HUMAN GROWTH LEARNING

AND DEVELOPMENT

MRS. BABYLEN ARIT-SONER

OBJECTIVES:

•Identify the principles and theories of human growth and development

•Identify the principles and theories of learning and their application in classroom situations.

•Identify the psychological principles operating in particular learning and teaching situations.

MAJOR CONCEPTS:Behaviorism• Behaviorism is a theory of animal and human

learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities.

• Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior.

• A theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.

COGNITIVISM

• Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions.

• Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata.

• A response to behaviorism, people are not “programmed animals” that merely respond to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head.

HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY• Learning is viewed as a personal act to fulfill

one’s potential.

• Focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and potential.

• Believe that people act with intentionality and values. This is in contrast to the behaviorist notion of operant conditioning (which argues that all behavior is the result of the application of consequences) and the cognitive psychologist belief that the discovering knowledge or constructing meaning is central to learning.

• It follows that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are areas of particular interest.

• A primary purpose is the development of self-actualized, autonomous people. In humanism, learning is student centered and personalized, and the educator’s role is that of a facilitator. Affective and cognitive needs are keys, and the goal is to develop self-actualized people in a cooperative, supportive environment.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

•knowledge constructed as children interact with social & physical environment

HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

• There is a set of principles that characterizes the pattern and process of growth and development. These principles or characteristics describe typical development as a predictable and orderly process; that is, we can predict how most children will develop and that they will develop at the same rate and at about the same time as other children.

• Although there are individual differences in children's personalities, activity levels, and timing of developmental milestones, such as ages and stages, the principles and characteristics of development are universal patterns.

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Development proceeds from the head downward.

•This is called the cephalocaudal principle.

•The development proceeds from head to feet.

•Coordination of arms always precedes coordination of legs.

2. Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.

•This is the principle of proximodistal development

•This means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child's arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes. Finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor dexterity) are the last to develop in physical development.

3. Development depends on maturation and learning

•Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development.

•The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities.

•Children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills (Readiness).

4. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex

•Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems. For example, learning relationships between things (how things are similar), or classification, is an important ability in cognitive development. Seeing no relationship, a preschool child will describe the objects according to some property of the object, such as color. The first level of thinking about how objects are alike is to give a description or functional relationship (both concrete thoughts) between the two objects.. As children develop further in cognitive skills, they are able to understand a higher and more complex relationship between objects and things; the child cognitively is then capable of classification.

5. Growth and development is a continuous process.

•As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.

•One stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development.

6. Growth and development proceed from the general to specific.

•In motor development, the infant will be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger.

•Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements.

7. There are individual rates of growth and development.

•Each child is different and the rates at which individual children grow is different

•Rates of development also are not uniform within an individual child. For example, a child's intellectual development may progress faster than his emotional or social development.

NOTE:

An understanding of the principles of development helps us to plan appropriate activities and stimulating and enriching experiences for children, and provides a basis for understanding how to encourage and support young children's learning.

Life-Span Development

concept of development as a life-long process which can be studied scientifically

BALTES’S LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT APPROACH

1. Development is life-long•Development is a life-long process of change in the ability to adapt to the situations one selects, or in which one finds oneself.

•Each period of the life span is affected by what happened before and will affect what is to come.

•Each period shas its own unique characteristics and value; none is more or less important than any other

2. Development involves both gain and loss

•Development is multi-dimensional and multi-directional. It occurs along multiple interacting dimensions- biological, psychological, and social- each of which may develop at varying rates.

•Development proceeds in more than one direction. As people gain in one area, they may lose in another, and at the same time.

3. Relative influences of biology and culture shift over the life span

•The process of development is influenced by both biology and culture, and the balance between these influences changes overtime.

•Biological influences, such as sensory acuity and muscular strength and coordination, become weaker as a person gets older, but cultural supports, such as education, relationships, and technology age-friendly environments, may help compensate.

4. Development involves a changing allocation of resources

•Individuals choose to “invest their resources of time, energy, talent, money, and social support in varying ways.

•Resources may be used for growth (learning to play an instrument or improving one’s skill)

•For maintenance and recovery (practicing to maintain or regain proficiency)

•Dealing with loss when maintenance and recovery are not possible.

5. Development is modifiable

•Throughout life, development shows plasticity. Many abilities such as memory, strength, and endurance can be significantly improved with training and practice, even late in life.

6. Development is influenced by the historical and cultural context

•Each person develops within multiple contexts- circumstances or conditions defined in part by biology, in part by time and place.

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT

•PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT •Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills and health.1.May influence other domains of development.

•COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT•Change and stability in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.

•PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT•Change and stability in emotions, personality, and social relationships.

INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT

•Heredity – inborn characteristics inherited from the biological parents at conception

•Environment- totality of nonhereditary, or experiential influence

•Maturation- unfolding of natural sequences of physical and behavioral changes including readiness to master new abilities.

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Principle FocusApplication in Classroom

Situation

1. The development of an organism is the result of the interaction between heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)

The process of heredity and environment are interdependent and complimentary. Neither appears to be dominant

Teachers to take note or consider the family background of the child as well as the environment where s/he was born or grew up to better understand him/her especially his/her behavior

2. Growth is sequential Growth follows an orderly sequence which in general is the same for all individuals.

Teachers should know in what stage in a particular aspect of growth the child is so s/he would know what to expect and also what to do to prepare the child for the next stage of development.

3. Each stage of development has characteristic traits

Characteristic traits vary at each stage of development

Traits become more complex as the child gets older

Knowledge of characteristic trait at different stage can be of considerable value for teachers in choosing the appropriate activities as well as the methods of teaching.

4. Maturation or readiness should precede certain types of learning

Definite degrees of maturity are prerequisite to various kinds of learning

Teacher to consider the maturity level of the child in asking him/her to do something. Forcing a child who is not mature or ready may lead to personality disturbance.

5. The body tends to maintain a state of equilibrium called homeostasis

There is wisdom of the body. It strives to preserve a constant internal environment despite changing conditions, whether internal or external

Teacher to be a keen observer so s/he can do something when signs of uneasiness or boredom on the part of the students is shown or exhibited, while s/he is teaching or observing the students do something.

6. Development rates vary

The speed of development is not even.

Each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth.

Children tend to inherit the physique of their parents.

Teacher to understand that girls mature earlier than boys. Growth rate maybe retarded by illness and certain types of deprivation such as prolonged poor nutrition.

7. Growth is patterned There are no two identical growth patterns.

Each child has his own characteristic rate.

Children should never be compared unless their rate and pattern of growth have been taken into account.

MORO REFLEX

Stimulation: Baby is dropped or hears loud noises

Behavior: Extends legs, arms, and fingers; arches back, draws back head

7th month of gestation to 3 months

DARWINIAN (Grasping)

Stimulation: Palm of baby’s hand is stroked

Behavior: Makes strong fist; can be raised to standing position if both fists are closed around a stick

7th month of gestation to 4 months

Tonic Neck Stimulation: Baby is laid down on back

Behavior: Turns head to one side, assumes “fencer” position, extends arms and legs on preferred side, flexes opposite limbs

7th month of gestation to 5 months

BABKIN REFLEX Stimulation: Both of baby’s palms are

stroked at once Behavior: Mouth opens, eyes close, neck

flexes, head tilts forward Birth to 3 months

BABINSKI REFLEX Stimulation: Sole of baby’s foot is stroked Behavior: Toes fan out; foot twists in Birth to 4 months

ROOTING REFLEX Stimulation: Baby’s cheek or lower lip is

stroked with finger or nipple Behavior: Head turns; mouth opens;

sucking movements begin Birth to 9 months

WALKING REFLEX Stimulation: Baby is held under arms, with

bare feet touching flat surface Behavior: Makes steplike motions that

look like well-coordinated walking 1 month to 4 months

SWIMMING REFLEX

Stimulation: Baby is put into water face down

Behavior: Makes well-coordinated swimming movements.

1 month to 4 months

Left and Right Brain Functions

Are we active or passive in our own development?

There are two contrasting beliefs regarding human development:

John LockeHe believed that a young child is a “tabula rasa”- a

blank slate on which society writes (passive)

Jean Jacques RousseauHe believed that children are born “noble savages”

who would develop according to their own positive natural tendencies unless corrupted by a repressive society (active)

MODELS/ IMAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Mechanistic Model – people are like machines that react to environmental input (Pepper 1961)

Organismic Model- sees people as active, growing organisms that set their own development in motion (Pepper 1961). They initiate events and not just react.

 

FIVE PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 

PERSPECTIVE IMPORTANT THEORIES BASIC BELIEFS

1. PSYCHOANALYTIC Freud’s Psychosocial Theory

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

Behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges.

Personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of crises, or critical alternatives

2. LEARNING Behaviorism, or traditional learning theory (Pavlov, Skinner, Watson)

Social learning, or Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)

People are responders; the environment controls behavior

People learn in a social context by observing and imitating models. Person is an active contributor to learning

3. COGNITIVE Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

Information –Processing Theory

Qualitative changes in thought occur between infancy and adolescence. Person is active initiator of development

Human beings are processors of symbols.

4. EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICA

L

Bowlby’s and Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory

Human beings have the adaptive mechanisms to survive; critical or sensitive periods are stressed; biological and evolutionary bases for behavior and predisposition toward learning are important.

5. CONTEXTUAL

Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory

Vygotsky’s Sociological Theory

Development occurs through interaction between developing person and five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences, from microsystem to chronosystem.

Sociocultural context is central to development

PLAY

the work of the young and contribute to all domains of development

through play, children stimulate the senses, learn how to use their muscles, coordinate sight with movements, gain mastery over their bodies, and acquire new skills

TYPES OF PLAY (Content of Play)

FUNCTIONAL PLAY The simplest form of play

Begins during infancy

Involves repetitive muscular movements e.g. rolling or bouncing ball, running, jumping, skipping etc.

CONSTRUCTIVE PLAY Using objects or materials to make

something.

Can be observed from age four and becomes more elaborate by ages five and six or in toddlers and preschoolers.

PRETEND PLAY Also called fantasy, dramatic, or imaginative

play.

Rests in the symbolic function which emerges during the last part of the second year, near the end of the sensorimotor stage

Typically increases during the preschool years and then declines as school-age children become more involved in the fourth cognitive level of play.

Formal Games with Rules

Organized games with known procedures and penalties e.g. marbles

SOCIAL DIMENSION OF PLAYParten’s Categories of Social and Nonsocial Play

Unoccupied Behavior The child does not seem to be playing, but

watches anything of momentary interest.

Onlooker Behavior The child spends most of the time watching other

children play. The onlooker talks to them, asking questions or making suggestions, but does not enter into play. The onlooker is definitely observing particular groups of children rather than anything that happens to be exciting.

Solitary Play The child plays alone with toys that are different

from those used by nearby children and makes no effort to get close to them.

Parallel Play The child plays independently, but among the

other children, playing with toys like those used by the other children, but not necessarily playing with them in the same way. Playing beside rather than with the others, the parallel player does not try to influence the other’s children play.

Associative Play The child plays with the other children.

They talk about their play, borrow and lend toys, follow one another, and try to control who may play in the group. All the children play similarly if not identically; there is no division of labor and no organization around any goal. Each child acts as s/he wishes and is interested more in being with the other children than in the activity itself.

