human bonding - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

7/30/2019 Human Bonding - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

1/5

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Humanbondingistheprocessofdevelopmentofaclose,interpersonalrelaonship.Itmostcommonly

takesplacebetweenfamilymembersorfriends,[1]butcanalsodevelopamonggroupssuchassporng

teamsandwheneverpeoplespend metogether.Bondingisamutual,interacveprocess,andisdifferent

fromsimpleliking.

Bondingtypicallyreferstotheprocessofaachmentthatdevelopsbetweenromancpartners,close

friends,orparentsandchildren.Thisbondischaracterizedbyemoonssuchasaffeconandtrust.Any

twopeoplewhospend metogethermayformabond.Malebondingreferstotheestablishmentof

relaonshipsbetweenmenthroughsharedacviesthatoenexcludefemales.Thetermfemalebonding

islessfrequentlyused,butreferstotheformaonofclosepersonalrelaonshipsbetweenwomen.[2]

1Etymology

2Earlyviews

3Pairbonding

3.1Limerentbond

4Parentalbonding

4.1Aachment

4.2Maternalbonding

4.3Paternalbonding

5Humananimalbonding

6Neurobiology

7Weak es

8Debondingandloss

9Seealso

10References

11Furtherreading

11.1Books

11.2Arcles

12Externallinks

12.1Relaonships

12.2Babybonding

12.3Adoponbonding12.4Humananimalbonding

Thetermcomesfromthe12thcentury,MiddleEnglishwordband,whichreferstosomethingthatbinds,

es,orrestrains.Inearlyusage,abondman,bondwoman,orbondservantwasafeudalserfthatwas

obligatedtoworkforhisorherlordwithoutpay(inmodernusage,abondsmanisapersonwhoprovides

bondsorsuretyforsomeone).

Inthe4thcenturyBC,theGreekphilosopherPlatoarguedthatlovedirectsthebondsofhumansociety.In

hisSymposium,Eryximachus,oneofthenarratorsinthedialog,statesthatlovegoesfarbeyondsimple

aracontohumanbeauty.Hestatesthatitoccursthroughouttheanimalandplantkingdoms,aswellas

manbonding Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia hp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_bonding

5 28.05.201316:43


2/5

, .

hisSymposium,Eryximachus,oneofthenarratorsinthedialog,statesthatlovegoesfarbeyondsimple

aracontohumanbeauty.Hestatesthatitoccursthroughouttheanimalandplantkingdoms,aswellas

throughouttheuniverse.Lovedirectseverythingthatoccurs,intherealmofthegodsaswellasthatof

humans(186ab).

Eryximachusreasonsthatwhenvariousopposingelementssuchaswetanddryare"animatedbythe

properspeciesofLove,theyareinharmonywithoneanother...ButwhenthesortofLovethatiscrude

andimpulsivecontrolstheseasons,hebringsdeathanddestrucon"(188a).Becauseitislovethatguidestherelaonsbetweenthesesetsofoppositesthroughoutexistence,ineverycaseitisthehigherformof

lovethatbringsharmonyandcleavestowardthegood,whereastheimpulsivevulgarlovecreates

disharmony.

Platoconcludesthatthehighestformofloveisthegreatest.Whenlove"isdirected,intemperanceand

jusce,towardsthegood,whetherinheavenoronearth:happinessandgoodfortune,thebondsof

humansociety,concordwiththegodsabovealltheseareamonghisgis"(188d).

Inthe1660s,theDutchphilosopherSpinozawrote,inhisEthicsofHumanBondageortheStrengthofthe

Emoons,thatthetermbondagerelatestothehumaninfirmityinmoderangandcheckingtheemoons.

Thatis,accordingtoSpinoza,"whenamanispreytohisemoons,heisnothisownmaster,butliesatthe

mercyoffortune."

In1809JohannWolfgangvonGoethe,inhisclassicnovellaElecveAffinies,wroteofthe"marriage e,"

andbyanalogyshowshowstrongmarriageunionsaresimilarincharactertothatbywhichtheparclesof

quicksilverfindaunitytogetherthroughtheprocessofchemicalaffinity.Humansinpassionate

relaonships,accordingtoGoethe,areanalogoustoreacvesubstancesinachemicalequaon.

