Human development

Principles of Growth and Development

• Growth – increase in size or quantity over time

• Development – systematic and orderly change organisms experience as they live and either gain or lose abilities

Principles of Growth and Development

• Growth is personal• Growth comes from within• Growth is gradual and orderly but uneven• Growth has certain characteristics common at

particular stages• Development precedes from the head

downward (cephalocaudal)• Development precedes from the center

outward (proximodistal)

Principles of Growth and Development

• Development depends on maturation and learning

• Development precedes from concrete (simple) to complex

• Growth and development is a continuous process

• Growth and development precede from generic to specific

• There are individual rates of growth and development

Heredity and Maturation

• Heredity– is the passing of traits to offspring– the process by which an offspring cell or

organism acquires or become predisposed to the characteristics of the parent cell or organism

– 23 pairs of chromosomes

• Maturation– The emergence of personal and behavioral

characteristics through the growth process

Developmental milestones – set guidelines for growth and maturation but vary individually

Nature vs Nurture• NATURE

– refers to inherited characteristics and tendencies that influence development

– genes and hereditary factors: physical appearance, personality

• NURTURE – refers to all the environmental variables

that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationships, and our surrounding culture.

Theories of Human development

Piaget’s Stages of Human development

•The four stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development correspond with the age of the child and include the following: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.•The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2 and is characterized by the idea that infants "think" by manipulating the world around them.

•The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7 and is characterized by the idea that children use symbols to represent their discoveries.•The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11 and is characterized by the idea that children's reasoning becomes focused and logical.•The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood and is characterized by the idea that children develop the ability to think in abstract ways.

Attachment Theory•John Bowlby conceived of four stages of attachment that begin during infancy. These are preattachment, attachment-in-the-making, clear-cut attachment, and formation of reciprocal relationships.

• Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth both studied attachment in children, and formulated both the stages and different types of attachment.

• Ainsworth identified four types of attachment that a child could possibly demonstrate: secure, avoidant, resistant/ambivalent, and disorganized.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development

•Freud believed that personality consisted of three interworking parts - the id, the ego, and the superego.

•The five stages of his psychosexual development theory include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.

•According to the theory, each stage of psychosexual development must be met successfully or children will grow to have problems in adulthood.

Erikson’s Psychosicoal Theory of Development

•During each of the eight development stages, two conflicting ideas must be resolved successfully in order for the person to become a confident, contributing member of society.

•The eight stages of development include: trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame/doubt, initiative vs. guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair.

•Erikson also expanded upon Freud's stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

•Moral dilemmas are stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values. There is usually not a concrete or "right" answer because it is based on the individual person's perceptions.

•Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development, each with two stages.The levels are known as preconventional, conventional and postconventional.

•During the preconventional level, a child's sense of morality is controlled externally. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequence.

During the postconventional level, the child’s sense of of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but it is due to the belief that this is what is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order.

•During the postconventional level, a child's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete, and they focus on ideas such as equality or dignity and respect.

STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Pre-natal Development

• Divided into 3 stages• Germinal stage

– conception to implantation– zygote: fertilized egg

• Embryonic Stage– Third week after conception– Embryo: mass of cells– until 8th week of pregnancy

• Fetal Stage– Longest stage– Rapid growth and development– Hearbeat grows stronger– Sexual characteristics become prominent– Fetus become heavier– Preparation of life after birth

Environmental impacts on pre-natal development

• Drug use – thalidomide drugs causes deformities on the fetus

• Alcohol use – Fetal Alcohol Syndrome• Tobacco exposure – low birth weight,

SIDS, developmental problems

Maternal factors

• Maternal age – too young or too old are high risk pregnancies

• Socio-economic status – affects nutrition, pre-natal and post-natal care

• Emotional status• Maternal illness – HIV, German measles

Infancy and Childhood

• Newborn– different senses and reflexes begin to

develop– Rooting reflex: turning of head towards the

direction of the check; indicate hunger– Sucking and swallowing reflex: newborns

will suck anything that touches their lips; breastfeeding

– Gag reflex – closing of throat and pushing of tongue to expel; throat clearing

- Moro reflex – ‘startle reflex’; feeling of falling or when the infant is startled

- Babinski reflex – ‘plantar reflex’; curling and fanning of the toes

• Palmar reflex – ‘grasping reflex’• Walking reflex – ‘stepping reflex’• Tonic neck reflex – head is at the

direction of the arm/hand

ChildhoodAge Physical and

LanguageEmotional Social

Birth to 1 month

Feedings Emotional Distress

AsocialDependent on caregiver

2-3 months Color perceptionCooing soundsLifts head

Distress Smiles at facesVisual fixation

4-6 months Babbling soundsRolls over

Enjoys cuddling Recognizes strangers

7-9 months Sits with support Emotional attachment to mother

Peek-a-booSeparation anxiety

Age Physical and Language

Emotional Social

10-12 months Says a few wordsStandsCreepsCrawls

Fear of strangersCuriosityexploration

Responds to own nameWave bye byePlays pat-a-cake

1-1 ½ years WalksMakes line on paper

Upset when separated from motherFears bath

Feeds selfObeys commands

1 ½ - 2 years Run, kicksBowel controlVocabulary 200 words

Temper tantrums Does opposite of what is told

2-3 years Rides a bikeSays phrases or sentences

Negativistic Resist parental demands

3-4 years Stands on one legDraws a circle

Self-sufficientGenital manipulationOedipus complexElectra complex

Likes to shareImaginary friendIdentify to same sex parent

4-5 years Talks clearlyDresses selfCopies triangle and square

Feels pride and accomplishmentResponsibility and guilt

Prefers to play with other childrenCompetitivePrefers gender appropriate activities