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Chess

Part of a Staunton chess set (from left to right): awhite king, a black rook, a black queen, a white

pawn, a black knight, and a white bishop

Yearsactive

c. 6th­century India to present

Genre(s) Board gameAbstract strategy game

Players 2

Setup time 1 minute

Playingtime

Casual games usually last 10 to 60minutes; tournament games lastanywhere from about ten minutes(blitz chess) to six hours or more.

Randomchance

None

Skill(s)required

Strategy, tactics

Synonym(s) Western chess, international chess

ChessFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the Western board game. For other chess games or other uses, see Chess(disambiguation).

Chess is a two­player strategy board game played ona chessboard, a checkered gameboard with 64 squaresarranged in an eight­by­eight grid. Chess is played bymillions of people worldwide in homes, urban parks,clubs, online, correspondence, and in tournaments. Inrecent years, chess has become part of some schoolcurricula.

Each player begins the game with 16 pieces: one king,one queen, two rooks, two knights, two bishops, andeight pawns. Each of the six piece types movesdifferently. The most powerful piece is the queen andthe least powerful piece is the pawn. The objective isto 'checkmate' the opponent's king by placing it underan inescapable threat of capture. To this end, aplayer's pieces are used to attack and capture theopponent's pieces, while supporting their own. Inaddition to checkmate, the game can be won byvoluntary resignation by the opponent, whichtypically occurs when too much material is lost, or ifcheckmate appears unavoidable. A game may alsoresult in a draw in several ways.

Chess is believed to have originated in India, sometime before the 7th Century; the Indian game ofchaturanga is also the likely ancestor of xiangqi andshogi. The pieces took on their current powers inSpain in the late 15th Century; the rules were finallystandardized in the 19th Century. The first officialWorld Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimedhis title in 1886; the current World Champion is theNorwegian Magnus Carlsen. In addition to the WorldChampionship, there are the Women's WorldChampionship, the Junior World Championship, theWorld Senior Championship, the CorrespondenceChess World Championship, the World ComputerChess Championship, and Blitz and Rapid WorldChampionships. The Chess Olympiad is a popularcompetition among teams from different nations. Online chess has opened amateur and professionalcompetition to a wide and varied group of players. Chess is a recognized sport of the International

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Olympic Committee and international chess competition is sanctioned by FIDE, chess's internationalgoverning body. There are also many chess variants, with different rules, different pieces, and differentboards.

Since the second half of the 20th century, computers have been programmed to play chess withincreasing success, to the point where the strongest home computers play chess at a higher level than thebest human players. In the past two decades computer analysis has contributed significantly to chesstheory, particularly in the endgame. The computer Deep Blue was the first machine to overcome areigning World Chess Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov in 1997.

Contents

1 Rules1.1 Setup1.2 Movement1.3 Castling1.4 En passant1.5 Promotion1.6 Check1.7 End of the game

1.7.1 Win1.7.2 Draw

1.8 Time control2 Notation for recording moves3 Strategy and tactics

3.1 Fundamentals of tactics3.2 Fundamentals of strategy

4 Phases4.1 Opening4.2 Middlegame4.3 Endgame

5 History5.1 Predecessors5.2 Origins of the modern game (1000–1850)5.3 Birth of a sport (1850–1945)5.4 Post­war era (1945 and later)

6 Place in culture6.1 Pre­modern6.2 Modern

7 Composition7.1 Example

8 Competitive play8.1 Organization of competitions8.2 Titles and rankings

9 Publications10 Mathematics and computers11 Psychology

11.1 Chess and intelligence12 Variants13 Game theory14 See also15 References16 Further reading

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Initial position, first row: rook,knight, bishop, queen, king, bishop,knight, and rook; second row:pawns

Setup at the start of a game

16 Further reading17 External links

Rules

Main article: Rules of chess

The official rules of chessare maintained by FIDE(Fédération Internationaledes Échecs), chess'sinternational governingbody. Along withinformation on officialchess tournaments, therules are described in theFIDE Handbook, Laws ofChess section.[1]

Setup

Chess is played on a square board of eight rows (called ranks anddenoted with numbers 1 to 8) and eight columns (called files and denoted with letters a to h) of squares.The colors of the 64 squares alternate and are referred to as "light" and "dark" squares. The chessboard isplaced with a light square at the right­hand end of the rank nearest to each player, and the pieces are setout as shown in the diagram and photo, with each queen on a square of its own color.

