illness

through the rest of the individual’s life. Therefore, the valuation of this illness should be done separately from

the other morbidity effects, related to air pollution.

There are two studies that provide estimates of WTP to avoid chronic bronchitis, using the contingent

valuation analysis (Viscusi et al., 1991; and Krupnick and Cropper, 1992). Based onthese studies, the recent

US EPA review of the costs and benefits of cleaner air (USEPA, 1997) recommends the mean WTP of US $

260,000 (in 1990 dollars). This is regarded as a reasonable value relative to COI estimates for chronic

bronchitis, reported by Cropper and Krupnick, 1990. Specifically, the WTP estimate of US $ 260,000 is from

3.4 to 6.3 times the full COI estimates, depending on age (from 30 to 60 year old). It is, however, important to

keep consistency in a ratio between the VOSL and WTP to avoid a chronic illness. Since the US EPA 1997

report uses the VOSL of US $ 4.8 million while this study adopts a lower estimate of US $ 3.6 million, we

downsized the WTP to avoid a new case of CB accordingly and used the base value (before an adjustment for

income) of US $ 195,000 in our calculations.

Income effects. One of the fundamental issues of valuing the reductions in risk is that the

WTP rises with income. Given that the existing VOSL estimates are taken almost exclusively from

the US there is a clear need to adjust the VOSL for income effects before applying the results to

developing countries. The literature on the income elasticity of WTP for reducing the risk of insults

to health however is extremely limited. A simple average of the three available studies yields an

income elasticity of 0.7 (Jones-Lee et al., 1985; Biddle and Zarkin, 1988; Viscusi and Evans, 1990).

It is important to note, however, the acute sensitivity of the social costs of ill-health to the value of this

parameter. The difference in the income adjustment for India between the use of elasticity of 0.4 or 1.1 is

nearly 20 times. To maintain a degree of conservatism in this valuation exercise, a higher income elasticity of

1 for both the VOSL and morbidity cost estimates is used for all calculations in this paper. The finding that the

income elasticity of demand for medical goods and services is shown, by cross sectional analysis of per capita

expenditures in the 1980 International Comparisons Project, to be 1.05 lends support to this decision9.

Key messages and observations. The analysis of methodological issues highlights that future

work intended to reduce the uncertainty associated with the estimates of the economic costs due to

air pollution should focus on determining the values of morbidity and mortality impacts in India

and other developing countries. Alternatively, in many cases the aggregate measures like DALYs

that do not involve the direct costing of the health effects due to air pollution can be used for ranking

the priority areas and mitigation options.

An important observation from this review is an increasing convergence between the approaches to

assessing the burden of ill-health being devised by economists and public health specialists. This is

evident from both: (a) an attempt to combine the measure of DALYs with the age- and

context-specific VOSL; and (b) integration of the WTP to avoid illness with the health-status index.

This tendency should be strongly supported as it serves to promote a greater acceptance of the

aggregate measures of the burden of disease, provide for consistent assessmentof environmental

health priorities and unite public efforts to reduce the risk of exposure to environmental

hazards.

When different health end-points of air pollution exposure are brought to one denominator through

the valuation exercise, premature deaths account for about 40 percent of the health costs and various

illnesses provide for the larger 60 percent. Chronic bronchitis and acute respiratory symptoms are the

largest contributors to the economic costs, associated with morbidity. Chart 3 details the composition

of the air-pollution related health costs by cause as based on the assumptions of this analysis. This,

again, points to the need for more studies that would assess and value major morbidity outcomes.

A dominant share of the social costs of sickness in the total health damages due to air pollution can be used to

strengthen the dialog with policy makers, as it reduces the reliance on arguments that are surrounded by the

controversy of valuing a statistical life. Also, the portion of these costs that represents morbidity closer relates

to economic losses in productivity. If the costs of acute mortality together with one-fifth of the CB cost are

taken as a rough proxy for such losses, then the productivity impacts would be somewhat 40 percent of the

total health costs. For 12 largest Indian cities, it implies annual productivity losses at the magnitude of US $

800 million (with the total social costs of ill-health of US $ 2 billion per year).

5. Health impacts and priorities for pollution control: a case of Mumbai

Mumbai is one of the urban agglomerations in the six cities study, mentioned above, and this section will

discuss the results of the analysis for this city with a particular objective to illustrate how the assessment of

the health impacts can be used for setting pollution control priorities.

As part of the study, a special model has been developed that links these impacts to: (a) emissions from

various economic sectors or sources, and (b) fossil fuel use in each sector. The five most damaging fuels --

coal, fuel oil, diesel, gasoline, and wood -- were examined. The study was designed as a rapid cross-country

exercise and was intended to analyze the evidence for the six cities as a whole rather than the details for each

individual city. This should be kept in mind during the discussion of the results for Mumbai that follows. The

magnitude of damages in the absolute terms will be true only to the extent to which the assumed health effects

and economic values match the Mumbai conditions; however, the relative priorities across pollution sources

do not depend upon these assumptions (they depend, though, on the validity of the standardized dispersion

model and emission inventory, but not to the extent that may reverse the broad conclusions).

The total annual health damages from combustion of various fuels in Mumbai, based on 1992 inventory,

amounted to US $ 150 million. Table 3 shows the shares of three major groups of combustion sources in

these damages: vehicles; large power utilities and industries; and small boilers and stoves used by

small-scale industries, commerces and households, as well as details the sectoral composition of damages

for specific health effects.

Table 3. Mumbai: The health impacts of fuel use by a category of combustion sources

City All sources Power plants& Small Vehicles large boilers boilers&stoves

Cases: Premature death 2,140 175 1,442 523 Chronic bronchities 7,796 637 5,255 1,905 Respiratory symptoms day 34,036,340 2,780,621 22,940,122 8,315,598 Restricted activity day 10,694,478 873,692 7,207,962 2,612,824 Social costs, '000 US $: Premature death 71,601 5,849 48,258 17,493 Chronic bronchities 31,396 2,565 21,161 7,671 Respiratory symptoms 30,928 2,527 20,845 7,556 Restricted activity 11,706 956 7,889 2,860 Other effects 1,609 131 1,084 393 Total 147,240 12,029 99,238 35,973

per resident, US$/psn. 12 1 8 3 as a share of income, % 3% 0% 2% 1% a share by source, % 100% 8% 68% 24%

Source: Author’s calculations.

Turning back to a question of what type of a dose-response relationship for mortality risk should be used for

Mumbai - a meta-analytical estimate from a series of PM10 studies elsewhere or a value from the Delhi study,

it should be noted that the health impacts in Table 3 reflect only an increase in the levels of PM10 (30 ug/m3

annual agglomeration-wide average) that is attributed to the emissions from combustion of various fuels.

These are not the impacts of the overall exposure to the ambient levels of particulates which would be greater.

Because both the pollution mix from fuel burning and a corresponding range of PM10 concentrations

match very well the situations in industrial countries where most dose-response studies were undertaken,

the use of a meta-analytical estimate for the mortality effect is betterjustifiable, and in combination with

the DALY-adjusted VOSL should not bias the respective social costs.

The assessment shows that most of the health damages come from vehicles and small non-mobile sources. The

largest contribution from small boilers and stoves is due to a relatively wide use of highly polluting fuels, such

as wood, coal and heavy fuel oil. The cross-country analysis reveals two principal patterns of sectoral

composition of health and overall environmental damages from fuel use, illustrated by Chart 4. Where coal

and wood are widely used by small sources, these sources of air pollution typically account for the bulk of the

damages (further exacerbated by indoor air pollution from these fuels). Once households and small businesses

switch to cleaner and more convenient fuels, like LPG, kerosene, etc., which is usually coincides with an

increase in traffic volumes, transport becomes the major problem. Mumbai and many other India cities are

currently in transition from one pattern to another.

Chart 4. Two typical patterns of sectoral contribution to the

environmental costs of fuel use

100%

90%

80% Vehicles

70%

60% Small 50% furnaces

40% Large 30% boilers 20%

Power 10%

0%

Coal- Petroleum- dominated dominated

fuel use fuel use

Source: World Bank estimates. See Lvovsky et al., forthcoming

Priorities for air pollution control should focus on measures that provide largest benefits at a given

cost. Reduction in exposure and associated improvements in health constitute the major portion of

the environmental benefits. Table 4 indicates the relative magnitude of the health benefits that can be

achieved by various control options applied to different pollution sources. The most significant

benefits are to be brought by measures that promote the conversion of small-scale industries and

households from coal and wood to cleaner fuels. Implementing vehicular inspection and maintenance

programs would also lead to substantial improvements in pollution levels and health benefits.

Table 4. Mumbai: Health benefits from pollution control options at different sources

Reduction in:

Total health Premature Respiratory Chronic Options: costs death symptoms bronchitis

000' US $ cases days cases Switching small sources from coal to light 56,256 821 13,059,652 2,991 oil/LPG Switching small sources from wood to light 13,288 196 3,126,987 716 oil/LPG Inspection & maintenance program for vehicles 11,906 173 2,752,227 630

Reducing sulfur content of fuel oil to 0.5 % 10,395 154 2,458,210 563

Reducing sulfur content of diesel to 0.25 % 8,175 119 1,889,646 433

Source: Author’s calculations.

The next step in priority setting involves the comparison of the benefits with the costs of control

options. This exercise has been done for Bangkok, another city from the six cities study, and is

used here merely for illustration of how the assessment of health impacts can be integrated in the

process of developing a cost-effective pollution control program. Bangkok is a typical example of

the urban air pollution pattern dominated by vehicular emissions and the use of petroleum. In this

city, the least cost program for reducing the exposure levels of PM10 that are specifically linked

to fuel use include the following options (listed in order of their cost-effectiveness in terms of

mitigating the adverse health effects):

Fuel switching (heavy fuel oil to gas) for industrial/commercial boilers and power plants

Use of gasoline rather than diesel for light duty pickups, trucks, etc.

Replacement of 2-stroke motorcycles by 4-strokes with stricter emission standards

Installing new diesel engines in buses and trucks to meet stricter emission standards

(equivalent to those proposed by the EU for 2000 onwards).

STATISTICS

Statistics

Statistics regarding phenomena such as air pollution are very important, as they provide an objective

measure as to what the status with regard to air pollution is in a specific area, and the statistics can also

be used to set standards and keep air pollution in check.

Some statistics concerned to air pollution in some of the major cities in India are given below -:

• Mumbai

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Ministry of Environment and Forests coordinated a

study to delineate the status of Particulate Matter levels and investigate their sources in 6 major cities in

India. The study for Mumbai was carried out by NEERI, Mumbai Zonal Center with the support of other

scientists from Nagpur and Delhi. The present study included components like assessment of present air

quality status at seven different sites in Mumbai, quantification of percentage share of air pollutant

emissions attributable to transport, industrial, commercial, residential and other activities. It also

included projected growth trend in emissions for the next 5 and 10 years from various source

categories.

The data for the major pollutants taken from specific monitoring stations across the cities have been

given below

An emission inventory was made by the monitoring organization as it is necessary for projections and

modeling of future scenarios. All relevant information and data on emission inventory which were

available through available sources were collected. Thus a demarcation between vehicular, area and

industrial sources was created which is represented in the figure below.

The given figure indicates the percentage contributions of small sources for PM emissions.

• Pune

The annual average concentration data for SO2, NOx and RSPM is presented below from 2001 to

2007 for Residential location (Source: CPCB). RSPM and SO2 shows a decreasing trend however

NOx has shown decreasing trend up to 2005 and from the year 2005 it has shown increasing

values for the annual average at Residential Site.

• Kanpur

The air pollution data collected for Pune was done by Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur to

identify and inventorize the emission sources in the city.

• Bangalore

Over the years the profile of Bangalore has changed drastically and is currently better knon as

one of the major IT hubs rather than as a ‘garden city’. With economic development there has

been tremendous pressure on the environment. Deterioration of the air quality in Bangalore can

be attributed to the rapid increase in population and the corresponding fuel consumption

activities like transport, industrial and domestic sectors.

• Delhi

Air pollution is one of the major problems faced by many urban centers across the country.

Delhi is no exception as it boasts of all the right mix of sources which can create an unacceptable

urban air pollution scenario. The tremendous increase in the number of vehicles has contributed

significantly to the increase in combustion of petroleum products. The vehicular pollution in

Delhi has grown from 64% to 72% in the last decade (1990 – 2000) whereas petrol and diesel

consumption have grown by 400% and 300% respectively in the last two decades. Other sources

such as construction dust, biomass and refuse burning and other unregulated sources are

becoming major inputs in some areas of high pollution levels. All of these factors have together

contributed to making Delhi the most polluted city in the world.

National Statistics National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (N.A.M.P.)

Present status of NAMP : Central Pollution Control Board initiated National Ambient Air

Quality Monitoring

(NAAQM) programme in the year 1984 with 7 stations at Agra and Anpara. Subsequently the

programme was renamed as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP). Steadily the

air quality monitoring network got strengthened by increasing the number of monitoring

stations from 28 to 365 during 1985 – 2009. During the financial year 2010 – 11, 93 new stations

were added and the number of stations under operation was raised to 456 covering 190 cities in

26 states and 5 Union Territories as on 31st March 2011. As on 31st October 2011 the number

of stations under operation has been further raised to 503 distributed in 209 cities, 26 states

and 5 UTs.