Cooperative or Organized Supplementary Play

The child plays in a group for some goal- to make something, play a formal game, or dramatize a situation. One or two children control who belongs to the group and direct activities. By a division of labor, children take on different roles and supplement each other’s efforts.

THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

Emphasizes that human actions & thoughts originate from powerful impulses & conflicts that often are not part of our conscious awareness.

Believed that people are born with biological drives that must be redirected in so as to live in society.

Proposed that personality is formed in childhood.

Believes that each stage is dominated by the development of sensitivity in a particular erogenous or pleasure giving spot in the body.

Psychosexual development an unvarying sequence of stages of personality

development during infancy, childhood, and adolescence, in which gratification shifts from the mouth to the anus and then to the genitals

Fixation an arrest in development if the children receive

too little or too much in any of the first three stages

Three (3) Hypothetical Parts of Personality:

Id Operates under the “pleasure principle” or the drive to

seek immediate satisfaction of its needs and desires.

The Id comprises the unorganized part of the personality structure that contains the basic drives such as food, water, sex, and basic impulses

It is focused on selfishness and instant self-gratification.

Stands in direct opposition to the super-ego.

Ego represents reason and operates under the “reality

principle” Develops gradually during the first year or so of life Its aim is to find realistic ways to gratify the id. The Ego comprises that organized part of the

personality structure which includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions.

The ego separates what is real. It helps us to organize our thoughts and make sense of them and the world around us.

stands for reason and caution, developing with age The part of the mind which contains the

consciousness.

Superego develops during early childhood It includes the conscience and incorporates

socially approved “should” and “should nots” into the child’s own value system

The Super-ego aims for perfection and works in contradiction to the Id.

The Super-ego strives to act in a socially appropriate manner, whereas the id just wants instant self-gratification.

The Super-ego controls our sense of right and wrong and guilt. It helps us fit into society by getting us to act in socially acceptable ways.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES

1. ORAL STAGE (birth to 12-18 months) Baby’s chief source of pleasure involves mouth

oriented activities e.g. sucking, feeding

Symptoms of Oral Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “bitingly” critical personality

2. ANAL STAGE (12-18 months to 3 years)

Child derives sensual gratification from withholding or expelling feces.

Zone of gratification is anal region.

Toilet training is important activity.

Symptoms of Anal Fixation: having “constipated personality like obsessively clean and neat or rigidly tied to schedules and routines; or defiantly messy

3. PHALLIC STAGE (3 to 6 years)

Child becomes attached to parent of the other sex and later identifies with same-sex parent.

Superego develops Zone of gratification shifts to genital region

Oedipus Complex- boys develop sexual attachment to their mothers.

Electra Complex- girls develop attachment to their fathers.

 Symptoms of Fixation: for men- anxiety and guilt feelings about sex, fear of castration and narcissistic personality.

4. LATENCY STAGE ( 6 years to puberty)

child’s sex instincts are relatively calm children become socialized, develop skills and

learn about themselves and society Many of the disturbing and conflicting feelings

of children are buried in the subconscious mind.

 

5. GENITAL STAGE (Puberty through Adulthood) Reemergence of sexual impulses of phallic stage,

channeled into mature adult sexuality. Aim of the sex instinct is reproduction Oedipus/Electra feelings are reactivated and

directed toward other persons of the opposite sex Provided that strong fixations at earlier stages

have not taken place, dependence on parents is overcome and the young person is on the way to establishing a satisfying life of his own.

PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY (ERIK ERIKSON)

Erik Erikson

German-born psychoanalyst who emphasized the influence of society on the development of personality.

Departed from Freudian Theory in emphasizing societal, rather that chiefly biological, influences on personality

Described development as proceeding through eight turning points throughout the life span

Concepts of Psychosocial Theory People progress through a series of eight stages

Each stage involves “conflict or crisis” in personality which must be satisfactorily resolved for healthy ego development.

Each stage requires the balancing of a positive tendency and a corresponding negative one.

Focus is on important socio-cultural determinants of human development and less on the sex instinct.

An individual who fails to resolve one or more of the “life crisis” is almost certain to encounter problems in the succeeding stages of development.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES

1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST (birth to 1 year)

Baby develops sense of whether world is a good and safe place.

Ex. Infants depend on others for food, warmth and affection and must be able to blindly trust their parents as caregivers for providing these.

Positive outcomes: if their needs are met consistently, infants develop a secure attachment with the parents and learn to trust environment.

Negative outcomes: if not, infants develop mistrust toward people or things in the environment, even towards themselves.

Virtue: Hope

2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME AND DOUBT

(1 to 3 years)

Child develops a balance of independence and self-sufficiency over shame and doubt.

Ex. Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilet and do things for themselves and their self-control and self-confidence begin top develop.

Positive: If toddler’s parents are patient, cooperative and encouraging, children acquire a sense of independence and competence.

Negative: when toddlers are not allowed such freedom and are over-protected, they develop an excessive sense of shame and doubt.

Virtue: Will

3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT (3 TO 6 YEARS)

Child develops initiative when trying out new activities and is not overwhelmed by guilt

Children have new found power at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become more and more engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must know how to achieve the balance between eagerness for more adventure and more responsibility, and learning to control impulses and childish fantasies.

The repertoire of motor and mental abilities greatly expands.

The healthy child learns to broaden his skills to cooperate and to lead as well as to follow.

Parents who give their children freedom to do things like playing or running etc. are allowing them to develop initiative.

Parents who curtail this freedom are giving children a sense of themselves as nuisances and inept intruders in the adult world. They become passive rather becoming active.

Virtue: Purpose

4. INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY

(6 years to 12 years)

Child must learn skills of the culture or face feelings of incompetence.

School is the most important event at this stage. Children learn more new things, use tools and

acquire the skills to be a worker and potential provider.

The repertoire of motor and mental abilities greatly expands.

Children learn to win recognition by being productive

Work becomes pleasurable and they learn to persevere.

Parents, teachers who support, reward and praise children are encouraging industry.

Those who ignore, rebuff, deride children’s effort are strengthening feelings of inferiority.

Virtue: Skill

5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION (12-20 years) Adolescent must determine own sense of self

(“who am I?”) or experience confusion about roles.

It is reached at the time of puberty when childhood is left and the transmission to adulthood begins.

To find an identity, adolescents try on many new roles as they grope with romantic involvement, vocational choice and adult statuses.

When the adolescent fails to develop a centered identity, s/he becomes trapped in either role confusion or negative identity.

Role confusion implies uncertainty of appropriate behavior.

Virtue: Fidelity

6. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION (20-40 years)

Person seeks to make commitments to others; if unsuccessful,, may suffer from isolation and self-absorption.

Central to intimacy is the ability to share with and care about another person without fear of losing oneself in the process.

Fear of self-abandonment results in a feeling of isolation

Intimacy is the capacity to reach out and make contact with other people and to fuse one’s identity with that of others.

Virtue: Love

7. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION

(40-65 years)

Mature adult is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation or else feels personal impoverishment.

Generativity has been defined as parental responsibility interest in producing and guiding the next generation. It entails selflessness.

Individual is able to work productively and creatively.

When the interest is lacking, the individual stagnates and may regress.

Stagnation is the condition in which individuals are preoccupied with their material possessions or physical well-being.

Virtue: Care

8. EGO VS. DESPAIR (old age to death)

Elderly person achieves acceptance of own life allowing acceptance of death or else despair over inability to relive life.

Stage of facing reality, recognizing and accepting it.

The mature individual has developed a self-concept that he can accept and he is pleased with his role in life and in what he produces.

Some feel a sense of satisfaction with the accomplishment.

Others experience despair, the feeling that the time is too short for an attempt to start another life and to try out alternative roads to integrity.

Virtue: Wisdom

THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (Jean Piaget 1896–1980)

First developed by Jean Piaget, proposes that there are four distinct, increasingly sophisticated stages of mental representation that children pass through on their way to an adult level of intelligence.

A theory which holds that the way people think & understand the world shapes their perceptions, attitudes, & actions.

Believes that children are neither driven by undesirable instincts nor molded by environmental influences.

Piaget’s and followers view children as constructivists, that is, curious active explorers who respond to the environment according to their understanding of its essential features.

readiness for learning depends on maturation & intellectual development

when confronted with information or evidence contradictory to what they know (disequilibrium), people of all ages revert to earlier stages or “downshift”

equilibration regulates relationship between assimilation (input of new information into existing schema) and accommodation (development of new/modification of old schema)

Understanding is sabotaged when: (1) Pre specified “correct” outcomes established, (2) What is learned does not connect with what student

already knows, (3) rewards/punishment externally control, (4) Time lines restrictive and inflexible, (5) Work unfamiliar, little support

Assimilation refers to the process of taking in new

information by incorporating it into an existing schema -the process of interpreting new experiences in terms of an existing scheme

Accommodation is what happens when the schema itself

changes to accommodate new knowledge

the process of interpreting new

experiences by modifying existing schemes

Cognitive Equilibrium

a state of mental balance in which a person is able to reconcile new experiences with existing understanding.

Schema

basic units of knowledge used to organize past experiences and serve as a basis for understanding new ones

The Four Stages:

Sensorimotor period (years 0 to 2)

Preoperational period (years 2 to 6)

Concrete operational period (years 6 to 12)

Formal operational period (years 12 and up)

Piaget's Four Stages

1. SENSORIMOTOR PERIOD

the first of the four stages of cognitive development

In this stage, infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical, motoric actions.

Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform on it.

An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.

Piaget Divided The Sensorimotor Stage Into Six Sub-Stages:Sub-Stage Age Description

1 Simple Reflexes Birth-1 monthCoordination of sensation and action through reflexive behaviors

2 First habits and primary circular reactions phase

1-4 months

Coordination of sensation and two types of schemes: habits (reflex) and primary circular reactions (reproduction of an event that initially occurred by chance). Main focus is still on the infant's body.

3 Secondary circular reactions phase

4-8 months

Development of habits. Infants become more object-oriented, moving beyond self-preoccupation; repeat actions that bring interesting or pleasurable results.

4 Coordination of secondary circular reactions stage

8-12 monthsCoordination of vision and touch--hand-eye coordination; coordination of schemes and intentionality.

5 Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity

12-18 months

Infants become intrigued by the many properties of objects and by the many things they can make happen to objects; they experiment with new behavior.

6 Internalization of Schemes 18-24 monthsInfants develop the ability to use primitive symbols and form enduring mental representations.

By the end of the sensorimotor period, objects are both separate from the self and permanent.

Object permanence is the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Acquiring the sense of object permanence is one of the infant's most important accomplishments, according to Piaget.

2. PREOPERATIONAL PERIOD During this stage, the child learns to use and to

represent objects by images, words, and drawings.

The child is able to form stable concepts as well as mental reasoning and magical beliefs.

The child however is still not able to perform operations; tasks that the child can do mentally rather than physically.

Thinking is still egocentric or the child has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others.

Two sub stages can be formed from Preoperational Stage: 

1. The Symbolic Function Sub stage Occurs between about the ages of 2 and 4 The child is able to formulate designs of objects

that are not present. Although there is advancement in progress, there

are still limitations such as egocentrism and animism. Egocentrism occurs when a child is unable to

distinguish between their own perspective and that of another person's.