By convention, the game pieces are divided into white and black sets, and the players are referred to as"White" and "Black" respectively. Each player begins the game with 16 pieces of the specified color,which consist of one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns.

Movement

The "white" players always moves first. After the first move, players alternately move one piece per turn(except for castling, when two pieces are moved). Pieces are moved to either an unoccupied square orone occupied by an opponent's piece, which is captured and removed from play. With the sole exceptionof en passant, all pieces capture by moving to the square that the opponent's piece occupies. A playermay not make any move that would put or leave his or her king under attack. A player cannot "pass"; ateach turn they have to make a legal move (this is the basis for the finesse called zugzwang). If the playerto move has no legal moves, the game is over; it is either a checkmate (a loss for the player with no legalmoves) if the king is under attack, or a stalemate (a draw) if the king is not.

Each chess piece has its own style of moving. In the diagrams, the dots mark the squares where the piececan move if no other pieces (including one's own piece) are on the squares between the piece's initialposition and its destination.

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The king moves one square in any direction. The king has also a special move which is calledcastling and involves also moving a rook.The rook can move any number of squares along any rank or file, but may not leap over otherpieces. Along with the king, the rook is involved during the king's castling move.The bishop can move any number of squares diagonally, but may not leap over other pieces.The queen combines the power of the rook and bishop and can move any number of squares alongrank, file, or diagonal, but it may not leap over other pieces.The knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal, thusthe move forms an "L"­shape: two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or two squareshorizontally and one square vertically. The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces.The pawn may move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file,or on its first move it may advance two squares along the same file provided both squares areunoccupied (black ""s in the diagram); or the pawn may capture an opponent's piece on a squarediagonally in front of it on an adjacent file, by moving to that square (black "x"s). The pawn hastwo special moves: the en passant capture and pawn promotion.

Castling

Main article: Castling

Once in every game, each king is allowed to make a special move, known as castling. Castling consistsof moving the king two squares along the first rank toward a rook (which is on the player's firstrank[note 1]) and then placing the rook on the last square the king has just crossed. Castling is permissibleunder the following conditions:[2]

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Examples of castling

Examples of pawn moves:promotion (left) and en passant(right)

Neither the king nor the rook may have been previously moved during the game.There must be no pieces between the king and the rook.The king may not be in check, nor may the king pass through squares that are under attack byenemy pieces, nor move to a square where it is in check.

Note that castling is permissible if the rook is attacked, or if the rook crosses a square that is attacked.Viktor Korchnoi asked the arbiter for clarification on this point during his 1974 match with AnatolyKarpov.[3]

En passant

Main article: En passant

When a pawn advances two squares from its starting position andthere is an opponent's pawn on an adjacent file next to itsdestination square, then the opponent's pawn can capture it enpassant (in passing), and move to the square the pawn passed over.However, this can only be done on the very next move, otherwisethe right to do so is forfeit. For example, if the black pawn has justadvanced two squares from g7 (initial starting position) to g5, thenthe white pawn on f5 may take it via en passant on g6 (but only onwhite's next move).

Promotion

Main article: Promotion (chess)

When a pawn advances to the eighth rank, as a part of the move itis promoted and must be exchanged for the player's choice ofqueen, rook, bishop, or knight of the same color. Usually, the pawnis chosen to be promoted to a queen, but in some cases anotherpiece is chosen; this is called underpromotion. In the diagram onthe right, the pawn on c7 can be advanced to the eighth rank and bepromoted to an allowed piece. There is no restriction placed on thepiece that is chosen on promotion, so it is possible to have morepieces of the same type than at the start of the game (for example,two queens).

Check

Main article: Check (chess)

When a king is under immediate attack by one or two of the opponent's pieces, it is said to be in check.A response to a check is a legal move if it results in a position where the king is no longer under directattack (that is, not in check). This can involve capturing the checking piece; interposing a piece betweenthe checking piece and the king (which is possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishopand there is a square between it and the king); or moving the king to a square where it is not underattack. Castling is not a permissible response to a check. The object of the game is to checkmate theopponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal way to remove it fromattack. It is illegal for a player to make a move that would put or leave his own king in check.

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Black's king is in check from therook.

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White is in checkmate, being unableto escape from being attacked by theBlack king and bishops.

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Stalemate if it is Black to move. Itis not checkmate, and since Blackcannot move, the game is a draw.