Objectives of NAMP

The objectives of the NAMP are as follows:

To determine status and trends of ambient air quality;

To ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are violated;

To Identify Non-attainment Cities;

To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing preventive and

corrective measures;

To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment through pollution

dilution, dispersion, wind based movement, dry deposition, precipitation and chemical

transformation of pollutants generated.

Parameters monitored under NAMP

Under NAMP three criteria pollutants viz. PM10 (Particulate Matter having an aerodynamic

diameter less than or equal to 10 μm), Sulphur dioxide (SO2 locations. Additional parameters

like Carbon monoxide (CO), Ammonia (NH3 being monitored at selected locations. The other

parameters as notified in revised NAAQS viz. PM2.5 (Particulate Matter having an aerodynamic

diameter less than or equal to 2.5 μm), Benzo(a)pyrene {B(a)P}, Arsenic (As) and (Ni) are slowly

being added in monitoring network under NAMP. The monitoring of meteorological parameters

such as wind speed and direction, relative humidity and temperature were also integrated with

the monitoring of air quality. The monitoring of pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly

sampling for gaseous pollutants and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a frequency

of twice a week, to have 104 observations in a year. The monitoring under the NAMP is being

carried out with the help of State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB), Pollution Control Committees

(PCC) and National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur and Central

Pollution Control Board (CPCB) head and Zonal Offices. CPCB co-ordinates with these agencies

to ensure uniformity, consistency of air quality data and provides technical and financial support

to them for operating the monitoring station.

Data Analysis and Limitations

The air quality data generated at the monitoring stations are entered into Environmental Data

Bank (EDB) by respective SPCBs and PCCs and transmitted to CPCB where the data is scrutinized

for outliers and gaps in input of data. In case of any gaps the matter is discussed with the

respective agencies and later the data is checked, scrutinized, compiled, processed and analysed

statistically to get the information on the annual mean, standard deviation etc. of the pollutants

and payment is also made to the respective agencies.

While presenting the air quality data in this report following conventions have been followed:

i. If the 24 hours sampling in a day could not be fulfilled at all the locations due to force majeure

like power failure, rainfall etcetera, and the values monitored for 16 hours and more are

considered as the representative values for assessing the ambient air quality for that day;

ii. In case no data is available in a particular month with respect to all the three parameters, the

month has been excluded;

iii. In case, no data is reported for a particular station with respect to all the three parameters,

during entire year, that station has been excluded; and

iv. The frequency of monitoring twice a week, 104 days in a year could not be met in some of

the locations. In such cases, 50 days of monitoring in a year is considered adequate for the

purpose of data analysis.

Air Quality Assessment

The air quality of different cities/towns has been compared with the respective NAAQS. The air

quality has been categorized into four broad categories based on an Exceedence Factor (the

ratio of annual mean concentration of a pollutant with that of a respective standard). The

Exceedence Factor (EF) is calculated as follows:

The four air quality categories are:

Critical pollution (C) : when EF is > 1.5;

High pollution (H) : when the EF is between 1.0 - <1.5;

Moderate pollution (M) : when the EF between 0.5 - <1.0; and

Low pollution (L): when the EF is < 0.5.

It is obvious from the above categorization, that the locations in either of the first two

categories are actually not meeting the standards, although, with varying magnitude. Those,

falling in the third category are meeting the standards as of now but likely to exceed the

standards in future if pollution continues to increase and is not controlled. However, the

locations in Low pollution category have a rather clean air quality and such areas are to be

maintained at low pollution level by way of adopting preventive and control measures of air

pollution.

Ambient Air Quality in different cities for the year 2010(residential / industrial / rural / others

& ecologically sensitive

areas)

Annual average concentration of pollutants in different States and Union territories

Trends regarding air pollution in major cities of India-

A few statistics regarding trends in air pollution in major cities in India has been compiled below. It includes the area, population and climate concerning the particular city. A figure giving values of the amount of Nitrogen dioxide, Sulfur dioxide and the SPM over the past decade has been included for each

city.

Government Policies

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

No. 14 of 1981

[29th March, 1981]

An Act to provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution, for the establishment, with

a view to carrying out the aforesaid purposes, of Boards, for conferring on and assigning to such Boards

powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith.

WHEREAS decisions were taken at the United Nations Conference on the Hum an Environment held in

Stockholm in June, 1972, in which India participated, to take appropriate steps for the preservation of

the natural resources of the earth which, among other things, include the preservation of the quality of

air and control of air pollution;

AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary to implement the decisions aforesaid in so far as they relate to

the preservation of the quality of air and control of air pollution;

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Thirty-second Year of the Republic of India as follows :-

CHAPTER I

PRELIMINARY

1. Short title, extent and commencement.

(1) This Act may be called the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.

(2) It extends to the whole of India.

(3) It shall come into force on such datel as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official

Gazette, appoint.

2. Definitions.

In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,-

(a) "air pollutant" means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance 2[(including noise)] present in the

atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living

creatures or plants or property or environment;

(b) "air pollution" means the presence in the atmosphere of any air

(c) "approved appliances" means any equipment or gadget used for the bringing of any combustible

material or for generating or consuming any fume, gas of particulate matter and approved by the State

Board for the purpose of this Act;

(d) "approved fuel" means any fuel approved by the State Board for the purposes of this Act;

(e) "automobile" means any vehicle powered either by internal combustion engine or by any method of

generating power to drive such vehicle by burning fuel;

(f) "Board" means the Central Board or State Board;

(g) "Central Board- means the 3[Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution]

constituted under section 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974;

(h) "chimney" includes any structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air pollutant

may be emitted,

(i) "control equipment" means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control the quality and

manner of emission of any air pollutant and includes any device used for securing the efficient operation

of any industrial plant;

(j) "emission" means any solid or liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney, duct or flue or

any other outlet;

(k) "industrial plant" means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes and emitting any air

pollutant into the atmosphere;

(l) "member" means a member of the Central Board or a State Board, as the case may be, and includes

the Chairman thereof,

4[(m) "occupier", in relation to any factory or premises, means the person who has control over the

affairs of the factory or the premises, and includes, in relation to any substance, the person in posse

ssion of the substance;]

(n) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act by the Central Government or as the

case may be, the State government;

(o) "State Board" mleans,-

(i) in relation to a State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, is in force

and the State Government has constituted for that State a 5[State Board for the Prevention and Control

of Water Pollution] under section 4 of that Act, the said State Board; and

(ii) in relation to any other State, the State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution

constituted by the State Government under section 5 of this Act.

CHAPTER II

CENTRAL AND STATE BOARDS FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

6[3. Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution.

The Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution constituted under section 3 of the

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), shall, without prejudice to the

exercise and performance of its powers and functions under this Act, exercise the powers and perform

the functions of the Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act.

7[4. State Boards for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution to be, State Boards for the

Prevention and Control of Air Pollution.

In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), is in force

and the State Government has constituted for that State a State Board for the Prevention and Control of

Water Pollution under section 4 of that Act, such State Board shall be deemed to be the State Board for

the Prevention and Control of air Pollution constituted under section 5 of this Act and accordingly that

State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution shall, without prejudice to the exercise

and performance of its powers and functions under that Act, exercise the powers and perform the

functions of the State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under this Act.]

5. Constitution of State Boards.

(1) In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), is not in

force, or that Act is in force but the State Government has not constituted a 8[State Board for the

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] under that Act, the State Government shall, with effect from

such date as it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board for the

Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under such name as may be specified in the notification, to

exercise the powers conferred on, and perform the functions assigned to, that Board under this Act.

(2) A State Board constituted under this Act shall consist of the following members, namely:-

(a) a Chairman, being a person, having a person having special knowledge or practical experience in

respect of matters relating to environmental protection, to be nominated by the State Government:

Provided that the Chairman my be either whole-time or part-time as the State Government may think

fit;

(b) such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be nominated

by the State Government to represent that government;

(c) such number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be nominated

by the State Government from amongst the members of the local authorities functioning within the

State;

(d) such number of non-officials, not exceeding three, as the State Government may think fit, to be

nominated by the State Government to represent the interest of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade

or labour or any other interest, which in the opinion of that government, ought to be represented;

(e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the State

Government, to be nominated by that Government;

9[(f) a full-time member-secretary having such qualifications knowledge and experience of scientific,

engineering or management aspects of pollution control as may be prescribed, to be appointed by the

State Governments

Provided that the State Government shall ensure that not less than two of the members are persons

having special knowledge or practical experience in, respect of matters relating to the improvement of

the quality of air or the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution.

(3) Every State Board constituted under this Act shall be a body corporate with the name specified by

the State Government in the notification issued under sub-section (1), having perpetual succession and

a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire and dispose of property and

to contract, and may by the said name sue or be sued.

6. Central Board to exercise the powers and perform die functions of a State Board in the Union

territories.

No State Board shall be constituted for a Union territory and in relation to -a Union territory, the Central

Board shall exercise the powers and perform the functions of a State Board under this Act for that Union

territory

Provided that in relation to any Union territory the Central Board may delegate all or any of its powers

and functions under this section to such person or body of persons as the Central Government may

specify.

7. Terms and conditions of service of members.

(1) Save as otherwise provided by or under this Act, a member of a State Board constituted under this

Act, other than the member-secretary, shall hold office for a term of three years from the date on which

his nomination is notified in the Official Gazette:

Provided that a member shall, notwithstanding the expiration of his term, continue to hold office until

his successor enters upon his office.

(2) The terms of office of a member of a State Board constituted under this Act and nominated under

clause (b) or clause (e) of sub-section (2) of section 5 shall come to an end as soon as he ceases to hold

the office under the State Government as the case may be, the company or corporation owned,

controlled or managed by the State Government, by virtue of which he was nominated.

(3) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act, other than the member- secretary, may at any

time resign his office by writing under his hand addressed,-

(a) in the case of the Chairman, to the State Government; and

(b) in any other case, to the Chairman of the State Board, and the seat of be Chairman or such other

member shall thereupon become vacant.

(4) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act, other than the member-secretary, shall be

deemed to have vacated his scat, if he is absent without reason, sufficient in the opinion of the State

Board, from three consecutive meetings of the State Board or where he is nominated under clause (c) of

subsection (2) of section 5, he ceases to be a member of the local authority and such vacation of scat

shall, in either case, take effect from such as the State Government may, by notification in the Official

Gazette, specify.

(5) A casual vacancy in a State Board constituted under this Act shall be filled by a fresh nomination and

the person nominated to fill the vacancy shall hold office only for the remainder of die term for which

the member whose place lie takes was nominated.

(6) A member of a State Board constituted under this Act shall be eligible for re-nomination 10*****

(7) The other terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and other members (except the

member-secretary) of a State Board constituted under this Act shall be such as may be prescribed.

8. Disqualifications.

(1) No person shall be a member of a State Board constituted under this

(a) is, or at any time has been, adjudged insolvent, or

(b) is of unsound mind and has been so declared by a competent court,

(c) is, or has been, convicted of an offence which, in the opinion of the State Government, involves

moral turpitude, or

(d) is, or at any time has been, convicted of an offence under this Act,

(e) has directly or indirectly by himself on by any partner.. any share or interest in any Finn or company

carrying on the business of manufacture, sale, or hire of machinery, industrial plant, c6ntrol equipment

or any other apparatus for the improvement of the quality of air or for the prevention, control or

abatement of air pollution, or

(f) is a director or a secretary, manager or other salaried officer or employee of any company or firm

having any contract with the Board, or with the Government constituting the Board or with a local

authority in the State, or with a company or corporation owned, controlled or managed by the

Government, for the carrying out of programmes for the improvement of the quality of air or for the

prevention, control or abatement of air pollution, or

(g) has so abused, in the opinion Of the State Government, his position as a member, as to render his

continuance on the State Board detrimental to the interest of the general public.

(2) The State Government shall, by order in writing, remove any member who is, or has become, subject

to any disqualification mentioned in sub-section M.

Provided that no order of removal shall be made by the State Government under this section unless the

member concerned has been given a reasonable opportunity of showing cause against the same.

(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section ( 1) or sub-section (6) of section 7, a member

who has been removed under this section shall not be eligible to continue to hold office until his

successor enters upon his office, or, as the case may be, for re-nomination as a member.

9. Vacation of seats by members.

If a member of a State Board constituted under this Act becomes subject to any of the disqualifications

specified in section 8, his seat shall become vacant.

10. Meetings-of Board.

(1) For the purposes of this Act, a Board shall meet at least once in every three months and shall observe

such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings as may be prescribed:

Provided that it, in the opinion of the Chairman, any business of an urgent nature is to be transacted, he

may convene a meeting of the Board at such time as he thinks fit for the aforesaid purpose.