Animism is the belief that inanimate objects are capable of actions and have lifelike qualities

Children tend to pick their own view of what they see rather than the actual view shown to others.

2. The Intuitive Thought Sub stage Occurs between about the ages of 4 and 7

Children tend to become very curious and ask many questions; begin the use of primitive reasoning.

There is an emergence in the interest of reasoning and wanting to know why things are the way they are.

Piaget called it the intuitive sub stage because children realize they have a vast amount of knowledge but they are unaware of how they know it.

Centration and conservation are both involved in preoperational thought but children at this stage are unaware of conservation.

Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic compared to the others.

Conservation is the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties.

3. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE The third of four stages of cognitive

development in Piaget's theory Occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years Characterized by the appropriate use of

logic Children are no longer fooled by

appearances. By relying on cognitive operations, they understand the basic properties of and relations among objects and events in the everyday world.

Able to solve concrete (hands-on) problem in logical fashion

Understands reversibility

Becoming much more proficient at inferring motives by observing other’s behavior and the circumstances in which it occurs.

Conservation is developed.

Important processes during this stage are:

Seriation—the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.

Transitivity- The ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial order (for example, If A is taller than B, and B is taller than C, then A must be taller than C).

Classification—the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another.

Decentering—where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it, for example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.

Reversibility—the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4+4 equals 8, 8−4 will equal 4, the original quantity.

Conservation—understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items.

Elimination of Egocentrism—the ability to view things from another's perspective (even if they think incorrectly, for instance, show a child a comic in which Jane puts a doll under a box leaves the room, and then Melissa moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A child in the concrete operations stage will say that Jane will still think it's under the box even though the child knows it is in the drawer.

4. FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

The fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in Piaget's theory

This stage commences at around 11-15 years of age (puberty) and continues into adulthood.

In this stage, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available, as well as apply all these processes to hypothetical situations.

Children become more scientific in thinking.

SOCIOHISTORIC THEORY (LEV SEMANOVICH VYGOTSKY)

Concepts: Children learn through social interaction

Central focus is the social, cultural, and historical complex of which a child is a part.

Stresses children’s active engagement with the environment.

Cognitive growth is a collaborative process.

Shared activities help children to internalize their society’s ways of thinking and behaving and to make those ways their own.

Children gain knowledge through “shared experiences” between themselves and adults or older peers.

Adults or more advanced peers must help direct and organize a child’s learning before the child can master and internalize it.

Believed that culture and language play very important roles in cognitive development

Cognitive development depends much more on the people on the child’s world.

learning most effective when children work cooperatively in supportive learning environment

Teachers are master guides who scaffold students’ prior knowledge and work individually (or in small groups) to guide their performance of more advanced tasks—zone of proximal development (ZPD)

Suggested strategies: cooperative learning, group problem solving, cross-age tutoring

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The gap between what the children can already do and what they are not quite ready to accomplish by themselves.

Proximal means “nearby”

Children in the ZPD for a particular task, can almost, but not quite, perform the task on their own and with the right kind of guidance; however, they can do it successfully.

Scaffolding

temporary support that parents, teachers, or others give a child to do a task until the child can do it alone.

LEARNING THEORY (BEHAVIORISM) -JOHN WATSON

John Watson claimed that he could take a dozen healthy infants and train them to be whatever he chose.

Basic Premise of Watson’s Behaviorism: The mind of an infant is a “tabula rasa” and that learned

associations between stimuli and responses are the building blocks of human development.

Development does not proceed through series of stages.

It is a continuous process marked by the gradual acquisition of new and more sophisticated behavioral pattern, or habits.

He believed that only the simplest of human reflexes (e.g. sucking reflex) are inborn and that important behavioral tendencies, including traits, talents, values and aspirations are learned.

The behaviorists of the 1980’s are more moderate in views. They recognize that heredity and maturation play meaningful roles in human development and that no amount of prompting or environmental enrichment could transform a severely retarded person into a lawyer or a brain surgeon.

However, these contemporary learning theorists believe that biological factors merely place limits on what children are capable of learning

To this day, theorists who favor the learning approach feel that the most significant aspects of human behavior- those habits and qualities that make us “human” are learned.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)

He expanded on Piaget’s studies of moral development by making moral dilemmas that could be appropriate for older children. Thus, he developed the description of the three levels and six stages of moral reasoning.

Level 1. Pre conventional Morality

(0-9 years)

This is typical of children up to age nine

Called pre conventional because young children do not really understand the conventions or rules of society.

Stage 1 – Punishment –Obedience Orientation (toddler to 7 years)

Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment

The physical consequence of an action determines goodness or badness

Those in authority have superior power and should be obeyed

Punishment should be avoided by staying out of trouble

Individual obeys rules in order to avoid punishment.

Stage 2 – Instrumental Relativist Orientation (Pre-school to school age)

An action is judged to be right if it is instrumental or satisfying one’s own needs or involve an even exchange.

Obeying rules should bring some sort of benefits in return

Individual conforms to society's rules in order to receive rewards.

Level 2. Conventional Morality (9-20 years)

Called conventional since 9-20 years old conform to the convention of society because they are rules of society.

Stage 3 – Good boy- Nice girl Orientation This stage of moral development is focused on

living up to social expectations and roles. There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships

The right action is one that would be carried out by someone whose behavior is likely to please or impress others

Individual behaves morally in order to gain approval from other people.

Stage 4 – Law and Order Orientation At this stage of moral development, people

begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Conformity to authority to avoid censure and guilt.

Level 3. Post conventional Morality (After age 20)

This is usually reached only after age 20 and by only a small proportion of adults.

Called post conventional level because the moral principles that underlie the conventions of a society are understood.

Stage 5 - Social Contract and Individual Rights Orientation

At this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.

Rules are needed to maintain the social agreement at the same time the rights of the individual should b protected.

Individual is concerned with individual rights and democratically decided laws.

Stage 6 - Universal Principles

Kolhberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Moral decisions should be made in terms of self-chosen ethical principles. Once principles are chosen, they should be applied in consistent ways.

Individual is entirely guided by his or her own conscience.

LEARNING

"We remember what we understand; we understand only what we pay attention to; we pay attention to what we want."

- Edward Bolles

LEARNING

It is an integrated, ongoing process occurring within the individual enabling him to meet the specific aims, fulfill his needs and interests and to cope with the living process.

A relatively permanent change in behavior potentiality that occurs due to experience and reinforced practice.

A process inferred from relatively stable changes in the behavior that result through practice or interaction with the adaptation to the environment (Goodwill & Klausmeir 1975)

Characteristics of Learning:

Learning is developmental Learning is interactive Learning is basic.

Five Distinct Phases of Learning:

Unfreezing—Problem Diagnosis—Goal Setting—New Behavior—Refreezing

Principles of Learning:

Theory and Research-based Principles of Learning

The following list presents the basic principles that underlie effective learning. These principles are distilled from research from a variety of disciplines.

1. Prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.

Prior knowledge is the lens through which we view all new information. If that lens is inaccurate, incomplete, or naïve, it can interfere with or distort the integration of incoming information

Consequently, it is important for us to know and address the misconceptions students hold, and to connect new information to accurate information they already possess.

2. Motivation generates, directs, and sustains learning behavior.

Motivation influences the amount of time and effort students devote to learning and support their continued engagement when difficulties arise.

Motivation may be influenced by a number of factors, such as students’ interests, goals, and expectations, students’ beliefs about learning and emotional experiences surrounding the learning context.

Students learn when the classroom environment provides a balance between support and challenge

Knowledge itself can be a powerful motivator – the more students know, the more they want to know.

3. The way students organize knowledge determines how they use it.

Knowledge representations that accurately reflect the concepts, the relationships among them and the contexts of use, enable students to retrieve and apply knowledge both effectively and efficiently. Our knowledge representations in turn shape further learning

When knowledge is organized according to superficial features, when the connections are inaccurate, or if the representation is a set of disconnected and isolated concepts, students can fail to retrieve or appropriately apply their knowledge.

We need to help students learn to organize knowledge the way experts do, around core concepts or big ideas that guide expert thinking about our domain, and we need to identify and correct students’ disconnected information and inaccurate links.

4. Meaningful engagement is necessary for deeper learning.

Meaningful engagement, such as posing and answering meaningful questions about concepts, making analogies, or attempting to apply the concepts or theories to solve problems, leads to more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger representations of the knowledge

By forming more connections to related ideas, these activities increase the likelihood that students will be able to retrieve and use the concepts and skills when they are relevant.

5. Mastery requires developing component skills and knowledge, synthesizing, and applying them appropriately.

Many activities that faculty believe require a single skill (for example, writing or problem solving) actually involve a synthesis of many component skills. To master these complex skills, students must practice and gain proficiency in the discrete component skills (for writing this may involve identifying an argument, enlisting appropriate evidence, organizing paragraphs, etc; for problem solving it may require defining the parameters of the problem, choosing appropriate formulas, etc.) 

To perform complex tasks, students must also practice and gain proficiency in synthesis, in other words organizing and integrating component skills into a coherent whole. 

Finally, students must understand the conditions and contexts of application and must practice applying skills and knowledge appropriately in new contexts; otherwise they may have difficulty transferring knowledge and skills learned in one context or another

6. Goal-directed practice and targeted feedback are critical to learning.

Goal-directed practice involves working toward a specific level of performance and continually monitoring performance relative to clearly define goals. When these goals are explicitly communicated to students, they guide and support students’ purposeful practice and help students monitor their progress.

In addition, students’ practice is more effective when instructors (a) provide feedback that explicitly relates students’

performance to the criteria, (b) Ensure that the feedback is timely, frequent, and

constructive and (c) provide opportunities for them to incorporate that

feedback into further practice.

Instructor feedback can come via formal (e.g., quizzes, papers, exams) and informal (e.g., classroom activities) assessments.

7. Students must learn to monitor, evaluate and adjust their approaches to learning to become self-directed learners.

Students must become conscious of their thinking processes. This is called metacognition. One way to help students develop metacognitive skills is to require them to explicitly monitor, evaluate, and reflect on their own performance, and provide them with feedback on these processes. Another is to model our process for students, by showing them how we approach problems, question our strategies, and monitor our performance. In addition, we can provide a series of explicit prompts or questions that ask students to monitor and evaluate their performance. With sufficient practice students should eventually internalize these processes and use them without the need for external aids.

8. Because students develop holistically, their learning is affected by the social, emotional and intellectual climate of the classroom

Students are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and thus all these dimensions interact to impact learning and performance. The social and emotional aspects of the classroom climate affect students in ways that can enhance or hinder learning. For example, students will be more likely to take intellectual and creative risks if they feel supported and respected. By the same token, when students fear ridicule or persecution, or feel marginalized or stereotyped, they may disengage from classroom participation and learning opportunities, or perform more poorly

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE:

Hawthorne effect

is a form of reactivity whereby subjects improve an aspect of their behavior being experimentally measured simply in response to the fact that they're being studied, not in response to any particular experimental manipulation

Pygmalion effect or Rosenthal effect

Refers to situations in which students perform better than other students simply because they are expected to do so. The Pygmalion effect requires a student to internalize the expectations of their superiors. It is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy, and in this respect, students with poor expectations internalize their negative label, and those with positive labels succeed accordingly.