In casual games it is common to announce "check" when puttingthe opponent's king in check, however this is not required by therules of the game, and is not usually done in tournaments.

End of the game

Win

Games may be won in thefollowing ways:

CheckmateResignation ­ eitherplayer resign,conceding the gameto the otherplayer.[4] It isusually consideredpoor etiquette toplay on in a trulyhopeless position, and for this reason high level games rarely end with a checkmate.Loss on time ­ In games with a time control, a player may also lose by running out of time, evenwith a much superior position.Forfeit ­ a player who cheats, or violates the laws of the game, or violates the rules specified forthe particular tournament may be forfeited. In high level tournaments, players have been forfeitedfor such things as arriving late for the game (even by a matter of seconds), receiving a call or texton one's cell phone, refusing to undergo a drug test, refusing to undergo a body search forelectronic devices and unsporting behaviour (such as refusing to shake the opponent's hand).

Draw

Games may end in a draw in several ways:

Draw by agreement ­ draws are most commonly reached by mutual agreement between theplayers. The correct procedure is to verbally offer the draw, make a move, then start theopponent's clock. Traditionally players have been allowed to agree a draw at any time in the game,occasionally even without playing a move; in recent years efforts have been made to discourageshort draws, for example by forbidding draw offers before move thirty.Stalemate ­ the player whose turn it is to move is not in check, but has no legal move.Threefold repetition of a position ­ this most commonly occurs when neither side is able to avoid

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A modern digital chess clock

Naming the squares in algebraic chessnotation

repeating moves without incurring a disadvantage. The three occurrences of the position need notoccur on consecutive moves for a claim to be valid. FIDE rules make no mention of perpetualcheck; this is merely a specific type of draw by threefold repetition.The fifty­move rule ­ if during the previous 50 moves no pawn has been moved and no capture hasbeen made, either player may claim a draw; this requires the players to keep a valid written recordof the game so that the claim may be verified by the arbiter if challenged. There are in fact severalknown endgames where it is theoretically possible to force a mate but which require more than 50moves before the pawn move or capture is made; examples include some endgames with twoknights against a pawn and some pawnless endgames such as queen against two bishops. Theseendings are rare, however, and few players study them in detail, so the fifty­move rule isconsidered practical for over the board play. Some correspondence chess organizations allowexceptions to the fifty­move rule.[note 2]Insufficient material ­ a player may claim a draw if their opponent has insufficient material tocheckmate, for example if the player has only the king left and the opponent has only the king anda bishop. Such a claim is only valid if checkmate is impossible.

Time control

Chess games may also be played with a time control, mostly byclub and professional players. If a player's time runs out beforethe game is completed, the game is automatically lost (providedhis opponent has enough pieces left to deliver checkmate). Theduration of a game ranges from long games played up to sevenhours to shorter rapid chess games, usually lasting 30 minutes orone hour per game. Even shorter is blitz chess, with a timecontrol of three to 15 minutes for each player, and bullet chess(under three minutes). In tournament play, time is controlledusing a game clock that has two displays, one for each player'sremaining time.

Notation for recording moves

Main article: Chess notation

Chess games and positions are recorded using a specialnotation, most often algebraic chess notation.[6] Abbreviated(or short) algebraic notation generally records moves in theformat "abbreviation of the piece moved – file where itmoved – rank where it moved". For example, Qg5 means"queen moves to the g­file and 5th rank" (that is, to the squareg5). If there are two pieces of the same type that can move tothe same square, one more letter or number is added toindicate the file or rank from which the piece moved, e.g.Ngf3 means "knight from the g­file moves to the square f3".The letter P indicating a pawn is not used, so that e4 means"pawn moves to the square e4".

If the piece makes a capture, "x" is inserted before thedestination square. Thus Bxf3 means "bishop captures on f3".When a pawn makes a capture, the file from which the pawn

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"Scholar's mate"

departed is used in place of a piece initial, and ranks may be omitted if unambiguous. For example, exd5(pawn on the e­file captures the piece on d5) or exd (pawn on the e­file captures a piece somewhere onthe d­file).