(2) Copies of minutes of the meetings under sub-section (1) shall be forwarded to the Central Board and

to the State Government concerned.

11. Constitution -of committees.

(1) A Board may constitute as many committees consisting wholly of members or partly of members and

partly of other persons and for such purpose or purposes as it may think fit.

(2) A committee constituted under this section shall meet at such time and at such place, and shall

observe such rules of procedure in regard to the transaction of business at its meetings, as may be

prescribed.

(3) The members of a committee other than the members of the Board shall be paid such fees and

allowances, for attending its meetings and for attending to any other work of the Board as may be

prescribed.

12. Temporary association of persons with Board for particular purposes.

(1) A Board may associate with itself in such manner, and for such purposes, as may be prescribed, any

person whose assistance or advice it may desire to obtain in performing any of its functions under this

Act.

(2) A person associated with the Board under sub-section (1) for any purpose shall have a right to take

part in the discussions of the Board relevant to that purpose, but shall riot have a tight to vote at a

meetings of the Board and shall not be a member of the Board for any other purpose.

(3) A person associated with a Board under sub-section (1) shall be entitled to receive such fees and

allowances as may be prescribed.

13. Vacancy in Board not to invalidate acts or proceedings.

No act or proceeding of a Board or any committee thereof shall be called in question on the ground

merely of the existence of any vacancy in or any defect in the constitution of, the Board or such

committee, as the case may be.

14. Member-secretary and officers and other employees of State Boards.

(1) The terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary of a State Board constituted under this

Act shall be such as may be prescribed.

11[(2) The member-secretary of a State Board, whether constituted under this Act or not, shall exercise

such powers and perform such duties as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be delegated

to him by the State Board or its Chairman.]

(3) subject to such rules as may be made by the State Government in this behalf, a State Board, whether

constituted under this Act or not, may appoint such officers and other employees as it considers

necessary for the efficient performance of its functions under this Act.

(4) The method of appointment, the conditions of service and the scale of pay of the officers (other than

the member-secretary) and other employees of a State Board appointed under sub-section (3) shall be

such as may be determined by regulations made by the State Board under this Act.

(5) Subject to such conditions as may be prescribed, a State Board constituted under this Act may from

time to time appoint any qualified person to be a consultant to the Board and pay him such salary and

allowances or fees, as it thinks fit.

15. Delegation of powers

A State Board may, by general or special order, delegate to t1he Chairman or the member-secretary or

any other officer of the Board subject to such conditions and limitations, if any. as may be specified in

the order, such of its powers and functions under this Act as It may deem necessary.

CHAPTER III

POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF BOARDS

16. Functions of Central Board.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance, of its functions under

the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, IL974 (6 of 1974), the main functions of the Central

Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent, control or abate air pollution in the country.

(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing functions, the Central Board

may-

(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality of air and

the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(b) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of

air pollution;

(c) co-ordinate the activities of the State and resolve disputes among them;

(d) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor investigations

and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

12[(dd) perform such of the function of any State Board as may, be specified in and order made under

sub-section (2) of section 18;]

(e) plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the

prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central Board may

specify;

(f) organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention, control or

abatement of air pollution;

(g) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the measures

devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating

to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(h) lay down standards for the quality of air.,

(i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution;

(j) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

(3) The Central Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Central

Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently.

(4) The Central Board may-

(a) delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or specially to any of the committees appointed

by it;

(b) do such other things and perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper discharge

of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes Of this Act.

17. Functions of State Boards.

(1) subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its functions, if any,

under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), the functions of a State

Board shall be-

(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to

secure the execution thereof-,

(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement of

air pollution;

(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;

(d) to collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to be engaged

in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to organise

mass-education programme relating thereto;

(e) to inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing process

and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may consider necessary to take steps for the

prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;

(f) to inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the quality of

air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in such areas;

(g) to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for the quality

of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from

industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any

other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft:

Provided that different standards for emission may be laid down under this clause for different

industrial plants having regard to the quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the

atmosphere from such industrial plants;

(h) to advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location for

carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;

(i) to Perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be entrusted to it

by the Central Board or the State Government;

(j) to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper

discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of this Act.

(2) A State Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the State Board to

perform its functions under this section efficiently.

18. Power to give directions.

13[(]) In the performance of its functions under this Act-

(a) the Central Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Government may give to

it; and

(b) every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Board or the State

Government may give to it:

Provided that where a direction given by the State Government is inconsistent with the direction given

by the Central Board, the matter shall be referred to the Central Government for its decision.

14[(2) Where the Central Government is of the opinion that any State Board has defaulted in complying

with any directions given by the Central Board under sub-section (1) and as a result of such default a

grave emergency has arisen and it is necessary or expedient so to do in the public interest, it m4y, by

order, direct the Central Board to perform any of the functions of the State Board in relation to such

area, for such period and for such purposes, as may be specified in the order.

(3) Where the Central Board performs any of the functions of the State Board in pursuance of a direction

under sub-section (2), the expenses, if any incurred by the Central Board with respect to the

performance of such functions may, if the State Board is empowered to recover such expenses, be

recovered by the Central Board with interest (at such reasonable rate as the Central Government may,

by order, fix) from the date when a demand for such expenses is made until it is paid from the person or

persons concerned as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.

(4) For the removal of doubts, it is hereby declared that any directions to perform the functions of any

State Board given under sub-section (2) in respect of any area would not preclude the State Board from

performing such functions in any other area in the State or any of its other functions'in that area.]

CHAPTER IV

PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION

19. Power to declare air pollution control areas,

(1) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the Official

Gazette declare in such manner as may be prescribed, any area or areas within the State as air pollution

control area or areas for the purposes of this Act.

(2) The State government may, after consultation with the State Board, by notification in the Official

Gazette,-

(a) alter any air pollution control area whether by way of extension or reduction ;

(b) declare a new air pollution control area in which may be merged one or more existing air pollution

control areas or any part or parts thereof.

(3) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion that the use of any

fuel, other than an approved fuel, in any air pollution control area or part thereof, may cause or is likely

to cause air pollution, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the use of such fuel in such

area or part thereof with effect from such date (being not less than three months from the date of

publication of the notification) as may be specified in the notification.

(4) The State Government may, after consultation with the Sate Board, by notification in the Official

Gazette, direct that with effect fr6m such date as may be specified therein, no appliance, other than an

approved appliance, shall be used in the premises situated in an air pollution control area :

Provided that different dates may be specified for different parts of an air pollution control area or for

the use of different appliances.

(5) If the State Government, after consultation with the State Board, is of opinion that the burning of

any material (not being fuel) in any air pollution control area or part thereof may cause or is likely to

cause air pollution, it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, prohibit the burning of such material in

such area or part thereof.

20. Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emission from automobiles.

With a view to ensuring that the standards for emission of air pollutants from automobiles laid down by

the State Board tinder clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17 are complied with, the State

Government shall, in consultation with the State Board, give such instructions as may be deemed

necessary to the concerned authority in charge of registration of motor vehicles under the Motor

Vehicles Act, 1939 (Act 4 of 1939), and such authority shall, notwithstanding anything contained in that

Act or the rules made thereunder be bound to comply with such instructions.

21. Restrictions on use of certain industrial plants.

15[(/) Subject to the provisions of this section, no person shall, without the previous consent of the

State Board, establish or operate any industrial plant in an air pollution control area :

Provided that a person operating any industrial plant in any air pollution control area, immediately

before the commencement of section 9 of the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act,

1987, for which no consent was necessary prior to such commencement, may continue to do so for a

period of three months from such commencement or, if he has made an application for such consent

within the said period of three months, till the disposal of such application.]

(2) An application for consent of the State Board under sub-section (1) shall be accompanied by such

fees as may bc prescribed 'and shall be made in the prescribed form and shall contain the particulars of

the industrial plant and such other particulars as may be prescribed :

Provided that where any person, immediately before the declaration of any area as an air pollution

control area, operates in such area any industrial plant, 16*** such person shall make the application

under this sub-section within such period (being not less than three months from the date of such

declaration) as may be prescribed and where such person makes such application, he shall be deemed

to be operating such industrial plant with the consent of the State Board until the consent applied for

has been refused,

(3) The State Board may make such inquiry as it may deem fit in respect of the application for consent

referred to in sub-section (1) and in making any such inquiry, shall follow such procedure as may be

prescribed.

(4) Within a period of four months after the receipt of the application for consent referred to in

sub-section (1), the State Board shall, by order in writing, 17[and for reasons to be recorded in the

order, grant the consent applied for subject to such conditions and for such period as may be specified

in the order, or refuse consent:]

18[Provided that it shall be open to the State Board to cancel such consent before the expiry of the

period for which it is granted or refuse further consent after such expiry if the conditions subject to

which such consent has been granted are not fulfilled:

Provided further that before cancelling a consent or refusing a further consent under the first provision,

a reasonable opportunity of being heared shall be given to the person concerned.]

(5) Every person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-section (4), shall

comply with the following conditions, namely -

(i) the control equipment of such specifications as the State Board may approve in this behalf shall be

installed and operated in the premises where the industry is carried on or proposed to be carried on;

(ii) the existing control equipment, if any, shall be altered or replaced in accordance with the directions

of the State Board;

(iii) the control equipment referred to in clause (i) or clause (ii) shall be kept at all times in good running

condition;

(iv) chimney, wherever necessary, of such specifications as the State Board may approve in this behalf

shall be erected or re-erected in such premises; .and

(v) such other conditions as the State Board, may specify in this behalf,

(vi) the conditions referred to in clauses (i), (ii) and (iv) shall be complied with within such period as the

State Board may specify in this behalf-

Provided that in the case of a person operating any industrial plant 19*** in an air pollution control area

immediately before the date of declaration of such area as an air pollution control area, the period so

specified shall not be less than six months :

Provided further that-

(a) after the installation of any control equipment in accordance with the specifications under clause (i),

or

(b) after the alteration or replacement of any control equipment in accordance with the directions of

the State Board under clause (ii), or

(c) after the erection or re-erection of any chimney under clause (iv), no control equipment or chimney

shall be altered or replaced or, as the case may be, erected or re-created except with the previous

approval of the State Board.

(6) If due to any technological improvement or otherwise the State Board is of opinion that all or any of

the conditions referred to in sub-section (5) require or requires variation (including the change of any

control equipment, either in whole or in part), the State Board shall, after giving the person to whom

consent has been granted an opportunity of being heard, vary all or any of such conditions and

thereupon such person shall be bound to comply with the conditions as so varied.

(7) Where a person to whom consent has been granted by the State Board under sub-section (4)

transfers his interest in the industry to any other person, such consent shall be deemed to have been

granted to such other person and he shall be bound to comply with all the conditions subject to which it

was granted as if the consent was granted to him originally.

22. Persons carrying on industry, etc., and to allow emission of air pollutants in excess of the standard

laid down by State Board.

No person 20**** operating any industrial plant, in any air pollution control area shall discharge or

cause or permit to be discharged the emission of any air pollutant in excess of the standards laid down

by the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17.

21[22A. Power of Board to make application to court for restraining person from causing air pollution.

(1) Where it is apprehended by a Board that emission of any air pollutant, in excess of the standards laid

down by the State Board under clause (g) of sub-section (1) of section 17, is likely to occur by reason of

any person operating an industrial plant or otherwise in any air pollution control area, the Board may

make an application to a court, not inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate

of the first class for restraining such person from emitting such air pollutant.

(2) On receipt of the application under sub-section (1), the court may make such order as it deems fit.

(3) Where under sub-section (2), the court makes an order restraining any person from discharging or

causing or permitting to be discharged the emission of any air pollutant, it may, in that order,-

(a) direct such person to desist from taking such action as is likely to cause emission;

(b) authorise the Board, if the direction under clause (a) is no , t complied with by the person to whom

such direction is issued, to implement the direction in such manner as may be specified by the court.

(4) All expenses incurred by the Board in implementing the &ections of the court under clause (b) of

sub-section (3) sl)all be recoverable from the person concerned as an-ears of land revenue or of public

demand.

23. Furnishing, of information to State Board and other agencies in certain cases.

(1) Where in any 22*** area the emission of any air pollutant into the atmosphere in excess of the

standards laid down by the State Board occurs or is apprehended to occur due to accident or other

unforeseen act or event, the person in charge of the premises from where which emission occurs or is

apprehended to occur shall forthwith intimate the fact of such occurrence or the apprehension of such

occurrence to the State Board and to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.

(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or the apprehension of any occurrence of the

nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through intimation under that sub-section or otherwise,

the State Board and the authorities or agencies shall, as early as practicable, cause such remedial

measure to be I aken as are necessary to mitigate the emission of such air pollutants.

(3) Expenses, if any, incurred by the State Board, authority or agency with respect to the remedial

measures referred to in sub-section (2) together with interest ("t such reasonable rate, as the State

Government may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for the expenses is made until it is paid,

may be recovered by that Board, authority or agency from the person concerned, as arrears of land

revenue, or of public demand.