Novelty effect

Is the tendency for performance to initially improve when new technology is instituted, not because of any actual improvement in learning or achievement, but in response to increased interest in the new technology.

The novelty effect, in context of psychology, is the tendency for an individual to have the strongest stress response the first time that individual is faced with a potentially threatening experience. Over time, as the novelty wears off, the stress response decreases.

Ripple effect

It involves the effects that a reprimand in a group has on members of the group who are not the intended targets of the reprimand (or desist, as Kounin coins it).

The ripple effect can also apply if students are not reprimanded to correct a behavior.

For example, if one student is talking when he or she is not supposed to be talking, and is not reprimanded, the behavior will spread like a ripple through water, as the rest of the class becomes increasingly more likely to talk at inappropriate times.

Halo effect

Refers to a cognitive bias whereby the perception of a particular trait is influenced by the perception of the former traits in a sequence of interpretations. the first traits we recognize in other people influence our interpretation and perception of later ones because of our expectations. Attractive people are often judged as having a more desirable personality and more skills than someone of average appearance.

A corollary to the halo effect is the reverse halo effect where individuals, brands or other things are judged to have a single undesirable trait are subsequently judged to have many poor traits, allowing a single weak point or negative trait to influence others' perception of the person, brand or other thing in general. This is also called the "devil effect.

Principle of double effect; also known as the rule of double effect; the doctrine of double effect, abbreviated to DDE; double-effect reasoning; or simply double effect

is a set of ethical criteria for evaluating the permissibility of acting when one's otherwise legitimate act (for example, relieving a terminally ill patient's pain) will also cause an effect one would normally be obliged to avoid (for example, the patient's death.)

This set of criteria states that an action having foreseen harmful effects practically inseparable from the good effect is justifiable if upon satisfaction of the following:

the nature of the act is itself good, or at least morally neutral;

the agent intends the good effect and not the bad either as a means to the good or as an end itself;

The good effect outweighs the bad effect in circumstances sufficiently grave to justify causing the bad effect and the agent exercises due diligence to minimize the harm.

Domino effect

Is a chain reaction that occurs when a small change causes a similar change nearby, which then will cause another similar change, and so on in linear sequence

PREMACK PRINCIPLE

developed by David Premack states that a commonly occurring action (one more desirable for the actor) can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less commonly occurring one (that is, one less desirable for the actor).

  Ex: a parent requiring a child to clean his or her room

before he or she can watch television. In this case, television, an activity that probably does not require reinforcement, is used as a reinforcer for cleaning the room, which in the context of this example the child would not do without reinforcement.

THREE STAGES OF LEARNING PROCESS (BRUNER)

The first, the enactive level, is where the child manipulates materials directly.  Then he proceeds to the iconic level, where he deals with mental images of objects but does not manipulate them directly.  At last he moves to the symbolic level, where he is strictly manipulating symbols and no longer mental images or objects. 

The optimum learning process should according to Bruner go through these stages:

1. Enactive mode

When dealing with the enactive mode, one is using some known aspects of reality without using words or imagination.  Therefore, it involves representing the past events through making motor responses.  It involves mainly in knowing how to do something; it involves series of actions that are right for achieving some result e.g. driving a car, skiing, tying a knot.

2. Iconic Mode 

This mode deals with the internal imagery, were

the knowledge is characterised by a set of images that stand for the concept.  The iconic representation depends on visual or other sensory association and is principally defined by perceptual organisation and techniques for economically transforming perceptions into meaning for the individual.

3. Symbolic mode

Through life one is always adding to the resources to the symbolic mode of representation of thought.  This representation is based upon an abstract, discretionary and flexible thought.  It allows one to deal with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective thinking.  This mode is illustrative of a person’s competence to consider propositions rather than objects, to give ideas a hierarchical structure and to consider alternative possibilities in a combinatorial fashion.

LAWS OF LEARNING

READINESS

Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning.

EXERCISE

States that those things most often repeated are best remembered.

It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful practice and repetition.

The key here is that the practice must be meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is followed by positive feedback.

Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These include student recall, review and summary and manual drill and physical applications.

EFFECT

based on the emotional reaction of the student

It has a direct relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning is

strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.

PRIMACY

The state of being first often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that is difficult to erase.

RECENCY

states that things most recently learned are best remembered

The closer the training or learning time is to the time of actual need to apply the training; the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.

The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes important points at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them

INTENSITY

The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained

Implies that a student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute.

TYPES OF LEARNING

1) Perceptual learning – ability to learn to recognize stimuli that have been seen before

Primary function is to identify and categorize objects and situations

Changes within the sensory systems of the brain

2) STIMULUS-RESPONSE LEARNING – ability to learn to perform a particular behavior when a certain stimulus is present

Establishment of connections between sensory systems and motor systems

Classical conditioning – association between two stimuli Unconditioned Stimulus (US), Unconditioned Response

(UR), Conditioned Stimulus (CS), Conditioned Response (CR)

Instrumental conditioning – association between a response and a stimulus; allows an organism to adjust its behavior according to the consequences of that behavior Reinforcement – positive and negative Punishment

3) Motor learning – establishment of changes within the motor system

4) Relational learning – involves connections between different areas of the association cortex

5) Spatial learning – involves learning about the relations among many stimuli

6.) Episodic learning – remembering sequences of events that we witness

7) Observational learning – learning by watching and imitation other people

8) Sensory- motor Learning- involves understanding the external world through the senses and muscles. The chief outcome is the development as reaction to stimuli resulting in speed and precision in performance. It may vary from large muscular to fine motor skills.

9) Cognitive Learning

is concern with the development of ideas and concepts. Cognitive learning is about enabling people to learn by using their reason, intuition and perception. This technique is often used to change peoples’ behavior. But people’s behavior is influenced by many factors such as culture, upbringing, education and motivation. Therefore cognitive learning involves understanding how these factors influence behavior and then using this information to develop learning programs.

STAGES OF LEARNING:

Cognitive or Understanding Phase

In the first stage of learning performances are inconsistent and not success is not guaranteed. Performing the skill requires all of the athletes’ attention and so they rely on the coach for cues. This is a process of trial and error with a success rate of 2 or 3 out of 10 attempts. Correct performances must be reinforced through external feedback.

Associative or Verbal Motor Phase

Performances are becoming more consistent as motor programs are being formed. While the simpler parts of the skill now look fluent and are well learned, the more complex elements requires most of the spare attention. The athlete is starting to get a sense of internal 'kinesthetic' feedback when they perform the skill well. They are starting to detect and correct their own errors and success rate has risen to 5-7 out of 10.

Autonomous or Motor Phase

In the final stage of learning, performances have become consistent, fluid and aesthetically pleasing. The motor programs involved are well learned and stored in the long-term memory. There is now spare attention which can be focused on opponents and tactics. To retain the new skill at this level, it must be constantly practiced to reinforce the motor programs. Success is now 9 out of 10.

EIGHT (8) PHASES OF LEARNING 

In order for effective learning to take place, the learner must go through all eight of these phases. A serious breakdown at any one phase or a cumulative breakdown over several phases can bring learning to a halt.

1. Attention

Learning is not likely to occur in the absence of attention. Attention is essential for getting information into the working memory and keeping it active there. Therefore, the first phase in the learning process is that the learner must focus attention on the learning activity. Although this is listed as the "first phase," attention must be maintained throughout the other phases as well.

2. Expectancy

During this phase, the learner develops an expectancy that something desirable will happen as a result of the proposed learning process. The result is a motivation to engage in the subsequent phases of the learning process.

3. Retrieval of Relevant Information to Working Memory.

The learner retrieves from long-term memory the structures that will be helpful in learning new information or solving problems that have been encountered.

4. Selective Perception

During this phase the learner focuses attention on the essential features of the instructional presentation. It is not always possible for teachers to ascertain by simple inspection where students are focusing attention; and learners often fail to learn because they have focused on the wrong information.

5. Encoding: Entry of Information into Long-Term Storage

During this phase the learner encodes the information on which he or she has clearly focused attention - that is, transfers the information into long-term memory by relating it to information that is already stored there

6. Responding

During this phase the learner retrieves and actively uses the information that has been stored in long-term memory. The learner demonstrates through an active performance that the learning has taken place.

7. Feedback

During this phase, the learner determines the degree to which the performance during the previous phase was satisfactory. When the feedback indicates acceptable performance, this usually serves as reinforcement to the learner. When this feedback shows that the learner's performance was imperfect, the learner loops back to an earlier phase of learning.

For example, the learner may go back and seek appropriate prerequisite knowledge or focus attention more effectively during selective perception and then continue again with the subsequent steps. The learner does not go beyond this step until the information has been learned

8. Cueing Retrieval

During this phase the learner practices recalling or applying the information after it has been initially learned in order to enhance retention of the information or to transfer the learning beyond its original context to a new application.

Knowledge Dimensions Defined:  

1. Factual Knowledge

Is knowledge that is basic to specific disciplines

This dimension refers to essential facts, terminology, details or elements students must know or be familiar with in order to understand a discipline or solve a problem in it. 

2. Conceptual Knowledge

is knowledge of classifications, principles, generalizations, theories, models, or structures pertinent to a particular disciplinary area 

3. Procedural Knowledge

Refers to information or knowledge that helps students to do something specific to a discipline, subject, and area of study

It also refers to methods of inquiry, very specific or finite skills, algorithms, techniques, and particular methodologies. 

4. Metacognitive Knowledge

is the awareness of one’s own cognition and particular cognitive processes

It is strategic or reflective knowledge about how to go about solving problems, cognitive tasks, to include contextual and conditional knowledge and knowledge of self. 

MEMORY AND RETENTIONShort term memory

includes what you focus on in the moment, what holds your attention

Most people can only hold about 7 items of information in short term memory at any given moment (like a phone number).

To learn information so that you can retain and recall it, you must transfer it from short term to long term memory.

Long term memory

Includes all the information that you know and can recall. In many ways, it becomes a part of you. Once information becomes a part of your long term memory, you'll have access to it for a long time.

There are two ways to move short term memory to long term memory: rote learning and learning through understanding.

Rote learning

Learning through repetition, this is mechanical and requires little understanding (learning multiplication tables).

Learning through understanding

involves learning and remembering by understanding the relationships among ideas and information (remembering main ideas and supporting details from a lecture because you understand the concepts and relationships between ideas)

RETENTION

Occurs when learning have been incorporated into learner’s behavioral pattern, retained, and remembered.

Three Strategies to Aid Remembering:

Rehearsal- to rehearse is to repeat

Elaboration- to expand or add to, forming mental images or relating new material that has

already been learned.

Organization- to arrange according to some system (e.g. Chunking)

Chunking - is a learning process that involves analyzing and committing to memory a particular resolution to a previously encountered problem. When the learner encounters a similar situation, he or she recalls the “chunk” and reuses it for the new problem.

TRANSFER OF LEARNING Application of knowledge learned in one

situation to new or different situation.

Types of Transfer:

Lateral Transfer- occurs when the individual is able to perform a new task of about the same level.

Ex: solving word problems given in a textbook and later solving the same (not identical) given on the board.