Mainarcle:Pairbond

Thetermpairbondoriginatedin1940inreferencetomatedpairsofbirds.Itisagenerictermsignifyinga

monogamousorrelavelymonogamousrelaonshipineitherhumansoranimals.Thetermiscommonly

usedinsociobiologyandevoluonarypsychology.[3]Pairbonding,usuallyofafairlyshortduraon,occurs

inavarietyofprimatespecies.Somescienstsspeculatethatprolongedbondsdevelopedinhumans

alongwithincreasedsharingoffood.[4]

Limerentbond

Mainarcle:Limerence

Accordingtolimerencetheory,positedin1979bypsychologistDorothyTennov,acertainpercentageof

couplesmaygothroughwhatiscalledalimerentreacon,inwhichoneorbothofthepairmayexperience

astateofpassionmixedwithconnuousintrusivethinking,fearofrejecon,andhope.Hence,withall

humanromancrelaonships,oneofthreevarieesofbondsmayform,definedoverasetduraonof

me,inrelaontotheexperienceornonexperienceoflimerence:

Affeconalbond:definerelaonshipsinwhichneitherpartnerislimerent.1.

LimerentNonlimerentbond:definerelaonshipsinwhichonepartnerislimerent.2.

LimerentLimerentbond:definerelaonshipsinwhichbothpartnersarelimerent.3.

Theconstuonofthesebondsmayvaryoverthecourseoftherelaonship,inwaysthatmayeither

increaseordecreasetheintensityofthelimerence.Thebasisandinteresngcharacteriscofthis

delineaonmadebyTennov,isthatbasedonherresearchandinterviewswithover500people,allhuman

bondedrelaonshipscanbedividedintothreevarieesbeingdefinedbytheamountoflimerenceor

nonlimerenceeachpartnercontributestotherelaonship.


5 28.05.201316:43


3/5

Amotherbreastfeedingaprocess

thatfacilitatesmotherinfant

bonding.

bondedrelaonshipscanbedividedintothreevarieesbeingdefinedbytheamountoflimerenceor

nonlimerenceeachpartnercontributestotherelaonship.

Aachment

Mainarcles:AffeconalbondandAachmenttheory

In1958,Brishdevelopmental psychologistJohnBowlbypublished

thegroundbreakingpaper"theNatureoftheChild'sTietohis

Mother,"inwhichtheprecursoryconceptsof"aachmenttheory"

weredeveloped.Thisincludedthedevelopmentoftheconceptof

theaffeconalbond,somemesreferredtoastheemoonalbond,

whichisbasedontheuniversaltendencyforhumanstoaach,i.e.

toseekclosenesstoanotherpersonandtofeelsecurewhenthat

personispresent.Aachmenttheoryhassomeofitsoriginsinthe

observaonofandexperimentswithanimals,butisalsobasedonobservaonsofchildrenwhohadmissedtypicalexperiencesof

adultcare.Muchoftheearlyresearchonaachmentinhumans

wasdonebyJohnBowlbyandhisassociates.Bowlbyproposedthat

babieshaveaninbuiltneedfrombirthtomakeemoonal

aachments,i.e.bonds,becausethisincreasesthechancesof

survivalbyensuringthattheyreceivethecaretheyneed.[5][6][7]

Bowlbydidnotdescribemutualityinaachment.Hestatedthat

aachmentbymotherwasapathologicalinversionanddescribed

onlybehaviorsoftheinfant.Manydevelopmental specialists

elaboratedBowlby's

ethological

observa

ons.

However,

neither

Bowlby's

proximity

seeking

(not

possible

forhumaninfantspriortowalking)norsubsequentdescriponsofcaregiverinfantmutualitywith

emoonalavailabilityandsynchronywithemoonalmodulaonincludetheenduringmovaonof

aachmentintoadultlife.Theenduringmovaonisthedesiretocontrolapleasantlysurprising

transformaonthatistherouteofbeliefineffecvenessbyhumans.[citaonneeded]Thismovaon

accountsforcuriosityandintellectualgrowthoflanguage,mathemacsandlogic,allofwhichhavean

emoonalbaseofsecurity.[8]

Maternalbonding

Mainarcle:Maternalbond

Ofallhumanbonds,thematernalbond(motherinfantrelaonship)isoneofthestrongest.Thematernal

bondbeginstodevelopduringpregnancy;followingpregnancy,theproduconofoxytocinduring

lactaonincreasesparasympathecacvity,thusreducinganxietyandtheorecallyfosteringbonding.Itis

generallyunderstoodthatmaternaloxytocincirculaoncanpredisposesomemammalstoshowcaregiving

behaviorinresponsetoyoungoftheirspecies.