If a pawn moves to its last rank, achieving promotion, thepiece chosen is indicated after the move, for example e1Q ore1=Q. Castling is indicated by the special notations 0­0 forkingside castling and 0­0­0 for queenside castling. An enpassant capture is sometimes marked with the notation "e.p."A move that places the opponent's king in check usually hasthe notation "+" added. (The notation "++" for a doublecheck is considered obsolete). Checkmate can be indicated by"#". At the end of the game, "1–0" means "White won", "0–1" means "Black won", and "½–½" indicates a draw.[7]

Chess moves can be annotated with punctuation marks andother symbols. For example "!" indicates a good move, "!!"an excellent move, "?" a mistake, "??" a blunder, "!?" aninteresting move that may not be best, or "?!" a dubious movenot easily refuted.[8]

For example, one variant of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can berecorded:

1. e4 e52. Qh5?! Nc63. Bc4 Nf6??4. Qxf7# 1–0

Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess literature used a form of descriptive notation,whereby files are named according to the piece which occupies the back rank at the start of the game,and each square has two different names depending on whether it is from White's or Black's point ofview. For example, the square known as "e3" in algebraic notation is "K3" (King's 3rd) from White'spoint of view, and "K6" (King's 6th) from Black's point of view. The "Scholar's mate" is rendered thus indescriptive notation:

1. P­K4 P­K42. Q­R5?! N­QB33. B­B4 N­B3??4. QxBP# 1­0

A few mostly older players still prefer descriptive notation, however it is no longer recognized by FIDE.

Strategy and tactics

Chess strategy consists of setting and achieving long­term positioning advantages during the game – forexample, where to place different pieces – while tactics concentrate on immediate maneuver. These twoparts of the chess­playing process cannot be completely separated, because strategic goals are mostlyachieved through tactics, while the tactical opportunities are based on the previous strategy of play. Agame of chess is normally divided into three phases: opening, typically the first 10 moves, when players

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Botvinnik vs. Yudovich, 1933[9]

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1...Kxh5 2.Ng3+ Kh4 3.Qe4+ Rf44.Qxf4#1...Kf5 2.g4#1...Kh7 2.Nf6+ (double check)Kh8 3.Qh7#

Example of underlying pawn structure

move their pieces to useful positions for the coming battle; then middlegame; and last the endgame,when most of the pieces are gone, kings typically take a more active part in the struggle, and pawnpromotion is often decisive.

Fundamentals of tactics

Main article: Chess tactics

In chess, tactics in general concentrate on short­term actions– so short­term that they can be calculated in advance by ahuman player or by a computer. The possible depth ofcalculation depends on the player's ability. In quiet positionswith many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation ismore difficult and may not be practical, while in "tactical"positions with a limited number of forced variations, strongplayers can calculate long sequences of moves.

Simple one­move or two­move tactical actions – threats,exchanges of material, and double attacks – can be combinedinto more complicated combinations, sequences of tacticalmaneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of oneor both players.[10] Theoreticians describe many elementarytactical methods and typical maneuvers; for example, pins,forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especiallydiscovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys,sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences.[11]

A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually resultsin a tangible gain is called a combination.[10] Brilliantcombinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – areconsidered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. Acommon type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players'skills, is showing players a position where a decisivecombination is available and challenging them to find it.[12]

Fundamentals of strategy

Main article: Chess strategy

Chess strategy is concerned with evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long­termplans for the future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such asthe value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, kingsafety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and darkor light squares).

The most basic step inevaluating a position is tocount the total value ofpieces of both sides.[14]The point values used forthis purpose are based on

After sacrificing a piece toexpose Black's king, Botvinnikplayed 1.Bh5+ and Yudovichresigned, as mate is inevitable.

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After 12...Re8 in Tarrasch–Euwe[13]...

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...and its pawn skeleton (the "Rauzerformation")

experience; usually pawnsare considered worth onepoint, knights and bishopsabout three points each,rooks about five points(the value differencebetween a rook and abishop or knight beingknown as the exchange),and queens about ninepoints. The king is morevaluable than all of theother pieces combined,since its checkmate losesthe game. But in practicalterms, in the endgame theking as a fighting piece isgenerally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook.[15] These basic values arethen modified by other factors like position of the piece (for example, advanced pawns are usually morevaluable than those on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (for example, a pair of bishopsusually coordinate better than a bishop and a knight), or the type of position (knights are generally betterin closed positions with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in open positions).[16]

Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is the pawn structure (sometimes known asthe pawn skeleton), or the configuration of pawns on the chessboard.[17] Since pawns are the leastmobile of the chess pieces, the pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategicnature of the position. Weaknesses in the pawn structure, such as isolated, doubled, or backward pawnsand holes, once created, are often permanent. Care must therefore be taken to avoid these weaknessesunless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility of developing anattack).[18]

Phases

Opening

Main article: Chess opening

A chess opening is the group of initial moves of a game (the "opening moves"). Recognized sequencesof opening moves are referred to as openings and have been given names such as the Ruy Lopez orSicilian Defence. They are catalogued in reference works such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings.There are dozens of different openings, varying widely in character from quiet positional play (forexample, the Réti Opening) to very aggressive (the Latvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exactsequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves.[19] Professionalplayers spend years studying openings and continue doing so throughout their careers, as opening theorycontinues to evolve.