Vertical Transfer- occurs when an individual is able to learn more advanced/complex skills

Ex: being able to add and multiply

Theories of Transfer:

Formal Discipline Theory- faculties of the mind such as memory, reason, will and imagination could be strengthened through practice.

Identical Elements Theory- elements such as facts, skills, and methods present in the original learning situation must be presented in the new learning.

Generalization- use of principles in new situation

Transposition Theory- understanding of the relationship among facts, processes, and principles become the basis of transfer.

Ex: recognizing Lupang Hinirang in the key of G after learning it in the Key of C although no individual notes are the same.

Application of Principles of Transfer and Retention to Classroom Teaching

PrinciplesApplication to Classroom

Teaching1. Setting realistic goals that initiate and focus

activities facilitate retentionGuide learners to -set realistic goals in connection with school tasks -be thorough in initial learning and analyze conflicting ideas.

2. Perceiving the relatedness of components of a task facilitates the initial learning and retention of all types of learning outcomes

Manage Instruction by: - using meaningful(rational) method, instead of mechanical (rote) method - emphasizing meaningfulness and avoiding thoughtless repetition - providing repeated exposure conducting frequent review sessions - providing distributed practice

3. Feeling of success with initial learning promotes retention

Provide learners with-activities within their level of performance-positive reinforcers/rewards of correct responses.

4. Attaining concepts and principles and developing abilities vertical and lateral transfer.

Apply effective strategies for learning of concepts and principles and abilities.Capitalize on the higher tranfer and retention value concepts by-providing exemplars in varying context-asking learners to give original exemplars and non-exemplars of concepts.

5. Applying newly acquired concepts and principles and abilities increase retention and transfer.

Provide learners with:-plenty of opportunities for use of concepts and application of principles and abilities.-practice with variety of similar problems and situation rather than identical or exactly the same type-alternative intensive intellectual and non-academic activities.

6. Productive learning over a period of time is essential in developing stable abilities and comprehensive knowledge which increase transfer potential

Provide learners with adequate:-period of time for mastery of knowledge and internalization of abilities-sequential and cumulative level

FORGETTING

Forgetting

to be unable to bring into immediate consciousness

RETRIEVAL THEORY

According to this theory, a forgotten fact hasn't faded; it has been misplaced in the "file cabinet" of your mind. Whether the information has disappeared completely, or has been lost, the result it the same-it has been forgotten.The key to avoiding retrieval problems is to label and file information correctly. You can also assist your memory by studying in "meaningful chunks."

INTERFERENCE THEORY

We have difficulty in remembering things when one memory or thought interferes in some way with the memory we are trying to recall. This is most pronounced when two different responses are associated by the same stimulus.

This theory is based on the principle of limited space. As you keep adding new information, a conflict develops between the old and new information over the space available. The key to avoiding this problem is to look for connections and relationships between ideas so that they can be "filed together" or combined. Ask yourself, "What do I already know about this?" or any of the "cognitive questions."

 Proactive interference happens when an older memory interferes with the thing we are remembering.

Retroactive interference happens when a more recent memory interferes with the thing we are remembering.

FADING THEORY (Disuse)

Whatever traces or changes learning leaves behind becomes less distinct as time passes.

According to the fading theory, the trace or mark a memory etches into your brain is like a path you make in the woods when you continually walk along the same route. If you don't take that same path, it eventually becomes overgrown until it disappears. In the same way, facts that you learn are forgotten when you don't review them.

A famous study on forgetting textbook materials compared the percentage of material remembered after different intervals of time. The results were as follows:

After 1 day 54% was remembered. After 7 days 35% was remembered. After 14 days 21% was remembered. After 21 days 18% was remembered. After 28 days 19% was remembered. After 63 days 17% was remembered.

Without review, most information will be lost from memory.

The best time to review materials is within a day or two after the material has been read or presented in lecture.

DISTORTION THEORY (Reorganization)

When one searches his memory, what he remembers are main ideas, which are abstractions. Later, he regenerates and creates the details.

REPRESSION THEORY

Individuals sometimes repress (unconsciously forgets) experiences that are anxiety-provoking or traumatic

Retrieval Cue Failure- inability to remember because of unavailability of appropriate cues

Kurt Lewin Change Management Model

unfreeze >>>Change >>> Freeze

STAGE 1: UNFREEZING The Unfreezing stage is probably one of the more important

stages to understand in the world of change we live in today.

This stage is about getting ready to change.

It involves getting to a point of understanding that change is necessary, and getting ready to move away from our current comfort zone.

This first stage is about preparing ourselves, or others, before the change (and ideally creating a situation in which we want the change).

Unfreezing and getting motivated for the change is all about weighing up the 'pro's' and 'con's' and deciding if the 'pro's' outnumber the 'con's' before you take any action.

STAGE 2: CHANGE - OR TRANSITION Kurt Lewin was aware that change is not an event, but rather a

process. He called that process a transition. Transition is the inner

movement or journey we make in reaction to a change. This second stage occurs as we make the changes that are

needed. People are 'unfrozen' and moving towards a new way of being.

That said this stage is often the hardest as people are unsure or even fearful.

This is not an easy time as people are learning about the changes and need to be given time to understand and work with them. Support is really important here and can be in the form of training, coaching, and expecting mistakes as part of the process. Using role models and allowing people to develop their own solutions also help to make the changes. It's also really useful to keep communicating a clear picture of the desired change and the benefits to people so they don't lose sight of where they are heading.

STAGE 3: FREEZING (OR REFREEZING) Kurt Lewin refers to this stage as freezing although

a lot of people refer to it as 'refreezing'.

As the name suggests this stage is about establishing stability once the changes have been made.

The changes are accepted and become the new norm.

People form new relationships and become

comfortable with their routines. This can take time.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

I.  Behavioral Learning Theories or Associative Learning Theories

A. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (IVAN PAVLOV)

The Unconditioned Stimulus- is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response.

The Unconditioned Response- is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.

The Conditioned Stimulus- is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

The Conditioned Response- is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus.

1 Food is the unconditioned stimulus or UCS. By this, Pavlov meant that the stimulus that elicited the response occurred naturally.

2 The salivation to the food is an unconditioned response (UCR) that is a response which occurs naturally.

3 The bell is the conditioned stimulus (CS) because it will only produce salivation on condition that it is presented with the food.

4 Salivation to the bell alone is the conditioned response (CR), a response to the conditioned stimulus.

The following are some of the important principles of classical conditioning:

Extinction

o If a conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, then the conditioned response will disappear.

o A process by which a conditioned response is lost Ex: if a student is always scolded by the teacher for failing in the test,

s/he will develop fear in taking a test. But is in the succeeding tests, s/he passed with flying colors and was praised by the teacher, gradually the fear in taking a test will be extinguished.

NOTE: the teacher may change his/her style or pattern of doing things so that there will be a change of behavior or attitude on the part of the students.

Stimulus Generalization Stimulus generalization is the extension of the conditioned

response from the original stimulus to similar stimuli.

A process by which the conditioned response transfers to other stimuli that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Ex: if a pupil enters school for the first time and gets terrified at the sight of a stern teacher, then that pupil may transfer that fear or anxiety to anything about school, another teacher, pupil, book, building etc.

NOTE: if you observe that a student is nervous in your class, try to discover what caused it; take steps to introduce non-provoking stimuli with those that caused the anxiety.

Discrimination

A process by which one learns not to respond to similar stimuli in an identical manner because of previous experiences.

Ex: A pupil learning to read might have serious difficulties if he could not discriminate the letters p, b, and d, or horizontal lines from vertical lines, left from right etc.

NOTE: Stress to students the importance of being able to distinguish things that seem alike but are different. One can discriminate because of prior experiences. Provide continued practice to be used in searching for differences.

Some Applications of Classical Conditioning to Classroom Teaching

1.Facilitate emotional, behavioral, and cognitive response to neutral stimuli through positive reaction to stimuli.

2. Build positive association between teaching and learning activities.

3. Relate learning activities with pleasant events

4. Assist every student to experience success.

5. Maintain a positive learning environment.

6. Develop skills in recognizing differences and similarities among situations to enable them to discriminate and generalize.

  

CONNECTIONISM THEORY (EDWARD THORNDIKE)

Connectionism means learning by selecting and connecting

Put more emphasis on the response of the organism not limiting himself to the association between the stimulus and the response

Believed that all learning is explained by bonds or connections that are formed between the stimulus and response. These connections occur mainly through trial and error.

THREE LAWS OF LEARNING

1. Law of Readiness

Readiness is an important condition in learning. A learner may be satisfied or frustrated depending on his/her stage of readiness. The learner should be biologically prepared.

Indicators of Readiness: A child is ready to learn if s/he: Shows interest Shows sustained interest Shows improvement in performance

2. Law of Exercise

It explains that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and in proportion to the average vigor and duration of the connection. Practice alone is not enough for improvement

NOTE: Let students practice what they have learned. Provide activities where students can show/perform/apply not only in school but out of school as well as what was learned in the classroom.

3. Law of Effect

When an organism’s response is accompanied or followed by a satisfactory state, the strength of the connection is increased. If an annoying stage accompanies or follows the response, the strength of the connection is decreased. Rewards, successes or positive reinforcement further learning, while punishment, failure or negative experiences hinder it.

NOTE: teachers should consider individual differences. Things said or done may have different effects on the behavior of students.

 REINFORCEMENT AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

(BURRHUS F. SKINNER)

Learning based on reinforcement and punishment

Is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior

Operant conditioning deals with the modification of “voluntary behavior” or operant behavior.

Operant behavior "operates" on the environment and is maintained by its consequences, while classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behaviors which are elicited by antecedent conditions. Behaviors conditioned via a classical conditioning procedure are not maintained by consequences.

Reinforcement – a consequence of behavior that increases the likelihood that it will be repeated.

Punishment – a consequence of behavior that decreases the likelihood of repetition. Aversive stimulus- a consequence that a

person avoids.

Extinction – eliminating or decreasing a behavior by withdrawing the reinforcement.

Shaping- teaching of new skills or behavior by reinforcing learner to help him reach goals.

Cue- signal as to what behavior/s will be reinforced or punished.

Prompt- a reminder that follows a cue to make sure that a person reacts to the cue.

Discrimination- response to differences in stimuli.

Generalization- behavior learned under one set of conditions can be carried over to other situations.

Behavior Modification- use of conditioning to gradually change behavior.

Five contexts of operant conditioning:

1. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus (commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. It consists of giving a reward like food, stars, bonus, and praise.

2. Negative reinforcement occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. It consists of taking away something that the individual does not like or known as aversive event.

3. Positive punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

4. Negative punishment (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal") occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

5. Extinction occurs when a behavior (response) that had

previously been reinforced is no longer effective. In the Skinner box experiment, this is the rat pushing the lever and being rewarded with a food pellet several times, and then pushing the lever again and never receiving a food pellet again. Eventually the rat would cease pushing the lever.

Reinforcer- any consequence that strengthens a behavior

Primary reinforcer- sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival. Examples: sleep, food, air, water, and sex.

Secondary reinforcer- sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus which functions as a reinforcer.