24. Power of entry and inspection.

(1) Subject to the provisions of this section, any person empowered by a State Board in this behalf shall

have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he considers necessary, any place---

(a) for the purpose of performing any of the functions of the State Board entrusted to him :

(b) for the purpose of determining whether and if so in what manner, any such functions are to be

performed or whether any provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder or any notice, order,

direction or authorisation served, made, given or granted under this Act is being or has been complied

with;

(c) for the purpose of examining and testing any control equipment, industrial plant, record, register,

document or any other material object or for conducting a search of any place in which he has reason to

believe that an offence under this Act or the rules made has been or is being or is about to be

committed and for seizing any such control equipment, industrial plant, record, register, document or

other material object if he has reasons to believe that it may furnish evidence of the commission of an

offence punishable under this Act or the rules made thereunder.

(2) Every person 23*** operating any control equipment or any industrial plant, in an air pollution

control area shall be bound to render all assistance to the person empowered by the State Board under

sub-section (1) for carrying out the functions under that sub-section and if he fails to do so without any

reasonable cause or excuse, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.

(3) If any person willfully delays or obstructs any person empowered by the State Board under

sub-section (1) in the discharge of his duties, he shall be guilty of an offence under this Act.

(4) The provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973, or, in relation to the State of Jammu and

Kashmir, or any area, in which that Code is not in force, the provisions of any corresponding law in force

in that State or area, shall, so far as may be, apply to any search or seizure under this section as they

apply to any search or seizure made under the authority of a warrant issued under section 94 of the said

Code or, as the case may be, under the corresponding provisions of the said law.

25. Power to obtain information.

For the purposes of carrying out the functions entrusted to it, the State Board or any officer empowered

by it in Ns behalf may call for any information (including information regarding the types of air

pollutants emitted into the atmosphere and the level of the emission of such air pollutants) from the

occupier or any other person carrying oil any industry or operating any control equipment or industrial

plant and for the purpose of verifying the correctness of such information, the State Board or such

officer shall have the right to inspect the premises where such industry, control equipment or industrial

plant is being carried on or operated.

26. Power to take samples of air or emission and procedure to be followed in connection therewith.

(1) A State Board or any officer empowered by it in this behalf shall have power to take, for the purpose

of analysis, samples of air or emission from any chimney, flue or duct or any other outlet in such manner

as may be prescribed.

(2) The result of any analysis of a sample of emission taken under subsection (1) shall not be admissible

in evidence in any legal proceeding unless the provisions of sub-sections (3) and (4) are complied with.

(3) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (4), when a sample of emission is taken for analysis under

sub-section (1), the person taking the sample shall-

(a) serve on the occupier or his agent, a notice, then and there, in such form as may be prescribed, of his

intention to have it so analysed;

(b) in the presence of the occupier or his agent, collect a sample of emission for analysis;

(c) cause the sample to be placed in a container or containers which shall be marked and sealed and

shall also be signed both by the person taking the sample and the occupier or his agent;

(d) send, without delay, the container to the laboratory established or recognised by the State Board

under section 17 or, if a request in that behalf is made by the occupier or his agent when the notice is

served on him under clause (a), to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (1) of

section 28.

(4) When a sample of emission is taken for analysis under sub-section (1) and the person taking the

sample serves on the occupier or his agent, a notice under clause (a) of sub-section (3), then,-

(a) in a case where the occupier or his agent willfully absents himself, the person taking the sample shall

collect the sample of emission for analysis to be placed in a container or containers which shall be

marked and sealed and shall also be signed by the person taking the sample, and

(b) in a case where the occupier or his agent is present at the time of taking the sample but refuses to

sign the marked and scaled container or containers of the sample of emission as required under clause

(c) of subsection (3), the marked and sealed container or containers shall be signed by the person taking

the sample,

and the container or containers shall be sent without delay by the person 'Caking the sample for analysis

to the laboratory established or specified under sub-section (7) of section 28 and such person shall

inform the Government analyst appointed under sub-section (1) of section 29, in writing, about the

wilfull absence of the occupier or his agent, or, as the case may be, his refusal to sing the container or

containers.

27. Reports of the result of analysis on samples taken under section 26.

(1) Where a sample of emission has been sent for analysis to the laboratory established or recognised by

the State Board, the Board analyst appointed under sub-section (2) of section 29 shall analyse the

sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of such analysis in triplicate to the State Board.

(2) On receipt of the report under sub-section (1), one copy of the report shall be sent by the State

Board to the occupier or his agent referred to in section 26, another copy shall be preserved for

production before the court in case any legal proceedings are taken against him and the other copy shall

be kept by the State Board.

(3) Where a sample has been sent for analysis under clause (a~ of sub-section (3) or sub-section (4) of

section 26 to any laboratory mentioned therein, the Government analyst referred to in the said

sub-section (4) shall analyse the sample and submit a report in the prescribed form of the result of the

analysis in triplicate to the State Board which shall comply with the provisions of sub-section (2).

(4) Any cost incurred in getting any sample analysed at the request of the occupier or his agent as

provided in clause (d) of sub-section (3) of section 26 or when he wilfully absents himself or refuses to

sing the marked and scaled container or containers of sample of emission under sub-section (4) of that

section, shall be payable by such occupier or his agent and in case of default the same shall be

recoverable from him as arrears of land revenue or of public demand.

28. State Air Laboratory.

(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,-

(a) establish one or more State Air Laboratories; or

(b) specify one or more laboratories or institutes as State Air Laboratories to carry out the functions

entrusted to the State Air Laboratory under this Act.

(2) The State Government may, after consultation with the State Board, make rules prescribing-

(a) the functions of the State Air Laboratory;

(b) the procedure for the submission to the said Laboratory of samples of air or emission for analysis or

tests, the form of the Laboratory's report thereon and the fees payable in respect of such report;

(c) such other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that Laboratory to carry out its

functions.

29. Analysis.

(1) The State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint such persons as it thinks

fit and having the prescribed qualifications to be government analysts for the purpose of analysis of

samples of air or emission sent for analysis to any laboratory established or specified under sub-section

(1) of section 28.

(2) Without prejudice to the provisions of section 14, the State Board may, by notification in the Official

Gazette, and with the approval of the State Government, appoint such persons as it thinks fit and having

the prescribed qualifications to be Board analysts for the purpose of analysis of samples of air or

emission sent for analysis to any laboratory established or recognised under section 17.

30. Reports of analysis.

Any document purporting to be a report signed by a Government analyst or, as the case may be, a Statc

Board analyst may be used as evidence of the facts stated therein in any proceeding under this Act.

31. Appeals,

(1) Any person aggrieved by an order made by the State Board under this Act may, within thirty day

from the date on which the order is communicated to him, prefer an appeal to such authority

(hereinafter referred to as the Appellate Authority) as the State government may think fit to constitute :

Provided that the Appellate Authority may entertain the appeal after tile expiry of the said period of

thirty days if such authority is satisfied that the appellant was prevented by sufficient cause from filing

the appeal in time.

(2). The Appellate Authority shall consist of a single person or three persons as the State Government

may think fit to be appoint by the State Government.

(3) The form and the manner in which an appeal may be preferred under subsection (1), the fees

payable for such appeal and the procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority shall be such as

may be prescribed.

(4) On receipt of an appeal preferred under sub-section (1), the Appellate Authority shall, after giving

the appellant and the State Board an opportunity of being heard, dispose of the appeal as expeditiously

as possible.

24[31A. Power to give directions

Notwithstanding anything contained in any other law, im. subject to the provisions of this Act, and to

any directions that the Central Government may give in this behalf, a Board may, in the exercise of its

powers and performance of its functions under this Act, issue any directions in writing to any person,

officer or authority, and such person, officer or authority shall be bound to comply with such directions.

Explanation.-For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that tile power to issue directions under

this section, includes the power to direct-

(a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or

(b) the stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity, water or any other service.]

CHAPTER V

FUND, ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT

32. Contribution by Central Government.

The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by Parliament by law in this behalf make in

each financial year such contributions to the State Boards as it may think necessary to enable the State

Board to perform their functions under this Act:

Provided that noting in this section shall apply to any 25[State Board for the Prevention and Control of

water Pollution] constituted under section 4 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,

1974, which is empowered by that Act to expend money from its fund thereunder also for. performing

its functions, under any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention, control or abatement

of air pollution.

33. Fund of Board.

(1) Every State Board shall have its own fund for the purposes of this Act and all sums which may, from

time to time, be paid to it by the *Central Government and all other receipts (by way of contributions, if

any, from the State Government, fees, gifts, grants, donations benefactions or otherwise) of that Board

shall be carried to the fund of the Board and all payments by the Board shall be made therefrom.

(2) Every State Board may expend such sums as it thinks fit for performing its functions under this Act

and such sums shall be treated as expenditure payable out of the fund of that Board.

(3) Nothing in this section shall apply to any 25[State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water

Pollution] constituted under section 4 of the Water -(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974,

which is empowered by that Act to expend money from its fund thereunder also for performing its

functions under any law for the time being in force relating to the prevention., control or abatement of

air pollution.

26[33A. Borrowing powers of Board.

A Board may, with the consent of, or in accordance with the terms of any general or special authority

given to it by, the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government, borrow money

from any source by way of loans or issue of bonds, debentures or such other instruments, as it may

deem fit, for discharging all or any of its functions under this Act.]

34. Buduct.

The Central Board or as the case may be the State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in

such form and at such time as may be prescribed, a budget in respect of the financial year next ensuing

showing the estimated receipt and expenditure under this Act, and copies thereof shall be forwarded to

the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.

27[35. Annual report.

(1) The Central Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such form as may be prescribed, an

annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial year and

copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central Government within four months from the last date of

the previous financial year and that Goverriment shall cause every such report to be laid before both

Houses of Parliament within nine months of the last date of the previous financial year.

(2) Every State Board shall, during each financial year, prepare, in such fort-n as may be prescribed, an

annual report giving full account of its activities under this Act during the previous financial year and

copies thereof shall be forwarded to the State Government within four months from the last date of the

previous financial year and that Government shall cause every such report to be laid before the State

Legislature within a period of nine months from the date of the previous financial year.)

36. Accounts and audit.

(1) Every Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, maintain proper accounts and other

relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts in such form as may be prescribed by the

Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.

(2) The accounts of the Board shall be audited by an auditor duly qualified to act as an auditor of

companies under section 226 of the Companies Act, 1956.

(3) The said auditor shall be appointed by the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State

Government on the advice of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.

(4) Every auditor appointed to audit the accounts of the Board under this Act shall have the right to

demand the production of books, accounts, connected vouchers and other documents and papers and

to inspect any of the offices of the Board.

(5) Every such auditor shall send a copy of his report together with an audited copy of the accounts to

the Central Government or, as the case may be, the State Government.

(6) The Central Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under

sub-section (5), cause the same to be laid before both Houses of Parliament.

(7) The State Government shall, as soon as may be after the receipt of the audit report under

sub-section (5), cause the same to be laid before the State Legislature.

CHAPTER VI

PENALTIES AND PROCEDURE

28[37. Failure to comply with the provisions of section 21 or section 22 or with the directions issued

under section 31A.

(1) whoever fails to comply with the provisions of section 21 or section 22 or directions issued under

section 3 1 A, shall, in respect of each such failure, be punishable with imprisonment for a terms which

shall not be less than one year and six months but which may extend to six years and with fine, and in

case the failure continues, with an additional fine which may extend to five thousand rupees for every

day during which such failure continues after the conviction for the first such failure.

(2) If the failure referred to in sub-section (1) continues beyond a period of one year after the date of

conviction, the offender shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which shall not be less than

two years but which may extend to seven years and with fine.]

38. Penalties for certain acts.

Whoever-

(a) destroys, pulls down, removes, injures or defaces any pillar, post or stake fixed in the ground or any

notice or other matter put up, incsribed or placed, by or under the authority of the Board, or

(b) obstructs any person acting under the orders or directions of the Board from exercising his powers

and performing his functions under this Act, or

(c) damages any works or property belonging to the Board, or

(d) fails to furnish to the Board or any officer or other employee of the Board any information required

by the Board or such officer or other employee for the purpose of this Act, or

(e) fails to intimate the occurrence of the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere in excess of the

standards laid down by the State Board or the apprehension of such occurrence, to the State Board and

other prescribed authorities or agencies as required under sub-section (1) of section 23, or

(f) in giving any information which he is required to give under this Act, makes a statement which is false

in any material particular, or

(g) for the purpose of obtaining any consent under section 21, makes a statement which is false in any

material particular shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months

or with fine which may extend to 29[ten thousand rupees] or with both.

30[39. Penalty for contravention of provisions of the Act.

Whoever contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or any order or direction issued thereunder, for

which no penalty has been elsewhere provided in this Act, shall be punishable with imprisonment for a

term which may extend to three months or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with

both, and in the case of continuing contravention, with an additional fine which may extend to five

thousand, rupees for every day during which such contravention continues after conviction for the first

such contravention.)