The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar:[20]

Development: This is the technique of placing the pieces (particularly bishops and knights) onuseful squares where they will have an optimal impact on the game.

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Control of the center: Control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of theboard relatively easily, and can also have a cramping effect on the opponent.King safety: It is critical to keep the king safe from dangerous possibilities. A correctly timedcastling can often enhance this.Pawn structure: Players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled,or backward pawns, and pawn islands – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position.

Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the first move, begins the game with asmall advantage. This initially gives White the initiative.[21] Black usually strives to neutralize White'sadvantage and achieve equality, or to develop dynamic counterplay in an unbalanced position.

Middlegame

Main article: Chess middlegame

The middlegame is the part of the game which starts after the opening. There is no clear line between theopening and the middlegame, but typically the middlegame will start when most pieces have beendeveloped. (Similarly, there is no clear transition from the middlegame to the endgame; see start of theendgame.) Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features ofthe position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position.[22] Themiddlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical movesexecuted to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against theopponent's king; some typical patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or theLasker–Bauer combination.[23]

Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings which result in aspecific type of pawn structure. An example is the minority attack, which is the attack of queensidepawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is thereforeconnected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames.[24]

Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material andtransition into an endgame (i.e. simplify). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed intovictory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achievean ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps alight­squared bishop and the opponent has a dark­squared one, the transformation into a bishops andpawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops onopposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two­pawn advantage.[25]

Endgame

Main article: Chess endgame

The endgame (or end game or ending) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on theboard. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and endgame:[26]

During the endgame, pawns become more important; endgames often revolve around attemptingto promote a pawn by advancing it to the eighth rank.The king, which has to be protected in the middlegame owing to the threat of checkmate, becomesa strong piece in the endgame. It is often brought to the center of the board where it can protect itsown pawns, attack the pawns of opposite color, and hinder movement of the opponent's king.

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An example of zugzwang: the sidehaving to move is at a disadvantage.

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a b c d e f g hAshtāpada, the uncheckered 8x8board, sometimes with special marks,on which chaturanga was played

Zugzwang, a disadvantage because the player has to make amove, is often a factor in endgames but rarely in otherstages of the game. For example, the diagram on the right iszugzwang for both sides, as with Black to move he mustplay 1...Kb7 and let White promote a pawn after 2.Kd7; andwith White to move he must allow a draw by 1.Kc6stalemate or lose his last pawn by any other legal move.

Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces thatremain on board. Basic checkmates are positions in which oneside has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces andcan checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces workingtogether with their king. For example, king and pawn endgamesinvolve only kings and pawns on one or both sides and the task ofthe stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other morecomplicated endings are classified according to the pieces onboard other than kings, such as the "rook and pawn versus rook endgame".

History

Main article: History of chess

Predecessors

Chess is believed to have originated in Eastern India, c. 280– 550 CE,[27] in the Gupta Empire,[28][29][30][31] where itsearly form in the 6th century was known as chaturaṅga(Sanskrit: चतर湜笠ग), literally four divisions [of the military] –infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry, represented bythe pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight,bishop, and rook, respectively. The earliest evidence ofchess is found in the nearby Sassanid Persia around 600,where the game came to be known by the name chatrang.Chatrang is evoked in three epic romances written in Pahlavi(Middle Persian). Chatrang was taken up by the Muslimworld after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–44), where itwas then named shatranj, with the pieces largely retainingtheir Persian names. In Spanish "shatranj" was rendered asajedrez ("al­shatranj"), in Portuguese as xadrez, and inGreek as ζατρίκιον (zatrikion, which comes directly fromthe Persian chatrang),[32] but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh("king"), which was familiar as an exclamation and became the English words "check" and"chess".[note 3] Murray theorized that Muslim traders came to European seaports with ornamental chesskings as curios before they brought the game of chess.[30]