Positive reinforcement conditions the mouse to find the end of the maze in this illustration. The mouse is rewarded with food when it reaches the first turn in the maze (A). Once the first kind of behavior becomes ingrained, the mouse is not rewarded until it makes the second turn (B). After many times through the maze, the mouse must reach the end of the maze to receive its reward (C).

Schedule of Reinforcement- a rule when to reinforce the performance.

Continuous Reinforcement- reinforcement at every occurrence of behavior.

Intermittent Reinforcement- reinforcement given every now and then.

Ratio Schedule- reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Interval Schedule- reinforcement after the first response following a determined period of elapsed time.

Principles of Learning in Operant Conditioning:

Principle of Consequences Behavior changes according to its immediate

consequences: pleasurable consequences strengthen behavior, unpleasant consequences weaken it.

Principle of Reinforcement Any action taken following a response that increases

the likelihood that the response will occur again.

Premack Principle or Grandma Rule Less desired activities can be increased by

linking them to more desired activities.

Principle of Extinction When reinforcement for a previously

learned behavior is withdrawn, the behavior fades away.

Some applications of Operant Conditioning Theory in Classroom Teaching:

Arrange for adequate practice of behavior learned.

Recognize positive behaviors from the student’s perspective.

Reinforcers have different to different students, thus, use varied reinforcers for different children.

Assist students in making appropriate generalization.

Continue reinforcing desirable behaviors.

Extend continuous reinforcement to enable students to acquire new behavior.

Carefully and systematically praise students. Give deserved reinforcers and punishment. Exercise extreme care in reinforcing

undesirable behavior. Use negative reinforcement instead of

punishment. Avoid comparing student’s performance. Be fair and consistent in applying

punishments. Focus punishments on student’s behavior not

on his personality.

Difference between Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

Punishment suppresses a behavior by bringing on an aversive event or by withdrawing a positive event while negative reinforcement encourages repetition of a behavior by removing an aversive event.

NOTE: Teachers may use pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (ALBERT BANDURA)

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." ----Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory poses that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

Learning takes place when one person observes and then imitates the behavior of others.

Information we process from observing other people, things, and events influences the way we act.

Bandura's work draws from both behavioral and cognitive views of learning. He believes that mind, behavior and the environment all play an important role in the learning process.

Principles:

1. The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.

2. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value.

3. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value.

BASIC SOCIAL LEARNING CONCEPTS People can learn through observation.

Mental states are important to learning.

Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior- While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.

FOUR STEPS IN OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

ATTENTION

In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that detracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model interesting or there is a novel aspect to the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning.

RETENTION:

The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning.

Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer’s ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model’s actions.

MOTOR REPRODUCTION PROCESS:

Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement.

Observers must be physically and/intellectually capable of producing the act.

Correct behavior can be reinforced, while incorrect ones are altered.

MOTIVATION PROCESSES

Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled.

In general, observers will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so. The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process.

There are several guiding principles behind observational learning, or social learning theory

The observer will imitate the model’s behavior if the model possesses characteristics– things such as talent, intelligence, power, good looks, or popularity–that the observer finds attractive or desirable.

The observer will react to the way the model is treated and mimic the model’s behavior. When the model’s behavior is rewarded, the observer is more likely to reproduce the rewarded behavior. When the model is punished, an example of vicarious punishment, the observer is less likely to reproduce the same behavior.

A distinction exists between an observer’s “acquiring” a behavior and “performing” a behavior. Through observation, the observer can acquire the behavior without performing it. The observer may then later, in situations where there is an incentive to do so, display the behavior.

Learning by observation involves four separate processes: attention, retention, production and motivation.

Attention and retention account for acquisition or learning of a model’s behavior; production and motivation control the performance.

Human development reflects the complex interaction of the person, the person’s behavior, and the environment. The relationship between these elements is called reciprocal determinism. A person’s cognitive abilities, physical characteristics, personality, beliefs, attitudes, and so on influence both his and her behavior and environment. These influences are reciprocal, however. A person’s behavior can affect his feelings about himself and his attitudes and beliefs about others. Likewise, much of what a person knows comes from environmental resources such as television, parents, and books. Environment also affects behavior: what a person observes can powerfully influence what he does. But a person’s behavior also contributes to his environment.

Classification of Models:

Real life- exemplified by teachers and parents

Symbolic- presented through oral and written symbols, e.g. books

Representational- presented through audio-visual means, e.g. films

Importance of Models:

Observer may acquire new responses May strengthen or weaken every existing

response May cause the reappearance of

responses that we apparently forgotten

Concepts in Social Learning Theory

1. Observation Learning- consists of four phases: attention retention Reproduction Motivation

Vicarious Learning- learning acquired from observing the consequences of other’s behavior.

Self-Regulated Learning- occurs when individuals observe, assess and judge their own behavior against their own standards, and subsequently reward or punish themselves.

Components of Successful Modeling

( Omrod) Attention: make sure students are observing and

thinking about what is being done.

Retention: provide mechanism to help students remember the behavior.

Motor Reproduction: students must be physically capable of performing the behavior being modeled.

Motivation: students should know the reason why they demonstrate the behavior of the model.

Self-management: help students gain control of their learning.

Goal setting phase- setting higher standards leads to higher performance

Recording and evaluating phase- students record performance

Self-reinforcement

Some applications of Social Learning Theory in Classroom Teaching

The teacher are always regarded as role models by students, they should therefore model behaviors and attitudes they want their learners to acquire.

Modeling demands close attention from observers. Check students capacity to copy when model performing

the behaviors being imitated.

Students should be aware of the reason for imitating a behavior.

Expose students to variety of real life, symbolic, and representational models.

Observational Learning

also called social learning theory and occurs when an observer’s behavior changes after viewing the behavior of a model. An observer’s behavior can be affected by the positive or negative consequences–called vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment– of a model’s behavior.

How Observational Learning Impacts Learning:

Curriculum– Students must get a chance to observe and model the behavior that leads to a positive reinforcement.

Instruction– Educators must encourage collaborative learning, since much of learning happens within important social and environmental contexts.

Assessment–A learned behavior often cannot be performed unless there is the right environment for it. Educators must provide the incentive and the supportive environment for the behavior to happen. Otherwise, assessment may not be accurate.

NOTE:

Teachers should be aware of their behavior since children do not do just what adults tell them to do but rather what they see adults do.

II. COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Prefer to concentrate on analyzing cognitive processes

Believe in the non-observable behavior Define cognitive psychology as the study

of structures and components of information processing

KURT LEWIN’S FIELD THEORY

The field theory is the "proposition that human behavior is the function of both the person and the environment: expressed in symbolic terms, B = f (P, E)."

This means that one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself.

is a psychological theory which examines patterns of interaction between the individual and the total field, or environment

Behavior was determined by totality of an individual’s situation

a ‘field’ is defined as ‘the totality of coexisting facts which are conceived of as mutually interdependent’

Individuals were seen to behave differently according to the way in which tensions between perceptions of the self and of the environment were worked through

The whole psychological field, or ‘life space’, within which people acted, had to be viewed, in order to understand behavior.

Individuals participate in a series of life spaces (such as the family, work, school and church), and these were constructed under the influence of various force vectors

Behavior is a function of the field that exists at the time the behavior occurs,

Kurt Lewin also looked to the power of underlying forces (needs) to determine behavior and, hence, expressed ‘a preference for psychological as opposed to physical or physiological descriptions of the field’ (op. cit.).

He believed "that our behavior is purposeful; we live in a psychological reality or life space that includes not only those parts of our physical and social environment that are important to us but also imagined states that do not currently exist"

View- focused on the psychological field or life space of an individual

Life space of an individual consists of everything one needs to know about a person in order to understand his/her behavior in a specific psychological environment at a specific time

It is not always possible to draw accurate conclusions simply by observing overt behavior. To understand behavior it is often essential to be “subjective” in the sense that the observer must see things from the subject’s point of view at a given moment.

EX: In a classroom, each individual has his/her own psychological field apart from others. Teachers therefore, must try to suit the goals and activities of the lessons to the learner’s needs.

PROBLEM SOLVING THEORY (WOLFGANG KOHLER)

Insight Capacity to discern the true nature of a

situation Imaginative power to see into and understand

immediately

Gaining insight is a gradual process of exploring, analyzing and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived.

The more intelligent a person and the more experiences he has, the more capable he will be for gaining insight

Held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between objects and events and act accordingly to achieve their needs. They have the power of looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution.

His studies on apes led him to conclude that learning was a result of insightful solutions, not blind trial and error.

NOTE:

Teachers should assist students in gaining insights by giving/presenting activities/situations to do so they will be able to solve their problems.

MEANINGFUL LEARNING THEORY (DAVID AUSUBEL)

Meaningful learning is the acquisition of new meaning.

There are two important ideas in: Material to be learned is potentially meaningful Refers to the process by which students turn

potentially meaningful material into actual meaningfulness.

Meaningful learning occurs when the material to be learned is related to what students already know.

TWO DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING PROCESSES

The first relates to the two ways by which knowledge to be learned is made available to the learner: Meaningful Reception Learning

new, logically organized material is presented in final form and the learner relates it to his/her existing knowledge

Rote Reception Learning Material in any kind is presented in final form

and is memorized.

The second dimension relates to the two ways by which the learner may incorporate new information into his existing cognitive structure. Meaningful Discovery Learning

Learner arrives at the solution to a problem or other outcome independently and relates it to his existing knowledge

Rote Discovery Learning The solution is arrived at independently but is

committed to memory.

This theory primarily applies to older students who can read reasonably well and who already have a fund of basic concepts in a subject-matter field.

Basic Concepts in Meaningful Learning Theory: Meaningful learning set

The attitude that can make sense out of the information to be learned

Relevant prior knowledge Contains information to which a new idea can be related

Organization Finding connections among the various pieces of

information one needs to learn Elaboration

Expanding on new information based on what one already knows

Visual Imagery Forming a mental picture of information

Advance Organizers Initial statements, activities and techniques

that provide a structure for the new information and related it to information student possess

Cognitive Structure Refers to the stability, clarity and organization

of a learner’s subject matter knowledge in a given discipline

Reception and Discovery Learning Theory Meaningful Reception Learning Theory (Ausubel)

• Use advance organizer Use a number of examples Focus on both similarities and differences

Meaningful Discovery Learning Theory (Bruner)

Help students see connections among concepts Pose questions and students try to find the answer Encourage students to make intuitive guesses Present examples and non-examples of the concept

Some Applications of Meaningful Learning Theory to Classroom Teaching:

Assist students to remember information that provide the basic building blocks for new learning.

Build meaning by connecting what is to be learned to what is to has been experienced earlier.

Utilize meaningful mnemonics and other memory strategies

Present each lesson in setting and vocabulary that sense to the students

Provide plenty of “mapping” experience through noting causal connections comparison/contrast, and examples

Children must first learn key concept through “receptive learning” (direct instruction or expository teaching) for problem solving & discovery methods to be effective

Primary children learn best with hands-on activities

Avoid rote memorization but when necessary, use mnemonics or chuck information

With older children, use advanced organizers—presented before new information introduced to connect new material with prior learning—definitions, generalities or principles, analogies

Concept maps help students learn to organize, represent thoughts, connect new knowledge to prior experience & schemata

NOTE: Teachers to take note that before actual learning is expected, the teachers may use advance organizers- a term for an abstract, general overview of new information.