40. Offences by companies.

(1) Where an offence under this Act has , been committed by a company, every person who, at the time

the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the

conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the

offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable to any

punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or

that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has been

committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has ben committed with the consent or

connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other

officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to be

guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.

Explanation.-For the purpose of this section,-

(a) "company" means any body corporate, and includes a firin or other association of individuals; and

(b) "director", in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

41. Offences by Government Departments.

(1) Where an offence under this Act has been committed by any Department of Government, the Head

of the Department shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded

against and punished accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the Department liable to any

punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that he exercised all

due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has been

committed by a Department of Government and it is proved that the offence has been committed with

the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any officer, other than the

Head of the Department, such officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable

to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. ,

42. Protection of action taken in good faith

No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding shall lie against the Goverwnent er any officer of the

Government or any member or any officer or other employee of the Board in respect of anything which

is done or intended to be done in good faith in pursuance of Otis Act or the rules made thereunder.

31[43. Cognizance of offences

(1) No court shall take cognizance of any offence under this Act except on a complaint made by-

(a) a Board or any officer authorised in this behalf by it; or

(b) any person who has given notice of not less than sixty days, in the manner prescribed, of the alleged

offence and of his intention to make a complaint to the Board or officer authorised as aforesaid, and no

court inferior to that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the first class shall try any

offence punishable under this Act.

(2) Where a complaint has been made under clause (b) of sub-section (1), the

Board shall, on demand by such person, make available the relevant reports in its possession to that

person:

Provided that the Board may refuse to make any such report available to such person if the same is, in

its opinion, against the public interest.]

44. Members, officers and employees of Board to be public servants.

All the members and all officers and other employees of a Board when acting or purporting to act in

pursuance of any of the provisions of this Act or the rules made thereunder shall be deemed to be public

servant within the meaning of section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860).

45. Reports and returns.

The Central Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, furnish to the Central Goveniment,

and a State Board shall, in relation to its functions under this Act, furnish to the State government and to

the Central Board such reports, returns, statistics, accounts and other information as that Government,

or, as the case may be, the Central Board may, from time to time, require.

46. Bar of jurisdiction.

No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of any matter which

an Appellate Authority constituted under this Act is empowered by or under this Act to determine, and

no injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any action taken or to be

taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.

CHAPTER VII

MISCELLANEOUS

47. Power of Central Government to supersede State Board,

(1) If at any time the State Government is of opinion-

(a) that a State Board constituted under this Act has persistently made default in the performance of the

functions imposed on it by or under this Act, or

(b) that circumstances exist which render it necessary in the public interest so to do,

the State Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, supersede the State Board for such

period, not exceeding six months, as may be specified in the notification:

Provided that before issuing a notification under this sub-section for the reasons mentioned in clause

(a), the State Government shall give a reasonable opportunity to the State Board to show cause why it

should not be superseded and shall consider the explanations and objections, if any, of the State Board.

(2) Upon the publication of a notification under sub-section (1) superseding the State Board,-

(a) all the members shall, as from the date of supersession, vacate their offices as such;

(b) all the powers, functions and duties which may, by or under this Act, be exercised, performed or

discharged by the State Board shall, until the State Board is reconstituted under sub-section (3), be

exercised, performed or discharged by such person or persons as the State Government may direct.-,

(c) all property owned or controlled by the State Board shall, until the Board is reconstituted under

sub-section (3), vest in the State Government.

(3) On the expiration of the period of supersession specified in the notification issued under sub-section

(1), the State Government may-

(a) extend the period of supersession for such further term, not exceeding six months, as it may consider

necessary; or

(b) reconstitute the State Board by a fresh nomination or appointment as the case may be, and in such

case any person who vacated his office under clause (a) of sub-section (2) shall also be eligible for

nomination or appointment.

Provided that the State Government may at any time before the expiration of the period of supersession

whether originally specified under sub-section (1) or as extended under this sub-section, take action

under clause (b) of this sub-section.

48. Special provision in the case of supersession of the Central Board or the State Boards constituted

under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.

Where the Central Board or any State Board constituted under the Water (Prevention and Control of

Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), is superseded by the Central Government or the State Government,

as the case may be, under that Act, all the powers, functions and duties of the Central Board or such

State Board under this Act shall be exercised, performed or discharged during the period of such

supersession by the person or persons, exercising, preforming or discharging the powers, functions and

duties of the Central Board or such State Board under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)

Act, 1974, during such period.

49. Dissolution of State Boards constituted under the Act

(1) As and when the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (Act 6 of 1974), comes into

force in any State and the State Government constitutes a I [Scate Board for the Prevention and Control

of Water Pollution] under that Act, the State Board constituted by the State Government under this Act

shall stand dissolved and the Board first-mentioned shall exercise the powers and perform the functions

of the Board second-mentioned in that State,

(2) On the dissolution of the State Board constituted under this Act,--

(a) all the members shall vacate their offices as such;

(b) all moneys and other property of whatever kind (including the fund of the State Board) owned by, or

vested in, the State Board, immediately before such dissolution, shall stand transferred to and vest in

the 32[State Board for the Prevention and Control of Water Pollution];

(c) every officer and other employee serving under the State, Board immediately before such dissolution

shall be transferred to and become an officer or other employee of the I [State Board for the Prevention

and Control of Water Pollution] and hold office by the same tenure and at the same remuneration and

on the same terms and conditions of service as he would have held the same if the State Board

constituted under this Act had not been dissolved and shall continue to do so unless and until such

tenure, remuneration and conditions of service are duly altered by the 33[State Board for the

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] :

Provided that the tenure, remuneration and terms and conditions of service of any such officer or other

employee shall not be altered to his disadvantage without the previous sanction of the State

Government;

(d) all liabilities obligations of the State Board of whatever kind, immediately before such dissolution,

shall be deemed to be the liabilities or obligations, as the case may be, of the l[State Board for the

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution] and any proceeding or cause of action, pending or existing

immediately before such dissolution by or against the State Board constituted under this Act in relation

to such liability or obligation may be continued and enforced by or against the I [State Board for the

Prevention and Control of Water Pollution.]

50. [Power to amend the Schedule.] Rep. by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment

Act, 1987 (47 of 1987), s. 22 (w.e.f. 1-41988).

51. Maintenance of register.

(1) Every State Board shall maintain a register containing particulars of the persons to whom consent

has been granted under section 21, the standard for emission laid down by it in relation to each such

consent and such other particulars as may be prescribed.

(2) The register maintained under sub-section (1) shall be open to inspection at all reasonable hours by

any person interested in or affected by such standards for emission or by any other person authorised

by such person in this behalf.

52. Effect of other laws.

Save as otherwise provided by or under the Atomic Energy Act, 1962 (33 of 1962), in relation to

radioactive air pollution the provisions of this Act shall have effect notwithstanding anything

inconsistent therewith contained in any enactment other than this Act.

53. Power of Central Government to make rules.

(1) The Central Government may, in consultation with the Central Board by notification in the Official

Gazette, make rules in respect of the following matters namely :-

(a) the intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the Central Board or any committee

thereof shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the quorum

necessary for the transaction of business thereat, under sub-section (1) of section 10 and under

sub-section (2) of section 11;

(b) the fees and allowances to be paid to the members of a committee of the Central Board, not being

members of the Board, under sub-section (3) of section 11;

(c) the manner in which and the purposes for which persons may be associated with the Central Board

under sub-section (1) of section 12;

(a) the fees and allowance to be paid under sub-section (3) of section 12 to persons associated with the

Central Board under sub-section (/) of section 12;

(e) the functions to be performed by the Central Board under clause (j) of sub-section (2) of section 16;

34[(f) the form in which and the time within which the budget of the Central Board may be prepared

and forwarded to the Central Government under section 34;

(ff) the form in which the annual report of die Central Board may be prepared under section 35;1

(g) the form in which the accounts of the Central Board may be maintained under sub-section (1) of

section 36.

(2) Every rule made by the Central Government under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is

made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session, for a total period of thirty days which may

be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the

session immediately following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in

making any modification in the rule or both Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rule

shall thereafte have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so,

however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything

previously done under that rule.

54. Power of State Government to make rules.

(1) Subject to the provisions of sub-section (3), the State Government may, by notification in the Official

Gazette, make rules to carry out the purposes of this Act in respect of matter not falling within the

purview of section 53.

(2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide

for all or any of the following matters, namley --

35[(a) the qualifications, knowledge and experience of scientific, engineering or management aspect of

pollution control required for appointment as member-secretary of a State Board constituted under the

Act;]

36[(aa) the terms and conditions of service of the Chairman and other members (other than the

member-secretary) of the State Board constituted under this Act under sub-section (7) of section 7;

(b) the intervals and the time and place at which meetings of the State Board or any committee thereof

shall be held and the procedure to be followed at such meetings, including the quorum necessary for

the transaction of business thereat, under sub-section (1) of section 10 and under sub-section (2) of

section 11;

(c) the fees and allowances to be paid to the members of a committee of the State Board, not being

members of the Board under sub-section (3) of section 11;

(d) the manner in which and the purpose for which persons may be associated with the State Board

under sub-section (1) of section 12;

(e) the fees and allowances to be paid under sub-section (3) of section 12 to persons associated with the

State Board under sub-section (1) of section 12;

(f) the terms and conditions of service of the member-secretary of a State Board constituted under this

Act under sub-section (1) of section 14;

(g) the powers and duties to be exercised and discharged by the member-secretary of a State Board

under sub-section (2) of section 14;

(h) the conditions subject to which a State Board may appoint such officers and other employees as it

considers necessary for the efficient performance of its functions under sub-section (3) of section 14;

(i) the conditions subject to which a State Board may appoint a consultant under sub-section (5) of

section 14;

(j) the functions to be performed by the State Board under clause (i) of sub-section (1) of section 17;

(k) the manner in which any area or areas may be declared as air pollution control area or areas under

sub-section (1) of section 19;

(l) the form of application for the consent of the State Board, the fees payable therefore, the period

within which such application shall be made and the particulars it may contain, under sub-section (2) of

section 21;

(m) the procedure to be followed in respect of an inquiry under subsection (3) of section 2 1;

(n) the authorities or agencies to whom information under sub-section (1) of section 23 shall be

furnished;

(o) the manner in which samples of air or emission may be taken under sub-section (1) of section 26;

(p) the form of the notice referred to in sub-section (3) of section 26;

(q) the form of the report of the State Board analyst under sub-section (1) of section 27;

(r) the form of the report of the Government analyst under sub-section (3) of section 27;

(s) the functions of the State Air Laboratory, the procedure for the submission to the said Laboratory of

samples of air or emission for analysis or tests, the form of Laboratory's report thereon, the fees payable

in respect of such report and other matters as may be necessary or expedient to enable that Laboratory

to carry out its functions, under sub-section (2) of section 28;

(t) the qualifications required for Government analysts under subsection (1) of section 29;

(u) the qualification required for State Board analysts under sub-section (2) of section 29;

(v) the form and the manner in which appeals may be preferred, the fees payable in respect ot such

appeals and the procedure to be followed by the Appellate Authority in disposing of the appeals under

sub-section (3) of section 31;

37[(w) the form in which and the time within which the budget of the State Board may be prepared and

forwarded to the State Government under section 34;

(ww) the form in which the annual report of the State Board may be prepared under section 35,1

(x) the form in which the accounts of the State Board may be maintained under the sub-section (1) of

section 36;

38[(xx) the manner in which notice of intention to make a complaint shall be given under section 43;]

(y) the particulars which the register maintained under section 51 may contain;

(z) any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed.

(3) After the first constitution of the State Board, no rule with respect to any of the matters referred to

in sub-section (2) other than those referred to 39[in clause (aa) thereof], shall be made, varied,

amended or repealed without consulting that Board.

Summary on Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act (1981) of

India

It is also a comprehensive legislation with more than fifty sections. It makes provisions, interalia, for

Central and State Boards, power to declare pollution control areas, restrictions on certain industrial

units, authority of the Boards to limit emission of air pollutants, power of entry, inspection, taking

samples and analysis, penalties, offences by companies and Government and cognizance of offences

etc..

The Act specifically empowers State Government to designate air pollution areas and to prescribe the

type of fuel to be used in these designated areas. According to this Act, no person can operate certain

types of industries including the asbestos, cement, fertilizer and petroleum industries without consent

of the State Board.

The Board can predicate its consent upon the fulfillment of certain conditions. The Air Act apparently

adopts an industry wide “best available technology” requirement. As in the Water Act, courts may hear

complaints under the Act only at the instigation of, or with the sanction of, the State Board.

The Government passed this Act in 1981 to clean up our air by controlling pollution. It states that

sources of air pollution such as industry, vehicles, power plants, etc., are not permitted to release

particulate matter, lead, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, volatile organic compounds

(VOCs) or other toxic substances beyond a prescribed level.

To ensure this, Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) have been set up by Government to measure pollution

levels in the atmosphere and at certain sources by testing the air. This is measured in parts per million or

in milligrams or micrograms per cubic meter.