Breaseedinghasbeenreportedtofostertheearlypostpartummaternalbond,viatouch,response,and

mutualgazing.[9]Extensiveclaimsfortheeffectofbreaseedingweremadeinthe1930sbyMargaret

Ribble,achampionof"infantrights,"[10]

butwerechallengedbyothers.[11]

Theclaimedeffectisnot

universal,andbolefeedingmothersaregenerallyappropriatelyconcernedwiththeirbabies.Itisdifficult

todeterminetheextentofcausalityduetoanumberofconfoundingvariables,suchasthevariedreasons

familieschoosedifferentfeedingmethods.Manybelievethatearlybondingideallyincreasesresponseand

sensivitytothechild'sneeds,bolsteringthequalityofthemotherbabyrelaonshiphowever,many

exceponscanbefoundofhighlysuccessfulmotherbabybonds,eventhoughearlybreaseedingdidnot

occur,suchaswithprematureinfantswhomaylackthenecessarysuckingstrengthtosuccessfully

breaseed.


5 28.05.201316:43


4/5

Fatherplayingwithhisyoung

daughteranacvitythattendsto

strengthenthefatherchildbond.

Humananimalbond:humanto

animalcontactisknowntoreduce

Humanbondingwithanemuin

Australia.

,

occur,suchaswithprematureinfantswhomaylackthenecessarysuckingstrengthtosuccessfully

breaseed.

ResearchfollowingBowlby'sobservaons(above)createdsomeconcernaboutwhetheradopveparents

havemissedsomecrucialperiodforthechild'sdevelopment.However,researchonTheMentalandSocial

LifeofBabiessuggestedthatthe"parentinfantsystem,"ratherthanabondbetweenbiologicallyrelated

individuals,isanevolvedfitbetweeninnatebehaviorpaernsofallhumaninfantsandequallyevolved

responsesofhumanadultstothoseinfantbehaviors.Thusnature"ensuressomeinialflexibilitywithrespecttotheparcularadultswhotakeontheparentalrole.

[12]

Paternalbonding

Mainarcle:Paternalbond

Incontrasttothematernalbond,paternalbondstendtovaryover

thespanofachild'sdevelopmentintermsofbothstrengthand

stability.Infact,manychildrennowgrowupinfatherless

householdsanddonotexperienceapaternalbondatall.Ingeneral,paternalbondingismoredominantlaterinachild'slife

aerlanguagedevelops.Fathersmaybemoreinfluenalinplay

interaconsasopposedtonurturanceinteracons.Fatherchild

bondsalsotendtodevelopwithrespecttotopicssuchaspolical

viewsormoney,whereasmotherchildbondstendtodevelopin

relaontotopicssuchasreligiousviewsorgeneraloutlookson

life.[13]

In2003,aresearcherfromNorthwesternUniversityinIllinoisfound

that

progesterone,

a

hormone

more

usually

associated

withpregnancyandmaternalbonding,mayalsocontrolthewaymen

reacttowardstheirchildren.Specifically,theyfoundthatalackof

progesteronereducedaggressivebehaviorinmalemiceand

smulatedthemtoactinafatherlywaytowardstheiroffspring.[14]

Mainarcles:PetandAnthrozoology

Thehumananimalbondcanbedefinedasaconnecon

betweenpeopleand

animals,domescorwild;be

itacatasapetorbirds

outsideone'swindow.

Researchintothenatureand

meritofthehumananimal

bondbeganinthelate18th

centurywhen,inYork,

England,theSocietyof

FriendsestablishedThe

Retreattoprovidehumane

treatmentforthementallyill.

Byhavingpaentscarefor

themanyfarmanimalson

theestate,societyofficials

theorized that the


5 28.05.201316:43


5/5

Humananimalbond:humanto

animalcontactisknowntoreduce

thephysiologicalcharacteriscsof

stress.