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY (SLAVIN)

The information processing theory approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental tradition in psychology.

Information processing theorists proposed that like the computer, the human mind is a system that processes information through the application of logical rules and strategies. Like the computer, the mind has a limited capacity for the amount and nature of the information it can process.

just as the computer can be made into a better information processor by changes in its hardware (e.g., circuit boards and microchips) and its software (programming), so do children become more sophisticated thinkers through changes in their brains and sensory systems (hardware) and in the rules and strategies (software) that they learn.

The Four Main Beliefs of the Information-Processing Approach

1. When the individual perceives, encodes, represents, and stores information from the environment in his mind or retrieves that information, he is thinking.

2. The proper focus of study is the role of change mechanism in development.

3. Development is driven by self-modification.

4. Not only the child’s own level of development but the nature of the task itself constraints child’s performance

Structure of the Information-Processing System

The store model: A model of information processing in which information is depicted as moving through a series of processing units — sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory — in each of which it may be stored, either fleetingly or permanently.

Sensory register: the mental processing unit that receives information from the environment and stores it fleetingly.

Short-term memory: the mental processing unit in which information may be stored temporarily; the work space of the mind, where a decision must be made to discard information or to transfer it to permanent storage, in long-term memory.

Long-term memory: the encyclopedic mental processing unit in which information may be stored permanently and from which it may be later retrieved.

THEORY OF INSTRUCTION (JEROME BRUNER)

Calls his view of learning “instrumental conceptualism”

The acquisition of knowledge, whatever its form is a dynamic interactive process. A learner is purposive participant in the knowledge getting process who selects, structures, retains and transforms information.

Focused on the problem of what people do with information to achieve generalized insights or understanding

Learning is seen as a cognitive process that involves three (3) simultaneous processes: Acquisition – process of obtaining new

information that can either replace or refine something previously known

Transformation- the manipulation of information to fit new situation.

Evaluation- checking whether or not the learned material has been manipulated appropriately.

NOTE:

Teachers must strive to see a problem as the learner sees it and provide information that is consistent with the learners’ perspective.

CUMULATIVE LEARNING THEORY (Robert Gagne)

Robert Gagne believes that within any learning hierarchy, less complex skills transfer positively to more complex skills (Gagne, 1970).

Learning skills are hierarchically arranged, where there is a progression from developing simple stimulus-response association to concepts and principles and problem solving.

Once skills are taught, these simple skills are able to be generalized to other situations. Therefore, Gagne believes learning is cumulative. That is, skills build on skills to achieve higher levels of learning, and this learning itself is developed intellectually by teachers through planned or directed learning.

readiness dependent upon development of lower-

level skills & prior understanding

teacher begins with simple ideas, relates all of them, builds on them, works towards more complex levels

Effective teaching establishes capacity so learner can DO something s/he couldn’t do before

Gagne does not believe that learning is maturational, or dependent on age. Such directed learning assumes that learning is sequential, universal, determinable, countable, and objectively defined.

 

Nine Events of Instruction: Clarifying Example

1. Gaining attention Teacher flip lights on and off to gain

2. Informing learner of the objective Teacher tells students what they will study

3. Stimulating recall of prerequisites Reviews yesterdays work

4. Presenting the stimulus materialBooks, and/or a film in order to meet desired outcome

5. Providing learning guidance Show an example of a problem.

6. Eliciting the performance Ask students to solve 10 questions

7. Providing feedbackReinforcement and error correction of material learned

8. Assessing the performanceDoes student perform new skill, tests, portfolio, skill demonstrations

9. Enhancing retention and transferAble to generalize and transfer skills to new problems or situations

Type of Learning Internal Conditions External Conditions

Cognitive StrategyRecall of relevant rules and concepts

Successive presentation and concepts (usually over an extended period of time) of novel problem situations with class of solutions unspecified Demonstration of solution by student

Verbal Information Recall of larger meaningful context. Present new information in larger context

AttitudeRecall of information and intellectual skills relevant to the targeted personal actions

Establishment or recall of respect for "source" (usually a person)

Motor Skills Recall of component motor chainsEstablishment or recall of executive subroutine(rules) Practice of total skill

Levels of Learning:1. Signal Learning

Where involuntary response are learned. Similar to classical conditioning.

Ex: hot iron touched- flinching of the hand

 2. Stimulus- Response Learning

Where voluntary responses are learned. Similar to operant conditioning.

Ex: getting ready to move at the sound of a fire alarm

3. Motor/Verbal Chains Learning Two or more separate motor/verbal responses

maybe combined or chained to develop a more complex skill

4. Discrimination Learning Learner selects a response which applies to

certain stimuli

Ex: sound of a fire alarm different from other sounds

5. Concept Learning Involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain

meaningful concepts.

Ex: concept of triangle: discriminate triangle from other shapes and deduce commonality among different shapes

 6. Principle Learning (Rule Learning)

involves combining and relating concepts already learned to form rules

Ex: equilateral triangles are similar in shape

 

7. Problem Solving Considered the most complex condition;

involves applying rules to appropriate problem situations.

Ex: solving mathematical problems using the given formula

OTHER THEORIES

HAVIGHURST'S THEORY OF PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (Robert J. Havighurst)

Further elaborated on Erickson's view on personality development

He asserted that "Erickson's analysis of stages of development could be applied in a different way to shed light on other facets of development.

He suggested some developmental task for different age level from the pre-school and kindergarten

1. Pre-school/kindergarten age:

According to Havighurst, this age ushers in an era of formation of simple concepts of societal and physical reality.

It is a familiarity seeking stage with the social surroundings including everyday objects. Children are curious at this stage asking questions. The questions if answered expose them to experiences they hitherto do not have. The child would want to relate emotionally with his parents, siblings and other people around mostly through imitation. He would like to distinguish right from wrong and develop a conscience.

Teachers are expected to serve as desirable role models and expose children to many objects and experiences. They should patiently answer their curious questions.

 

2. Elementary Grade: Nine (9) developmental tasks have been identified for this

age grade. They include

learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games; building wholesome attitudes towards oneself as a

growing organism; learning to get along with age mates; learning appropriate masculine or feminine roles; Development of fundamental skills in reading, writing and

calculations. developing concepts necessary for everyday living; developing conscience, morality and scale of values; achieving personal independence and Developing attitudes towards social group and

institutions.

The Developmental Task Concept

Havinghurst (1972) defines a developmental task as one that arises at a certain period in our lives, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks; while leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.

He identifies three sources of developmental tasks (Havighurst, 1972)

Tasks that arise from physical maturation. For example, learning to walk, talk, and behave acceptably with the opposite sex during adolescence; adjusting to menopause during middle age

Tasks that are from personal sources. For example, those emerge from the maturing personality and take the form of personal values and aspirations, such as learning the necessary skills for job success.

Tasks that have their source in the pressures of society. For example, learning to read or learning the role of a responsible citizen.

Developmental Tasks: Infancy and Early Childhood:

Learning to walk. Learning to take solid foods Learning to talk Learning to control the elimination of body wastes Learning sex differences and sexual modesty Forming concepts and learning language to

describe social and physical reality. Getting ready to read

Age: birth to 6-12

1.   Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games.

2. Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself as a growing organism

3.    Learning to get along with age-mates

4.  Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role    

5.  Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating

6.    Developing concepts necessary for everyday living.

7.    Developing conscience, morality, and a scale of values

8.    Achieving personal independence

9. Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

Developmental Tasks of Adolescence:

Ages: birth to 12-18

  1.      Achieving new and more mature relations with age-mates

of both sexes 2.      Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3.      Accepting one's physique and using the body effectively 4.      Achieving emotional independence of parents and other

adults 5.      Preparing for marriage and family life Preparing for an

economic career 6.      Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide

to behavior; developing an ideology 7.      Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior 

Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood

1.      Selecting a mate 2.      Achieving a masculine or feminine social role 3.      Learning to live with a marriage partner 4.      Starting a family 5.      Rearing children 6.      Managing a home 7.      Getting started in an occupation 8.      Taking on civic responsibility 9.      Finding a congenial social group  

Super” Vocational Development Stages 1.      Growth B-14 Development of Abilities,

Interests, Needs Associated with Self- Concept

2.      Exploration 15-24 Tentative Plans, Choices Narrowed not Finalized

3.      Establishment 25-44 Stable Career Identity 4.      Maintenance 45-64 Small Adjustments 5.      Decline 65 + Reduced Productivity and

Retirement

Super” Adolescent Attitudes and Competencies (Vocational Maturity)

1.      Oriented to Vocational Choice?  Knows choices need to be made and emotionally engaged.

2.      Information and Planning?  Has information and engages in long term planning including educational plans.

3.      Consistent Vocational Preferences?  Has stable vocational goals and plans.

4.      Vocationally Independent?  Makes decisions independently

5.      Wise Decisions?  Decisions fit aptitude, ability, resources

GESTALT THEORY

(Plural „Gestalten”) is German for “pattern”, “figure”, “shape”, or “form”

It is used to refer to wholes, systems and complete structures rather than the reductionist approach of seeking ever smaller components of a phenomenon.

In learning, opposed to the reductionism of behaviorism, it concentrates on the way in which the mind insists on finding patterns in things, and how this contributes to learning, especially the development of “insight”.

Its primary focus is perception

Law of Closure- states that incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete

Law of Continuity- states that the perceptual organization tends to preserve smooth continuities rather than abrupt changes.

Law of Proximity- holds the things close together and grouped together in perception.

Law of Similarity- refers to perception of similar objects that tends to be related.

MOTIVATION

Basic principles of motivation exist that are applicable to learning in any situation.

The environment can be used to focus the student's attention on what needs to be learned.

Teachers who create warm and accepting yet business-like atmospheres will promote persistent effort and favorable attitudes toward learning. This strategy will be successful in children and in adults. Interesting visual aids, such as booklets, posters, or practice equipment, motivate learners by capturing their attention and curiosity.

Incentives motivate learning. Incentives include privileges and receiving

praise from the instructor. The instructor determines an incentive that is likely to motivate an individual at a particular time. In a general learning situation, self-motivation without rewards will not succeed. Students must find satisfaction in learning based on the understanding that the goals are useful to them or, less commonly, based on the pure enjoyment of exploring new things.

Internal motivation is longer lasting and more self-directive than is external motivation, which must be repeatedly reinforced by praise or concrete rewards.

Some individuals -- particularly children of certain ages and some adults -- have little capacity for internal motivation and must be guided and reinforced constantly. The use of incentives is based on the principle that learning occurs more effectively when the student experiences feelings of satisfaction. Caution should be exercised in using external rewards when they are not absolutely necessary. Their use may be followed by a decline in internal motivation.

Learning is most effective when an individual is ready to learn, that is, when one wants to know something.

Sometimes the student's readiness to learn comes with time, and the instructor's role is to encourage its development. If a desired change in behavior is urgent, the instructor may need to supervise directly to ensure that the desired behavior occurs. If a student is not ready to learn, he or she may not be reliable in following instructions and therefore must be supervised and have the instructions repeated again and again.

Motivation is enhanced by the way in which the instructional material is organized.