The particulate matter and gases that are released by industry and by cars, buses and two wheelers is

measured by using air-sampling equipment. However, the most important aspect is for people

themselves to appreciate the dangers of air pollution and reduce their own potential as polluters by

seeing that their own vehicles or the industry they work in reduces levels of emissions.

This Act is created to take appropriate steps for the preservation of the natural resources of the Earth

which among other things includes the preservation of high quality air and ensures controlling the level

of air pollution.

The main objectives of the Act are as follows:

(a) To provide for the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.

(b) To provide for the establishment of central and State Boards with a view to implement the Act.

(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act and assign to the Boards

functions relating to pollution.

Air pollution is more acute in heavily industrialized and urbanized areas, which are also densely

populated. The presence of pollution beyond certain Limits due to various pollutants discharged through

industrial emission is monitored by the PCBs set up in every state.

Powers and Functions of the Boards:

Central Pollution Board:

The main function of the Central Board is to implement legislation created to improve the quality of air

and to prevent and control air pollution in the country.

The-Board advises the Central Government on matters concerning the improvement of air quality and

also coordinates activities, provides technical assistance and guidance to State Boards and lays down

standards for the quality of air. It collects and disseminates information in respect of matters relating to

air pollution and performs functions as prescribed in the Act.

State Pollution Control Boards:

The State Boards have the power to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the

prevention and control of air pollution. They have the right to inspect at all reasonable times any control

equipment, industrial plant, or manufacturing process and give orders to take the necessary steps to

control pollution.

They are expected to inspect air pollution control areas at intervals or whenever necessary. They are

empowered to provide standards for emissions to be laid down for different industrial plants with

regard to quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere.

A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory to perform this function. The State Governments

have been given powers to declare air pollution control areas after consulting with the State Board and

also give instructions to ensure standards of emission from automobiles and restriction on use of certain

industrial plants.

Penalties:

The persons managing industry are to be penalized if they produce emissions of air pollutants in excess

of the standards laid down by the State Board. The Board also makes applications to the court for

restraining persons causing air pollution.

Whoever contravenes any of the provision of the Act or any order or direction issued is punishable with

imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months or with a fine of Rs. 10,000 or with both,

and in case of continuing offence with an additional fine which may extend to Rs 5,000 for every day

during which such contravention continues after conviction for the first contravention.

POLLUTION CONTROL MEASURES TAKEN BY DELHI GOVT.

1. Pollution Checking by Transport Department:

Mobile enforcement teams are being deployed on regular basis at road locations for prosecution of

polluting vehicles and vehicles not having PUC Certificates.

2. Public Awareness:

Public awareness campaigns are conducted to raise social consciousness on the issue and educate

motorists about the health hazards, statutory provisions and control measures viz. engine tuning and

maintenance.

3. Catalytic Converters:

Since April 1995, only those 4-wheeled petrol driven vehicles are registered on first sale in Delhi , which

are fitted with Catalytic Converters.

4. Mass Rapid Transport System:

Mass Rapid Transport System is being constructed with the objective to place a non-polluting, efficient

and affordable rail based mass rapid transit system for NCT of Delhi, duly integrated with other modes

of transport.

5. Phasing out of Old Commercial Vehicles:

With a view to reduce vehicular pollution in Delhi Hon'ble Supreme Court vide its orders in CWP No.

13029 of 1985 has banned the plying of following categories of vehicles in Delhi: -

More than 15 years old commercial/ transport vehicles. Autos & Taxis driven on conventional fuels.

Diesel driven city buses.

Transport Department is ensuring the effective compliance of these directions through its enforcement

teams. The Govt. of Delhi has provided fiscal incentives by way of sales tax exemption and interest

subsidy on loans for purchase of new replacement vehicles.

6. Tightening of mass emission standards for new vehicles:

Mass emission norms for new vehicles were introduced in the year 1991. Subsequently, these norms

have been tightened for new vehicles in all categories in 1996 and 2000. At present, only vehicles

(except 2 and 3 wheelers) complying with Bharat Stage III/Euro-III emission norms and 2 and 3 wheelers

complying with Bharat Stage II/Euro-II emission norms are being registered in the Delhi .

7. Improvement in Fuel Quality: The quality of the fuel being supplied in Delhi has been significantly

improved during recent years by way of: -

a. Leaded petrol has been completely phased out.

b. Introduction of Low Sulphur diesel w.e.f. August 1997 reducing Sulphur content from 0.8%

gm/litre to 0.25% gm/litre. The Sulphur content of diesel supplied to NCT Delhi has been further

reduced to 0.035% w.e.f.2010.

c. The quality of petrol being supplied to Delhi has been improved further by reduction of Sulphur

content to 0.015% & Benzene Content to 1%

Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Government of India has tightened the emission level of CO

and introduced the measurement of HC emissions in petrol vehicles. In respect of Diesel vehicles, Oil

temperature & RPM measurement has been included in the test procedure. In compliance with the

Gazette notification all the pollution checking Centres have been directed to get their equipment

upgraded/modified/replaced with the new 4-gas analyzer and wherever they have failed to do so their

authorisation has been cancelled.

http://www.delhi.gov.in/wps/wcm/connect/doit_transport/Transport/Home/Pollution+Control/Steps+T

aken+by+Delhi+Govt.+to+reduce+the+Pollution+in+Delhi

Prevention Techniques

1. Vehicular Emission Norms:

The vehicular emission norms in India are detailed below:

(i) India notified mass emission norms for the first time during 1990-91. These norms were

notified under Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) motor vehicles rules and Air Act and were

applicable to vehicles at the manufacturing stage as well as for in-use vehicles.

(ii) The emission norms introduced in 1996 were very stringent and crucial.

(iii) From April 1995 only those passenger cars were allowed to be registered in four metros—

Delhi; Mumbai; Kolkata and Chennai which were fitted with catalytic converter. Emission norms

for such vehicles were notified under motor vehicle act in 1998.

(iv) The testing method for passenger cars was changed from hot start to cold start.

(v) More stringent norms were introduced in 2000, according to which automobile

manufacturers are supposed to undergo major modifications.

(vi) As per Hon’ble Supreme Court’s directions only private vehicles conforming to at least

EURO forms are being registered in NCR from June 1999 and from April 2000 only private

vehicle’s conforming to Euro-II equivalent i.e., Bharat Stage-11 norms were registered. In

Mumbai Euro-II norms for private vehicles (4 wheelers) was applicable from 2001. In Kolkata,

India – 2000 norms (Euro-I) have been made applicable from November 1999. With the

acceptance of the Mashelkar Committee recommendations, passenger cars and commercial

vehicles are expected ю achieve Bharat stage-II norms across the country by April 1, 2005 and

Euro-Ill specifications by April 1, 2010.

Eleven most polluted cities had been asked to meet Bharat Stage-II norms by April 1, 2003,

Euro-III norms by April 1, 2005 and Euro-IV standards by April 1, 2010. These cities are Delhi,

Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra.

Two-wheelers and three-wheelers will have to comply with Bharat Stage-II norms by April 1,

2005 and Bharat Stage-Ill norms preferably by April 1, 2008, but not later than April 1, 2010.

These schedules will, however, be reviewed in 2006, when Euro-II standards will be

implemented throughout the country and Euro-III norms will be in place in the 11 most polluted

cities.

(vii) From 1st October 1999, emission norms for agricultural tractors were introduced

throughout the country. Bharat Stage-II and Bharat Stage-Ill emission norms for tractors have

been scheduled to be implemented from 2003 and 2005 respectively.

(viii) The Bharat Stage-II norms for new 4-wheeler private non-commercial vehicle were

introduced in Mumbai from January 2001 and in Kolkata and Chennai from July 2001 to 24th

October, 2001.

(ix) Only those taxies are being registered in Delhi, which are meeting Bharat Stage-II norms.

(x) Bharat Stage-II norms for Diesel 4-wheeler transport vehicles were introduced in NCT from

24th October, 2001, in Greater Mumbai, Kolkata & Chennai from 31.10.2001.

(xi) The expert committee on Auto Oil Policy constituted in September 2001 recommended

Bharat Stage-Ill emission norms for all categories of 4-wheelers in 7 mega cities from 2005 and

rest of the country by 2010.

2. Fuel Quality Specifications:

Diesel and Gasoline fuel quality with respect to environment related parameters had been

notified under Environment (Protection) Act during April 1996. The specifications include low

leaded gasoline, unleaded gasoline and low sulphur diesel.

(i) Unleaded Gasoline: With the progressive reduction of lead content in petrol (from 0.56 gm/1

to 0. 15 gm/1 and then to 0.013 g/1 in unleaded petrol) introduction of unleaded petrol for new

passenger cars from April, 1995 and supply of only unleaded petrol for all vehicles from

September, 1998, in NCT—Delhi a lethal pollutant from vehicular exhaust has been removed.

The lead content in the atmosphere near traffic intersections of Delhi has reduced by more

than 60% with the introduction of unleaded petrol.

Table 9.10 Gasoline Lead Phase out Programme in India:

Phase Introduction date Gasoline Lead Areas covered

Phase -I June, 1994 Low leaded (0.15 g/1) Cities of Delhi, Mumbai,

Kolkata and Chennai.

Phase – II 1.4.1995 Unleaded (0.013 g/1) (low leaded) Cities of Delhi,

Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.

Phase – III 1.1.1997 Low leaded (0.15 g/1) Entire country.

Phase – IV 1.9.1998 Ban on leaded fuel only unleaded fuel)

NCT – Delhi and 45

other cities.

Phase – V 31.12.1998 Unleaded (0.013 g/1) (low leaded) All other

capitals of

States/UTs and other major cities.

Phase – VI 1.1.1999 Unleaded (0.013 g/1) National Capital Region.

Phase – VII 1.2.2000 Unleaded (0.013 g/1) Entire Country.

(ii) Benzene Reduction: The fear of increased emission of benzene and reduced performance of

engines by the use of unleaded petrol has also been falsified. The oil refineries were told to

combine the benzene content in the unleaded petrol upto 5% (v/v) in 1996 and 3% (v/v) from

the year 2000. In addition to phasing out of lead, it is considered necessary to reduce the

benzene (to 1% or lower) and aromatics in petrol not only for Delhi but also for other parts of

the country.

(iii) Sulphur in Diesel: Sulphur content in diesel supplied in Delhi was reduced to 0.5% in 1996

and it was further reduced to 0.25% from April 1996 onward. The diesel with 0.25% sulphur has

been made available throughout the country by September, 1999.

Considering the fact that several countries have introduced diesel with much lower sulphur

content and it is necessary to have low sulphur diesel for meeting the emission norms beyond

EURO-II norms (for EURO-I to EURO-II norms, sulphur content in diesel is 0.3%), the refineries

will need to take steps for bringing down the sulphur content. As per Supreme Court order

(10th May 2000) single quality diesel with 0.05% sulphur to be supplied in NCT-Delhi and

National Capital Region by 30th June 2001 respectively.

3. Lubricants Quality: Specifications of 2T oil for two stroke engine with respect to smoke have

been notified under EPA during September 1998 for implementation from 1.4.1999 throughout

the country. Pre-mix 2T oil dispenser has been installed at all petrol filling stations in Delhi so

that excessive oil is not being used by the vehicle owners. Sale of loose 2T oil has been banned

from December 1998 in Delhi.

4. Alternate Fuels: A very important factor in reducing vehicular pollution is the introduction of

alternative fuels such as CNG and LPG.

(i) CNG (Compressed Natural Gas): CNG is a better and clean fuel providing limited emissions of

various toxic gases. All Government Vehicles were required to compulsorily fit CNG Kit or

catalytic converter by December 1996. New CNG taxies are being registered in Delhi as well as

there is no restriction or registration of CNG vehicles in National Capital Territory (NCT) as they

already comply EURO-II norms. The customs duty on CNG kits has been exempted for

promotion of installation of CNG kits in vehicles. Emission norms for CNG vehicles have been

notified under Motor Vehicles Rules dated 24.4.2001.

(ii) LPG: The use of LPG as an alternate fuel in automobiles has been made applicable for which

amendment has been made in Motor Vehicles Act to legally permit the use of LPG as

automobile fuel Hon’ble Supreme Court permitted dual mode facility (CNG + Petrol) for the

vehicles in its order dated 10th May 2000. Emission norms for LPG vehicles were modified on

24.4.2001.

(iii) Battery driven vehicles: Battery driven vehicles have been introduced in few corridors in

Delhi.

5. Phase out of Grossly Polluting Vehicles:

(i) Registration of new auto rickshaws with conventional engine has been banned from May

1996 and registration of Defence Service and Govt. auctioned vehicles has been banned from

April 1998 in Delhi.

(ii) Commercial vehicles more than 20 years old had been prohibited from plying with effect

from October 1998, followed by phase out of 17 to 20 years old commercial vehicles from 15th

November 1998 and 15 to 17 years old vehicles from 31st December, 1998 in Delhi.

(iii) Registration on alternation of vehicles by replacing petrol engine with diesel has been

banned from 1.4.1998 in Delhi.

(iv) Registration of new private vehicles not meeting EURO-I norms has been banned from June,

1999 and vehicles not meeting EURO-II norms from April 2000 in Delhi.