The game reached Western Europe and Russia by at least three routes, the earliest being in the 9thcentury. By the year 1000 it had spread throughout Europe.[33] Introduced into the Iberian Peninsula bythe Moors in the 10th century, it was described in a famous 13th­century manuscript covering shatranj,backgammon, and dice named the Libro de los juegos. Another theory contends that chess arose fromthe game xiangqi (Chinese chess) or one of its predecessors,[34] although this has been contested.[35]

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Knights Templar playing chess, Librode los juegos, 1283

A tactical puzzle fromLucena's 1497 book

François­André DanicanPhilidor, 18th­century Frenchchess master

Origins of the modern game (1000–1850)

Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified insouthern Europe, and around 1475, several major changes madethe game essentially as it is known today.[33] These modern rulesfor the basic moves had been adopted in Italy and Spain.[36][37]Pawns gained the option of advancing two squares on their firstmove, while bishops and queens acquired their modern abilities.The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece towards the endof the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the mostpowerful piece;[38] consequently modern chess was referred to as"Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess".[39] These new rulesquickly spread throughout western Europe. The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early19th century. Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerlyeither White or Black could move first). Finally the rules around castling were standardized – variationsin the castling rules had persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The resulting standard game issometimes referred to as Western chess[40] or international chess[41] in order to distinguish it from itspredecessors as well as regional versions of chess that evolved differently. Since the 19th century, theonly rule changes have been technical in nature, for example establishing the correct procedure forclaiming a draw by repetition.

Writings about the theory of how to play chess began to appear in the 15thcentury. The Repetición de Amores y Arte de Ajedrez (Repetition of Loveand the Art of Playing Chess) by Spanish churchman Luis Ramirez deLucena was published in Salamanca in 1497.[37] Lucena and later masterslike Portuguese Pedro Damiano, Italians Giovanni Leonardo Di Bona,Giulio Cesare Polerio and Gioachino Greco, and Spanish bishop Ruy Lópezde Segura developed elements of openings and started to analyze simpleendgames.

In the 18th century, the center ofEuropean chess life moved from theSouthern European countries to France.The two most important French masterswere François­André Danican Philidor, amusician by profession, who discoveredthe importance of pawns for chess

strategy, and later Louis­Charles Mahé de La Bourdonnais, who won afamous series of matches with the Irish master Alexander McDonnellin 1834.[42] Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee housesin big European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and Simpson'sDivan in London.[43][44]

As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly.Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared. Therewere correspondence matches between cities; for example, the London Chess Club played against theEdinburgh Chess Club in 1824.[45] Chess problems became a regular part of 19th­century newspapers;Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), thefirst comprehensive manual of chess theory.

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The "Immortal Game", Anderssen–Kieseritzky, 1851

Chess Players in late 19th­CenturyIstanbul, by Stanisław Chlebowski

Birth of a sport (1850–1945)

The first modern chess tournament was organized by HowardStaunton, a leading English chess player, and was held inLondon in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen,who was hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant,energetic attacking style was typical for the time.[46][47]Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal game andEvergreen game or Morphy's Opera game were regarded asthe highest possible summit of the chess art.[48]

Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with twoyounger players. American Paul Morphy, an extraordinarychess prodigy, won against all important competitors (exceptHoward Staunton, who refused to play), including Anderssen,during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863.Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliantattacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how toprepare attacks.[49] Prague­born Wilhelm Steinitz later

described how to avoid weaknesses in one's own position and how to create and exploit such weaknessesin the opponent's position.[50] The scientific approach and positional understanding of Steinitzrevolutionized the game. Steinitz was the first to break a position down into its components.[51] BeforeSteinitz, players brought their queen out early, did not completely develop their other pieces, andmounted a quick attack on the opposing king, which either succeeded or failed. The level of defense waspoor and players did not form any deep plan.[52] In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitzfounded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a muchyounger player, the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, thelongest tenure of all World Champions.[53]

After the end of the 19th century, the number of mastertournaments and matches held annually quickly grew. Somesources state that in 1914 the title of chess Grandmaster was firstformally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker,Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is adisputed claim.[note 4] The tradition of awarding such titles wascontinued by the World Chess Federation (FIDE), founded in1924 in Paris. In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championshipwas established; the first to hold the title was Czech­Englishmaster Vera Menchik.[54] It took a prodigy from Cuba, José RaúlCapablanca (World Champion 1921–27), who loved simplepositions and endgames, to end the German­speaking dominancein chess; he was undefeated in tournament play for eight years,until 1924. His successor was Russian­French AlexanderAlekhine, a strong attacking player who died as the Worldchampion in 1946. He briefly lost the title to Dutch player MaxEuwe in 1935 and regained it two years later.[55]