In general, the best organized material makes the information meaningful to the individual. One method of organization includes relating new tasks to those already known. Other ways to relay meaning are to determine whether the persons being taught understand the final outcome desired and instruct them to compare and contrast ideas.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

There are broadly two types of motivation theories:

CONTENT THEORIES Explain the 'why' of human behavior.

PROCESS THEORIES Recognize variables that go into

motivation, and their interrelationship.

Content theories- consider need existence, relatedness, growth, achievement, hygiene and motivating factors

ERG Theory (Existence, Relatedness, and Growth Theory)

Maslow's five basic needs have been regrouped by Alderfer (1969) into three categories: existence, relatedness and growth (ERG). Alderfer's first level of needs, existence, includes physiological and safety needs. The second need category, relatedness, consists of social and esteem needs. The third category, growth, includes the individual's desire to be self-confident, creative and productive. Alderfer's need theory is based on the assumption that higher-order needs could emerge even before the lower-level needs are fully satisfied.

Need and achievement theory Propounding an achievement and power

theory, McClelland (1962) identified three basic needs within individuals. They are need for achievement, need for power, and need for affiliation.

Two-factor theory

Hygiene factors include "technical supervision, interpersonal relationship with peers, salary, working conditions, status, company policy, job security and interpersonal relations with superiors"

  Motivating factors relate to job content and are concerned

with increased satisfaction and the desire to work harder. While their presence provides satisfaction and motivates towards more effort and better performance, their absence does not produce dissatisfaction. Some of the motivating factors are "advancement, the work itself, recognition, and the possibility of growth"

NEED GRATIFICATION THEORY (Abraham Maslow)

An individual does something to satisfy deficiency needs.

Needs is predetermined in order of importance

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS:

It is often depicted as a pyramid consisting of five levels: the lowest level is associated with physiological needs, while the uppermost level is associated with psychological needs, particularly those related to identity and purpose.

Physiological needs For the most part, physiological needs are

obvious - they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met (with the exception of sex), the human body simply cannot continue to function

Physiological needs include: Breathing Homeostasis Water Sleep Food Excretion Sex Clothing Shelter

Safety needs With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the

individual's safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, this safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.

Safety and Security needs include: Personal security Financial security Health and well-being Safety net against accidents/illness and the

adverse impacts

Social needs This involves both giving and receiving love,

affection and the sense of belonging. After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled,

the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:

Friendship Intimacy Having a supportive and communicative family

Needs for Esteem

When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.

Needs for Self-Actualization

When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated.

Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need to be and do that which the person was "born to do." These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short, restless. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem, it is very easy to know what the person is restless about. It is not always clear what a person wants when there is a need for self-actualization.

Ten points that educators should address:

1. We should teach people to be authentic, to be aware of their inner selves and to hear their inner-feeling voices.

2. We should teach people to transcend their cultural conditioning and become world citizens.

3. We should help people discover their vocation in life, their calling, fate or destiny. This is especially focused on finding the right career and the right mate.

4. We should teach people that life is precious, that there is joy to be experienced in life, and if people are open to seeing the good and joyous in all kinds of situations, it makes life worth living.

5. We must accept the person as he or she is and help the person learn their inner nature. From real knowledge of aptitudes and limitations we can know what to build upon, and what potentials are really there.

6. We must see that the person's basic needs are satisfied. This includes safety, belongingness, and esteem needs.

7. We should refreshen consciousness, teaching the person to appreciate beauty and the other good things in nature and in living.

8. We should teach people that controls are good, and complete abandon is bad. It takes control to improve the quality of life in all areas.

9. We should teach people to transcend the trifling problems and grapple with the serious problems in life. These include the problems of injustice, of pain, suffering, and death.

10. We must teach people to be good choosers. They must be given practice in making good choices.

PROCESS THEORIES

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Expectancy theory attempts to identify the relationship among dynamic variables which influence the behavior of individuals.

It is based on the premise that performance is determined by interactive effects of motivational levels, ability, traits and pride perceptions.

Vroom's expectancy theory (1964) is based on the concept that the level of performance is a multiplicative function of ability and motivation. To get performance, both factors must be present, and if one of these is absent there will be no performance.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Reinforcement theory is based on the assumption that employees can be motivated in a properly designed work environment with acclaim for desirable performance (Skinner, 1953).

It contends that the sum of external environment - and not internal needs, wants or desires - determines individual behavior. In order to improve the performance of employees, managers have to identify powerful reinforcements, such as interesting job assignments, fair pay, promotion and participation in decision making.

Reinforcement can be positive or negative, depending upon the situation. Positive impetus strengthens the probability of a desired response, which leads to positive results and repeated desired behavior. Sometimes negative stimulus can be used to deter undesirable behavior, but use of positive stimulus is more desirable. Negative reinforcement can be punishment or extinction. Extinction means eliminating an existing reinforcer which has caused a particular behavior.

GOAL-SETTING THEORY

Goal-setting theory is based on the premise that performance is the result of a person's intentions to perform (Locke, 1968). People will do what they are trying to do and setting goals will improve their performance.

Goals are tasks which a person tries to accomplish.

The theory argues that Better results are achieved by setting

difficult goals rather than easy goals,

Specific goals result in better performance than general goals, and

Participation in setting goals does not necessarily improve performance.

The stages through which the goal-setting process goes through are:

Event (situation in the environment),

Cognition (awareness of the incentives),

Evaluation (of the worth of the task),

Goal setting (intention to act), and

Performance.

OTHER THEORIES OF MOTIVATION:

INSTINCT THEORY/GENETIC PATTERN Motivation is built in to everyone through heredity. It

is the result of inherited and innate instinct.

ASSOCIATION THEORY (THORNDIKE) Deprivation of need will cause the individual to act to

satisfy the need.

DRIVE THEORY (Freud) Individuals have to act as they do because their

early experiences drive them instinctively to do so.

COGNITIVE THEORY ( Hunt) Man is rational and consciously decides what

he will and will not do. Motives, curiosity, intention, motive to achieve success and goals activate and direct the individual to action.

ATTRIBUTION THEORY (Heidereck) People seek to understand why they succeed

or fail

SELF-EFFICACY THEORY (Bandura) The key to individual achievement lies with the

learner’s own belief in his ability to organize and execute actions required for a successful performance.

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (Deci) An attitude of determination is foundation for

motivated behavior.

KINDS OF MOTIVATION:

Intrinsic- an individual’s internal desire to perform a particular task

Extrinsic- promoted by factors external to the individual and unrelated to the task being performed such as recognition or high grades.

APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF MOTIVATION TO CLASSROOM TEACHING:

1. Students attention to a learning task is essential for initiating learning Guide students to:

Focus attention on desired objectives Verbalize information

2. Intending to achieve and to experience success are essential to realistic goal setting The teacher must capitalize on the learner’s

need to achieve Level of aspiration Motives

3. Attainment of goal requires setting of learning tasks at an appropriate difficulty level.

Assist students in goal setting by: Providing a variety of realistic and attainable

goals Minimizing social pressure Encouraging them to compute against

themselves Making sure that the pupils know what to do and

how to do it

4. Information concerning appropriate behaviors and correcting errors are associated with better performance.

Provide learners with feedback regarding their behavior and performance

Correct errors

5. Observing and imitating a model facilitates the initial acquisitions of pro-social behaviors.

Be an exemplary model Provide a variety of real life,

representational, and symbolic models Utilize deserving peers as models

6. Verbalizing pro-social values and behavior and reasoning about them a conceptual basis of development of behaviors

Assist learners in developing skills in: Verbalizing pro-social values Discussing pro-social behaviors

7. Reward direct and sustain attention and effort towards achieving the desired behavior.

Reinforce desired behaviors Give deserved rewards

8. High stress and anxiety is associated with low performance, erratic conduct and personality disorders.

Provide: Supportive climate Success strategies Techniques to divert attention from failure Happy environment

Avoid: Stressful procedure Reprimands Reinforcing wrong responses Unrealistic requirements Undeserved punishment

THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES (HOWARD GARDNER)

Bodily-kinesthetic This area has to do with bodily movement. In theory,

people who have Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should learn better by involving muscular movement, i.e. getting up and moving around into the learning experience, and are generally good at physical activities such as sports or dance.

They often learn best by doing something physically, rather than reading or hearing about it. Those with strong bodily-kinesthetic intelligence seem to use what might be termed muscle memory - they remember things through their body such as verbal memory or images.

Interpersonal This area has to do with interaction with others.

In theory, people who have a high interpersonal intelligence tend to be extroverts, characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group.

They communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers.

They typically learn best by working with others and often enjoy discussion and debate.

Verbal-linguistic This area has to do with words, spoken or written. People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display

a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling

stories and memorizing words along with dates. They tend to learn best by reading, taking notes,

listening to lectures, and discussion and debate. They are also frequently skilled at explaining,

teaching and oration or persuasive speaking. Those with verbal-linguistic intelligence learn foreign

languages very easily as they have high verbal memory and recall, and an ability to understand and manipulate syntax and structure.

Logical-mathematical

This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, and numbers. While it is often assumed that those with this intelligence naturally excel in mathematics, chess, computer programming and other logical or numerical activities, a more accurate definition places emphasis on traditional mathematical ability and more reasoning capabilities, abstract patterns of recognition, scientific thinking and investigation, and the ability to perform complex calculations.

It correlates strongly with traditional concepts of "intelligence" or IQ.

Naturalistic This area has to do with nature, nurturing and relating

information to one's natural surroundings.

This type of intelligence was not part of Gardner's original theory of Multiple Intelligences, but was added to the theory in 1997.

Those with it are said to have greater sensitivity to nature and their place within it, the ability to nurture and grow things, and greater ease in caring for, taming and interacting with animals.

They may also be able to discern changes in weather or similar fluctuations in their natural surroundings.

Recognizing and classifying things are at the core of a naturalist.

They must connect a new experience with prior knowledge to truly learn something new.

"Naturalists" learn best when the subject involves collecting and analyzing, or is closely related to something prominent in nature; they also don't enjoy learning unfamiliar or seemingly useless subjects with little or no connections to nature.

It is advised that naturalistic learners would learn more through being outside or in a kinesthetic way.

Intrapersonal This area has to do with introspective and self-

reflective capacities. Those who are strongest in this intelligence are

typically introverts and prefer to work alone. They are usually highly self-aware and capable of

understanding their own emotions, goals and motivations.

They often have an affinity for thought-based pursuits such as philosophy.

They learn best when allowed to concentrate on the subject by themselves.

There is often a high level of perfectionism associated with this intelligence.

Visual-spatial

This area has to do with vision and spatial judgment. People with strong visual-spatial intelligence are typically very good at visualizing and mentally manipulating objects. Those with strong spatial intelligence are often proficient at solving puzzles. They have a strong visual memory and are often artistically inclined. Those with visual-spatial intelligence also generally have a very good sense of direction and may also have very good hand-eye coordination, although this is normally seen as a characteristic of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

Musical This area has to do with rhythm, music, and hearing.

Those who have a high level of musical-rhythmic intelligence display greater sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music.

They normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music.

Since there is a strong auditory component to this intelligence, those who are strongest in it may learn best via lecture.

They will often use songs or rhythms to learn and memorize information, and may work best with music playing in the background.

THANK YOU AND GOOD LUCK!