6. Promotion of Comprehensive inspection and Certification:

It has been possible to reduce 30-40% pollution loads generated by vehicles through proper

periodical inspection and maintenance of vehicles. Such inspection and maintenance of vehicles

is being carried on by State Pollution Control Boards, Pollution Control Committees and

Transport Directorates in different parts of the country.

7. Traffic Management:

Restriction has been imposed on goods vehicles during day time from August 1999 in Delhi.

(i) Left lane has been made exclusive to buses and other HMV in Delhi.

(ii) Time clocks have been installed in important red lights to enable the drivers to switch off

their vehicles depending on the time left in the time clocks.

(iii)More fly-over and subways have been constructed and T-Junctions have been closed for

better traffic flow.

8. Public Transport System:

(i) To discourage the use of individual motor vehicles by public, public transport system is

augmented from time to time in various urban areas of the country. The number of buses has

been increased in big cities like Delhi.

(ii) Private sector has been allowed to operate public transport buses to increase mobility.

(iii) Mass Rapid Transport System (MRTS) has been launched. Delhi Metro Rail Transport System

is making rapid progress and is likely to reduce pressure on transport system of Delhi.

9. Technology:

(i) Fitment of catalytic converter for new petrol passenger cars has been made compulsory from

1. 4.1995 in four metros and 45 cities from 1.9.1998.

(ii) Two wheeler scooters with four stroke engines are being introduced in the market from

October 1998.

(iii) Registration of only rear engine auto rickshaws is being allowed from May 1996 onwards.

(iv) More four stroke two wheelers are being registered in Delhi.

10. Information Dissemination/Mass Awareness:

(i) Messages/articles related to vehicular emissions are disseminated through newsletters,

pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, Television, Radio, Internet and through Workshops,

Summer Courses, Exhibitions, display, Pollution Control Camps etc.

(ii) Display of ambient air quality data through Electronic Display System near ITO intersection

as well as dissemination through Newspapers, daily news and Internet.

(iii) Publishing reports related to vehicular pollution control and dissemination to various

organisations.

(iv) Regular publication of air quality statistics regarding ambient air quality status in the

country.

(v) Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) working in the area of Vehicular Pollution Control in

different parts of the country are being encouraged for mass awareness.

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/air-pollution/10-measures-to-control-air-pollution-from-veh

icles-in-india/19765/

The measures taken for controlling air pollution from industries are as follows:

1. Emission standards have been notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to

check pollution.

2. Industries have been directed to install necessary pollution control equipment in a time

bound manner and legal action has been initiated against the defaulting units.

3. As many as 24 critically polluted areas have been identified. These areas are Singrauli, Korba,

Vapi, Ankleshwar, Greater Kochi, Vishakhapatnam, Haora, Durgapur, Manali, Chembur, Mandi

Gobindgarh, Dhanbad, Pali, Najafgarh Drain Basin, Angul-Talcher, Bhadravati, Digboi, Jodhpur,

Kala Amb, Nagda-Ratlam North Arcot, Parwanoo, Patancheru, Bollaram and Tarapur, Action

plans have been formulated for restoration of environmental quality in these areas.

4. Environmental guidelines have evolved for siting industries.

5. Environmental clearance is made compulsory for 29 categories of development projects

involving public hearing/NGO participation as an important component of Environmental

Impact Assessment process.

6. The process of Environment Auditing has been initiated in highly polluting industries. The

methodology has been standardised and finalised for respective group of industries.

Submission of Environmental Statement has been made mandatory.

7. Under Indo-German Bilateral Programme, methodology for zoning, mapping and siting of

industries is developed in various states in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards in

order to identify the existing characteristics of the district, unsuitable zones for the industries,

air quality mapping assessment of risk due to siting of air polluting industries and industrial

suitability mapping. Based on zoning/siting programme, the site clearance procedure has to be

streamlined.

8. Minimal National Standards (MINAS) have been presented for highly polluting industries

under The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and Environment (Protection) Act

1986.

9. Power plants (coal based) located beyond 1000 kms from the pit-head are required to use

low ash content coal (not exceeding 34%) with effect from 1.6.2002. Power plants located in

the sensitive areas are also required to use low ash coal irrespective of their distance from the

pit head.

It is estimated that about 40 million tonnes of fly ash is generated per annum from thermal

power plants and contribute to particulate matter loading to environment. Fly ash possesses

good pozzolinic properties due to presence of active and finely divided silica, alumina and

calcium oxide, which provide it with cement like qualities in combination with lime rich

material. Thus fly ash emitted by thermal power plants can be used for manufacturing bricks,

blacks, aggregates and cement production.

10. Use of cleaner technologies is a new dimension emerging rapidly for cleaner production and

to increase production efficiency, and at the same time eliminate or at least minimise emission

and waste at their source rather than to treat them at the end of the production chain after

they are generated.

11. Industrial wastes like slags, red mud etc. are generated from iron and steel and during

extraction of non-ferrous metals such as aluminium and copper. The slags are dumped in the

vicinity of plant while red mud is disposed as slurry.

This slurry becomes air borne after getting dried. In phosphoric fertilizer plants about 4.5

million tonnes of phospho-gypsum (with floride contents 0.7 to 1.5 %) are produced. This can

be used for cement, gypsum board, partition panel, ceiling tiles, artificial marble and fibre

boards. The thrust will have to be made for proper disposal and reutilisation of these waste

materials.

http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/air-pollution/measures-taken-for-controlling-air-pollution-fr

om-industries-in-india/19769/

EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.

1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate temperature

so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the smoke consisting of partly

burnt ashes and dust.

2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and electro-static

precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to remove particulates from the

exhaust gases of electric power and industrial plants are shown below. All methods retain

hazardous materials that must be disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce

sulphur dioxide emissions.

3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are dealt with

chemical treatment.

http://mjcetenvsci.blogspot.in/2013/11/air-pollution-causes-effects-and.html

Role Of NGOs/Other

Organisations working

in INDIA for a

green/clean

Environment

Today we come across various non-governmental organizations whose

concerns are focused on various areas such as social issues, health issues,

and environmental issues. Non-Governmental Organization is a broad term,

which includes charity organizations, advisory committees and various other

professional organizations. NGOs in India are spread across the country and

they have close contacts with communities.

They are involved in the whole spectrum of developmental activities from

creating environmental awareness to undertaking watershed development:

from disaster management to sustainable livelihoods; from joint forest

management to giving inputs to policies. They range from clubs, which

encourage nature camping to agencies, which undertake research and

monitoring.

There are large number of NGOs in India and other countries that are

exclusively working for environmental, protection, conservation, and

awareness. The number of these non-governmental organizations which are

actively involved in environmental protection in our country is, in fact, more

than in any of the developing country. Increasingly, the government is viewing

NGOs not only as agencies that will help them to implement their programs,

but also as partners shaping policy and programs.

NGOs are now playing an important role in framing the environmental policy,

mobilizing public support for environmental conservation, and protecting the

endangered species of forests and animals. Environmental organizations such

as Earth watch and Sea Shepherd Conservation Society have been

successful in creating awareness about the environmental dangers in using

drift nets in the commercial fishing industry.

Through driftnet monitoring, public education and action they were successful

in banning drift- net system internationally. The issues like future of

environmental protection, sustainable development and zero population

growth are some of the major concerns of the environmental NGOs.

Environmental policies will achieve positive results only when they are

addressed to local issues and solve the problems of local people. The

policymakers should keep in mind the needs of the people while framing the

policies and implementing the environment-friendly projects.

Unless the needs of the people are identified and supported, sustainable

development cannot be achieved. Policymakers and administrators should

take care in selecting, financing, and implementing projects, which are aimed

at promoting social welfare. They should not encourage the enterprises that

promote private ownership and cooperation.

Some of the international environmental organizations are Greenpeace,

Worldwide Fund for Nature’ (WWF), Earth First, etc. Let us now have a

detailed discussion on some of the environmental organizations and their

efforts in protecting environment.

Greenpeace:

Greenpeace is an environment-friendly international organization, which aims

at promoting environmental awareness. It is an independent, campaigning

organization, addressing the environmental abuse through direct, non-violent

confrontations with governments and companies. It exposes the global

environmental problems and provides solutions for a healthy environment.

Greenpeace focuses on the most crucial worldwide threats to our planets

biodiversity and environment.

It campaigns to:

1. Stop Climate Change:

The extensive use of oil, gas, fuel, and other energy resources leads to

climatic changes, which results in global warming. In order to stop climate

change, Greenpeace is campaigning on various fronts. It has been

researching to stop climate change and to promote clean energy solutions.

2. Protect Ancient Forests:

Many forests of the world are in crisis. The plants and animals are facing the

threat of extinction. People living in forests and depending on them for their

livelihood are also under threat. Greenpeace takes up the responsibility to

save the forests and provides solutions for the same.

3. Save the Oceans:

Greenpeace’s save the oceans campaign currently focuses on four major

threats to the world’s oceans: overfishing, pirate fishing, whaling, and

intensive shrimp aquaculture.

4. Stop Whaling:

Commercial Whaling has resulted in the decline of the world’s whale

population. In order to stop commercial whaling, Greenpeace is working on

many fronts. Through political work public outreach and by adopting

nonviolent direct, action against the whalers at sea. Greenpeace is fighting

against commercial whaling.

5. Say No to Genetic Engineering:

Genetic engineering enables creation of plants, animals and micro-organisms

through the manipulation of genes. The organisms, which are produced

through genetic engineering when interbred with the natural organisms lead to

new environments, which are uncontrolled.

Their release into the environment leads to “genetic pollution”, as once

released they cannot be recalled back. Greenpeace believes that “organisms,”

which are genetically engineered, should not be released into the environment

without adequate knowledge of their impact on the health and environment. It

advocates taking immediate measures such as labeling of genetically

engineered ingredients, and the segregation of genetically engineered crops

from conventional ones.

6. Stop the Nuclear Threat:

Greenpeace campaigns against the use of nuclear power as its use has never

been peaceful. It leads to accidents, deaths, and disasters. Radiation released

into the environment through the nuclear tests has led to the contamination of

soil, air, rivers, and oceans, causing cancer and other diseases in people.

7. Eliminate Toxic Chemicals:

Greenpeace also campaigns against toxic chemicals, as they prove to be a

global threat to the health and environment.

8. Encourage Sustainable Trade:

Greenpeace opposes the current form of globalization that is increasing

corporate power. It demands that the World Trade Organization (WTO) adopt

a policy of trade, which works for all and that preserves and restores the

environment. Governments must work toward achieving sustainable

development, which means integrating three things: environmental, social,

and economic priorities.

Greenpeace is a non-profit organization, and in order to maintain its

independence it does not accept funds from governments or from the

corporate sector. It depends mainly on the voluntary contributions of

individuals and grants from foundations. Greenpeace was founded in 1971 to

oppose US nuclear testing in Alaska.

The organization has fought to protect the endangered species, stop the

dumping of hazardous waste, and strengthen national and international laws

that regulate environmental affairs. French intelligence agents blew up

Rainbow Warrior, a Greenpeace ship scheduled to protest French nuclear

weapons tests, in Auckland Harbor, New Zealand, on 10 July 1985. The

resulting scandal caused the resignation of Frances minister of defense and

the firing of the head of Frances intelligence service.

Greenpeace has played an important role in preserving the environment,

which is proved by its successful achievements:

1. A ban on toxic waste exports to less developed countries.

2. A moratorium on commercial whaling.

3. A United Nations convention providing for better management of world

fisheries.

4. A Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary.

5. A 50-year moratorium on mineral exploitation in Antarctica.

6. Ban on the dumping at sea of radioactive and industrial waste and disused

oil installations.

7. An end to high-sea, large-scale driftnet fishing.

8. A ban on all nuclear weapons testing their first ever campaign.

Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF)—India:

WWF is an international organization for wildlife conservation with its focus on

protecting particular species of wildlife fauna. As its range of activities

broadened, the international organization believed that its name no longer

reflected the scope of its activities and became the Worldwide Fund for Nature

in 1986. But the affiliated groups in the United States and Canada retained the

original name. The organization is now simply, referred to as WWF.

WWF-India is committed to protecting and saving the already degraded and

threatened natural bounties in the country. The organization is today

dedicated to the conservation of natural habitats and ecosystems in India.

WWF-India was established as a Charitable Trust in 1969. With its network of

State/Divisional and Field Offices spread across the country to implement its

programs, WWF-India is the largest and one of the most experienced

conservation organizations in the country.

The Secretariat of the organization functions from New Delhi. The

organization is part of the WWF family with 27 independent national

organizations. The coordinating body, the WWF International, is located at

Gland in Switzerland.

In order to suit India’s specific ecological and socio-cultural situation,

WWF-India articulated its mission in 1987 as follows: “The promotion of nature

conservation and environmental protection as the basis for sustainable and

equitable development.”