Asmallchildbondingwithacat.

t emany arman ma son

theestate,societyofficials

theorizedthatthe

combinaonofanimal

contactplusproducvework

wouldfacilitatethepaents'

rehabilitaon.Inthe1870sinParis,aFrenchsurgeonhadpaents

withneurologicaldisordersridehorses.Thepaentswerefoundto

haveimprovedtheirmotorcontrolandbalanceandwerelesslikely

tosufferboutsofdepression.[15]

Inthe19thcentury,inBielefeld,Germany,epilepcpaentswere

giventheprescripontospend meeachdaytakingcareofcats

anddogs.Thecontactwiththeanimalswasfoundtoreducethe

occurrenceofseizures.In1980,ateamofscienstsattheUniversity

ofPennsylvaniafoundthathumantoanimalcontactwasfoundto

reducethephysiological characteriscsofstress;specifically,loweredlevelsofbloodpressure,heartrate,

respiratoryrate,anxiety,andtensionwereallfoundtocorrelateposivelywithhumanpetbonding.[15]

Historically,animalsweredomescatedforfunconaluse;forexample,dogsforherdingandtracking,and

catsforkillingmiceorrats.Today,inWesternsociees,theirfunconisprimarilybonding.Forexample,

currentstudiesshowthat6080%ofdogssleepwiththeirownersatnightinthebedroom,eitherinoron

thebed.[16]

Moreover,inthepastthemajorityofcatswerekeptoutside(barncats)whereastodaymost

catsarekeptindoors(housecats)andconsideredpartofthefamily.Currently,intheUS,forexample,1.2

billionanimalsarekeptaspets,primarilyforbondingpurposes.[16]

Inaddion,asof1995therewereover

30researchinstuonslookingintothepotenalbenefitsofthehumananimalbond.[15]

Thereisevidenceinavarietyofspeciesthatthehormonesoxytocinandvasopressinareinvolvedinthe

bondingprocess,andinotherformsofprosocialandreproducvebehavior.Bothchemicalsfacilitatepair

bondingandmaternalbehaviorinexperimentsonlaboratoryanimals.Inhumans,thereisevidencethat

oxytocinandvasopressinarereleasedduringlaborandbreaseeding,andthattheseeventsare

associatedwithmaternalbonding.Accordingtoonemodel,socialisolaonleadstostress,whichis

associatedwithacvityinthehypothalamicpituitaryadrenalaxisandthereleaseofcorsol.Posive

socialinteraconisassociatedwithincreasedoxytocin.Thisleadstobonding,whichisalsoassociated

withhigherlevelsofoxytocinandvasopressin,andreducedstressandstressrelatedhormones.[17]

Oxytocinisassociatedwithhigherlevelsoftrustinlaboratorystudiesonhumans.Ithasbeencalledthe

"cuddlechemical"foritsroleinfacilitangtrustandaachment.[18]

Intherewardcentersofthelimbic

system,theneurotransmierdopaminemayinteractwithoxytocinandfurtherincreasethelikelihoodof

bonding.Oneteamofresearchershasarguedthatoxytocinonlyplaysasecondaryroleinaffiliaon,and

thatendogenousopiatesplaythecentralrole.Accordingtothismodel,affiliaonisafunconofthebrain

systemsunderlyingrewardandmemoryformaon.[19]

Becausethevastmajorityofthisresearchhasbeendoneonanimalsandthemajorityofthatonrodents

thesefindingsmustbetakenwithcauonwhenappliedtohumans.Oneofthefewstudiesthatlooked

attheinfluenceofhormonesonhumanbondingcomparedparcipantswhohadrecentlyfalleninlove

withacontrolgroup.Therewerenodifferencesformostofthehormonesmeasured,includingLH,

estradiol,progesterone,DHEAS,andandrostenedione.TestosteroneandFSHwerelowerinmenwhohad

recentlyfalleninlove,andtherewasalsoadifferenceinbloodcorsolforbothsexes,withhigherlevelsin

thegroupthatwasinlove.Thesedifferencesdisappearedaer1228monthsandmayreflectthe

temporarystressandarousalofanewrelaonship.[20]


human bonding - wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Documents