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Between the world wars, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so­calledhypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the center of theboard with distant pieces rather than with pawns, which invited opponents to occupy the center withpawns, which become objects of attack.[56]

Post­war era (1945 and later)

After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the titlesince then (except for one interruption), ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948tournament, Russian Mikhail Botvinnik, started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world. Until theend of the Soviet Union, there was only one non­Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion1972–75).[57] Botvinnik revolutionized opening theory. Previously Black strove for equality, toneutralize White's first­move advantage. As Black, Botvinnik strove for the initiative from thebeginning.[58] In the previous informal system of World Championships, the current champion decidedwhich challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for thematch. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest playerswere seeded into Interzonal tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualified fromZonal tournaments. The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go on the "Candidates" stage, whichwas initially a tournament, and later a series of knockout matches. The winner of the Candidates wouldthen play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play arematch a year later. This system operated on a three­year cycle. Botvinnik participated in championshipmatches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retainedthe title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in arematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the 23­year­old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, anaccomplished tactician and attacking player. Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961.

Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, andthe next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a player renowned for his defensive and positionalskills, held the title for two cycles, 1963–69. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (champion1969–72), won games in both positional and sharp tactical style.[59] The next championship, the so­called Match of the Century, saw the first non­Soviet challenger since World War II, American BobbyFischer, who defeated his Candidates opponents by unheard­of margins and clearly won the worldchampionship match. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet AnatolyKarpov when FIDE did not meet his demands, and Karpov obtained the title by default.[60] Fischermodernized many aspects of chess, especially by extensively preparing openings.[61]

Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s witha string of tournament successes.[62] Karpov's reign finally ended in 1985 at the hands of GarryKasparov, another Soviet player from Baku, Azerbaijan. Kasparov and Karpov contested five world titlematches between 1984 and 1990; Karpov never won his title back.[63] In 1993, Garry Kasparov andNigel Short broke with FIDE to organize their own match for the title and formed a competingProfessional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous WorldChampions and World Championships: the PCA or Classical champion extending the Steinitziantradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of many games, and the otherfollowing FIDE's new format of many players competing in a tournament to determine the champion.Kasparov lost his Classical title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia.[64] The World ChessChampionship 2006, in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov, reunified thetitles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion.[65] In September 2007, he lost the titleto Viswanathan Anand of India, who won the championship tournament in Mexico City. Anand

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Noble chess players,Germany, c. 1320

Two kings and two queens from theLewis chessmen (British Museum)

defended his title in the revenge match of 2008,[66] 2010 and 2012. In 2013, Magnus Carlsen beat Anandin the 2013 World Chess Championship.[67] He defended his title the following year, again againstAnand, and is the reigning world champion.

Place in culture

Main article: Chess in the arts and literature

Pre­modern

In the Middle Ages and during the Renaissance, chess was a part ofnoble culture; it was used to teach war strategy and was dubbed the"King's Game".[68] Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play atChestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione'sThe Book of the Courtier (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), butchess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains itfurther:

And what say you to the game at chestes? It is truely anhonest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth SyrFriderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a manmay be to couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in theplaye of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much tymeabout it, and applie it with so much study, that a man mayassoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any othermatter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing allthat laboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore inthis I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely, thatthe meane is more commendable, then the excellency.[69]

Many of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy havebeen lost, but others partially survive, such as the Lewischessmen.

Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. Anexample is Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sivesuper ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and theduties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an ItalianDominican monk Jacobus de Cessolis c. 1300. This book wasone of the most popular of the Middle Ages.[70] The work wastranslated into many other languages (the first printed editionwas published at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William

Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first books printed in English.[71]Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties werederived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces:[72]

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19th­century decorativechess pawns, China (NationalMuseum in Warsaw)

The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helmeon his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a maceon his lyft syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on hislegges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taughtand apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they benbayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ alsothey wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace thatthey may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth aboute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyrdispenses and dignyte.[73]

Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess enteredinto the popular culture of Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song ofCarmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with the names ofchess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina...[74]

Modern

During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self­improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess"(1750), wrote:

The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement;several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in thecourse of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened byit, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is akind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, andcompetitors or adversaries to contend with, and in whichthere is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, insome degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. Byplaying at Chess then, we may learn:

I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considersthe consequences that may attend an action [...]