The WWF-India Mission has five broad program components:

1. Promoting India’s ecological security; restoring the ecological balance.

2. Conserving biological diversity.

3. Ensuring sustainable use of the natural resource base.

4. Minimizing pollution and wasteful consumption, promoting sustainable

lifestyles.

WWF-India implements its conservation programs through Field Programs,

Public Policy, Education, Communications, NGO Networking, and Resource

Mobilization.

The key environmental issues, which WWF-India has involved itself with,

are:

The tiger conservation program, fresh-water and wetlands program, river

dolphin conservation program, wildlife trade monitoring, managing forests,

environmental law, information management and environmental education.

Some Other Environmental Organizations in India:

1. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS):

Founded in 1883, is recognized as one of the foremost conservation research

organizations in the world. It aims to collect data on the specimens on natural

history throughout the Indian sub-continent. To disseminate knowledge of

flora and fauna by means of lectures, field trips, literature, expeditions and to

study wildlife-related problems and recommend management plans to

conserve wildlife and its habitat.

It conducts field research projects on bird migration. It also conducts studies

of certain endangered species of wildlife and their habitat and through

environmental education imparts the knowledge and awareness of the need to

conserve wildlife.

It has undertaken a wide range of projects in conjunction with both local and

overseas counterpart organizations on birds, reptiles, mammals, natural

history, and the impact of developmental programs on wildlife.

2. Development Alternatives Group:

Development Alternatives Group based in Delhi works in all parts of the

country. It was established in 1983 to design options and promote sustainable

development through programs of economic efficiency, equity and social

justice, resource conservation, and self-reliance. Its activities cover the entire

nation: It is working in the field of pollution monitoring and control, waste

recycling management, wasteland development, and appropriate technology.

Its objective is to design options and promote sustainable development

through programs of:

i. Economic efficiency,

ii. Equity and social justice,

iii. Environmental harmony,

iv. Resource conservation, and

v. Self-reliance.

3. The Energy Research Institute (TERI):

Established in 1974, is a wholly independent, non-profit research institute. Its

mission is to develop and promote technologies, policies, and institutions for

efficient and sustainable use of natural resources. It has been imparting

environmental education through projects, workshops, audio-visual aids, and

quiz competitions.

It deals with policy-related works in the energy sector, research on

environmental subjects, development of renewable energy technologies and

promotion of energy efficiency in the industry and transport sector. TERI also

has a major program in biotechnology, the applications of which are oriented

toward increased biomass production, conversion of waste into useful

products and mitigating the harmful environmental impacts of several

economic activities.

TERI established the TERI University in 1998. Initially set up as the TERI

School of Advanced Studies, it received the status of a deemed university in

1999. The University is a unique institution of higher learning exclusively for

programs leading to PhD and master level degrees. Its uniqueness lies in the

wealth of research carried out within TERI as well as by its faculty and

students making it a genuinely research oriented University.

4.Centre for Science & Environment (CSE)

Environmental NGO specialising in sustainable natural resource management; based in New Delhi; believes in `knowledge-based activism' to cope with India's environmental threats -- ecological poverty, land degradation, toxic degradation etc

5Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

Statutory organisation in New Delhi, promoting cleanliness of streams & wells and air by prevention, control, & abatement of water & air pollution in the country; provides technical services to Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India

6Kalpavriksh

Non-profit organisation working on environmental & social issues; an action group engaged in environmental awareness, campaigns, advocacy, litigation, research, lobbying for wildlife conservation & animal rights etc; offices: Pune & Delhi

7.National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI)

Research institute devoted to research & innovations in environmental science & engineering besides solving a range of problems posed by industry, government and public; part of CSIR; areas include air pollution, climate change, environmental health

(references: www.yourarticlelibrary.com,www.findouter.com)

Future Projections ,

India’s projection in

future: The rapid increase in population and economic development has led to severe environmental

degradation that undermines the environmental resource base upon which sustainable

development depends. The economics of environmental pollution, depletion and degradation of

resources has in fact been neglected as compared to the issues of growth and expansion. India

has been no exception to this worldwide phenomenon, rather the trends of environmental

deterioration in India, because of the substantial increase in its population, have been far more

prominent as compared to other developing economies. The much needed impetus to industrial development has resulted in huge

residuals, having undesirable effects on the environment — air, water and land, disproportional

to their contribution to overall economic growth. For instance, the iron and steel industry

contributes 55% of the particulate matter load while adding 16% to the total industrial output.

The industrial BOD load from chemicals and food processing industries is as much as 86%

against the industry's contribution of 25% to the total industrial output.

These unsustainable growth trends increase the vulnerability of the economically weaker

sections to environmental degradation and pollution, on account of their direct dependence on

natural resources like land, forests and various common property sources for fuelwood, fodder,

and water. In the absence of alternatives, the imbalanced competition for natural resources could

significantly contribute to weakening the support base of the poor further and perpetuating

poverty and a poor quality of life. Hence for a developing country like India, the key to poverty

elimination is the country’s ability to regenerate its environment and assist its masses to retain

control over their living conditions.

Based on studies done at TERI (Tata Energy Research Institute ) – Looking Back to

Think Ahead (TERI 1998) ; DISHA (Directions, Innovations and Strategies for Harnessing

Actions for Sustainable Development) (TERI 2001) and State of Environment — India (UNEP

2001) this chapter aims to highlight the key environmental concerns that have emerged in the

country. Section I focuses on the prevalent status and causal factors of the major environmental

concerns such as air, water resources and pollution, solid waste management and also touches

briefly on the issues of land degradation and biodiversity. Baseline scenarios have been

developed on how these trends are likely to unfold by the year 2025, considering the base year as

1997. Section 2 puts forward the strategies for a reform agenda that is more widespread and

proposes its implementation at a considerably quicker pace. Alternative case projections for the

year 2025 are presented accordingly, assuming that the proposed strategies are implemented in

full within a well-defined time frame.

Growing environment

problems in India

This section focuses on the prevailing environmental concerns and the root causes of the

degrading environment emphasising current effects on resource depletion and environmental

degradation currently and expected future trends. Projections have been made as per BAU

(business-as-usual) scenario for the year 2025 in view of the current socio-economic, policy and

technological factors prevalent in India.

Air pollution

Air pollution in India has been aggravated over the years by developments that typically occur as

economies become industrialised: growing cities, increasing traffic, rapid economic development

and industrialisation, and higher levels of energy consumption. In India, air pollution is restricted

mostly to urban areas, where automobiles are the major contributors, and to a few other areas

with a concentration of industries and thermal power plants. The major sources of air pollution in

the country are industries (toxic gases), thermal power plants (fly ash and sulphur dioxide), and

motor vehicles (carbon monoxide, particulate matter, hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen).

Major polluting industries and automobiles emit tonnes of pollutants every day, putting citizens,

at great health risk. The national capital — Delhi, is already among the most polluted cities in

the world.

The incidence of respiratory diseases in most of the major cities in India has

also increased considerably over the years. In a study of 2031 children and adults

in five major cities of India, of the 1852 children tested, 51.4% had levels of lead

in their blood above 10 µg/dl. The percentage of children having 10 µg/dl or

higher lead levels ranged from 39.9% in Bangalore to 61.8% in Mumbai. Among

the adults, 40.2% had lead levels of about 10 µg/dl (George Foundation 1999,

cited in CPCB 2000 a). Vehicular pollution Vehicular emission is the major contributor to the rising levels of all major pollutants. It is an

issue of prime concern since these emissions are from ground level sources and thus have the

greatest impact on the health of the population exposed to it. The increase in the number of

vehicles contributes significantly to the total air pollution load in many urban areas. The number

of motor vehicles in India has increased from 0.3 million in 1951 to 40.94 million in 1998

(MoST 2000). CO (Carbon monoxide) and HC (hydrocarbons) respectively account for 64% and

23% of the total emission load due to vehicles in all cities considered together (CPCB 1995).

Table 1 highlights the types of pollutants from different sectors in Delhi (CPCB 1995) and

reflects the significant share of the transport sector in the same.

Table 1 Sectoral contribution to emissions in Delhi (tonnes/day)

Polluta

nt

Transpor

t Power Industries Domestic Tota

l

TSP 13 (10%) 50 (37%) 60 (44%) 12 (9%) 138

SO2 11 (6%) 121 (68%) 35 (20%) 12 (6%) 179

NOX 157

(49%)

143 (44%) 20 (6%) 3 (1%) 323

HC 810

(76%)

8 (1%) 128

(12%)

117

(11%)

106

3

CO 310

(97%)

2 (<1%) 6 (2%) 2 (<1%) 320

Source. CPCB 1995

Apart from the concentration of vehicles in urban areas, other reasons for increasing vehicular

pollution include the types of engines used, age of vehicles, poor road conditions, outdated

automotive technologies, poor fuel quality and traffic congestion resulting from clumsy traffic

management systems.

Air quality profile In order to determine the air quality status and trends, assess health hazards, disseminate air

quality data, and to control and regulate pollution, the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board)

initiated a nationwide framework of NAAQM (National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring) in

1984 with 28

stations at 7 cities. Presently, the network has 290 monitoring stations in 92 cities and towns

throughout the country (CPCB 1998). The pollutants being monitored are mainly SPM

(suspended particulate matter), SO2 (sulphur dioxide) and NOx oxides of nitrogen . SPM is one

of the most critical pollutants in terms of its impact on air quality and is also the most common

pollutant across all sectors. The ranges of SPM concentration (annual average) in the major

metropolitan cities in India are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Range of annual averages of SPM in major Indian cities

S.

No. City

Area land

use

Range of annual average of SPM

(µg/m3) 1990-98

Mean of annual

averages (µg/m3)

Table 2 Range of annual averages of SPM in major Indian cities

S.

No. City

Area land

use

Range of annual average of SPM

(µg/m3) 1990-98 Mean of annual

averages (µg/m3) Minimum Maximum

1. Delhi Residenti

al

300 409 355

Industrial 314 431 381

2. Mumbai Residenti

al

196 327 230

Industrial 150 276 224

3. Calcutta Residenti

al

205 491 327

Industrial 286 640 434

4. Chennai Residenti

al

72 118 99

Industrial 53 147 123

5. Bangalore Residenti

al

60 239 158

Industrial 99 153 125

6. Ahmedaba

d

Residenti

al

198 316 261

Industrial 201 306 243

7. Hyderabad Residenti

al

135 184 158

Industrial 72 259 153

Source. CPCB 2000a

As against to the maximum permissible limits laid down by CPCB for annual average

concentration of SPM in ambient air - 70 g/m3 in sensitive areas, 140 g/m3 in residential areas

and 360 g/m3 in industrial areas, it is clearly evident that the SPM levels are high in most of the

metropolitan cities in India.

Projections for integrated air pollution loads — BAU (business as usual) scenario The future scenario of air pollution in India has been calculated considering the integrated impact

from major contributing sectors, i.e. domestic, transport, manufacturing industries and power. In

the absence of a comprehensive emission inventory, projections have been made only for SPM,

which is the most common pollutant across all sectors and is critical for air quality in many

cities.

Emissions from the transport sector have been calculated based on projections for a count of

vehicles, in line with the projections for growth in population and economic activity.

Air pollution from the manufacturing sector has been worked out on the basis of emission

load per unit of output for some of the resource intensive and highly polluting industries-

copper, aluminium, steel, cement, fertilisers, textiles and PVC (poly-vinyl chloride).

Projections for pollutant loads from power generation have been arrived at, considering a

continued reliance of the power sector on coal-based generation, resulting a higher SPM load.

It is further assumed that all coal-based power plants will have installed ESPs (electro-static

precipitators) to limit SPM emissions.

The SPM contribution of the domestic sector takes into account a shift towards cleaner

gaseous fuel and fewer emissions from the residential sector.

Figure 1 highlights the projections for the pollutant load generated from each of the sectors.

Projections indicate that the overall SPM load is likely to get reduced in the time frame

1997-2025 at around 2% per annum, although a bulk of the load would continue to emanate from

power generation (66% in 2025). The drop in pollution loads from the domestic sector is on

account of a likely shift to commercial fuels in rural India. emanate from power generation (66%

in 2025). The drop in pollution loads from the domestic sector is on account of a likely shift to

commercial fuels in rural India.

Reference:

planningcommission.nic.in/reports/sereport/ser/vision2025/env2025.doc

India’s present

condition The study found that high levels of pollutants, such as nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and fine particulate matter such as PM2.5, will persist in East Asia in both 2025 and 2050. Northern India and the Arabian Gulf, on the other hand, will experience high levels of ozone.

“We show that further legislation to control and reduce man-made emissions is needed, in particular for eastern China and northern India, to avoid hot-spots of elevated air pollution,” adds Pozzer.

This research is the first-ever analysis piece of all man-made air pollutants harmful to human health, covering sulphur dioxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and PM2.5. Additionally, the study examined non man-made pollutants that result from desert dust, sea spray, and volcanic emissions. Overall, the research provided evidence that without more legislation to reduce emissions, world average air quality will worsen in the coming decades.

“Strong actions and further effective legislation are essential to avoid the drastic deterioration of air quality, which can have severe effects on human health”.

(Reference:earthzine.org)