II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess­board,or scene of action: – the relation of the several Pieces, andtheir situations [...]

III. Caution, not to make our moves too hastily [...][75]

With these or similar hopes, chess is taught to children in schools around the world today. Many schoolshost chess clubs, and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. Tournaments areheld regularly in many countries, hosted by organizations such as the United States Chess Federationand the National Scholastic Chess Foundation.[76]

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Through the Looking­Glass: the RedKing is snoring. Illustration by JohnTenniel

Large chess set in Franklin Square,Tasmania

Chess is often depicted in the arts; significant works where chess plays a key role range from ThomasMiddleton's A Game at Chess to Through the Looking­Glass by Lewis Carroll to The Royal Game byStefan Zweig and Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense. The thriller film Knight Moves is about a chessgrandmaster who is accused of being a serial killer. Chess is featured in films like Ingmar Bergman's TheSeventh Seal and Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players. Chess is also present in the contemporary popularculture. For example, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter plays "Wizard's Chess", while the characters of StarTrek prefer "Tri­Dimensional Chess". The hero of Searching for Bobby Fischer struggles against

adopting the aggressiveand misanthropic viewsof a world chesschampion.[77] Chess hasbeen used as the coretheme of a musical,Chess, by Tim Rice,Björn Ulvaeus, andBenny Andersson.

Composition

Main article: Chess problem

Chess composition is the art of creating chess problems (the problems themselves are sometimes alsocalled chess compositions). A person who creates such problems is known as a chess composer.[78]There are many types of chess problems. The two most important are:

Directmates: white to move first and checkmate black within a specified number of movesagainst any defense. These are often referred to as "mate in n" – for example "mate in three" (athree­mover); two and three move problems are the most common. These usually involvepositions which would be highly unlikely to occur in an actual game, and are intended to illustratea particular "theme", usually requiring a surprising or counter­intuitive "key move".[79]Studies: orthodox problems in which the stipulation is that white to play must win or draw.Almost all studies are endgame positions.[80]

Chess composition is a distinct branch of chess sport, and tournaments (or tourneys) exist for both thecomposition and solving of chess problems.[81]

Example

Main article: Réti endgame study

This is one of the most famous chess studies; it was published by Richard Réti in 1921. It seemsimpossible to catch the advanced black pawn, while the black king can easily stop the white pawn. Thesolution is a diagonal advance, which brings the king to both pawns simultaneously:

1. Kg7! h4 2. Kf6! Kb6

Or 2...h3 3.Ke7 and the white king can support its pawn.

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Richard RétiOstrauer Morgenzeitung, 4 Dec. 1921

a b c d e f g h8 8

7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1a b c d e f g h

White to move and draw

The former World Chess ChampionViswanathan Anand (left) playingchess against his predecessor VladimirKramnik

3. Ke5!!

Now the white king comes just in time to support hispawn, or catch the black one.

3... h3 4. Kd6 draw[82]

Competitive play

Organization of competitions

Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues,tournaments, and congresses. Chess's international governing body is FIDE (Fédération Internationaledes Échecs). Most countries have a national chess organization as well (such as the US Chess Federationand English Chess Federation) which in turn is a member of FIDE. FIDE is a member of theInternational Olympic Committee,[83] but the game of chess has never been part of the Olympic Games;chess does have its own Olympiad, held every two years as a team event.

The current World Chess Champion is Magnus Carlsen ofNorway.[84] The reigning Women's World Champion is HouYifan from China.[85] The world's highest rated female player,Judit Polgár, has never participated in the Women's World ChessChampionship, instead preferring to compete with the leadingmen and maintaining a ranking among the top male players.[86]

Other competitions for individuals include the World JuniorChess Championship, the European Individual ChessChampionship, and the National Chess Championships.Invitation­only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongestplayers. Examples include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo'sMelody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting,Sofia's M­tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament.

Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship.The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championships include bothteam and individual events.

Besides these prestigious competitions, there are thousands of other chess tournaments, matches, andfestivals held around the world every year catering to players of all levels. Chess is promoted as a "mindsport" by the Mind Sports Organisation, alongside other mental­skill games such as Contract Bridge, Go,

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Grandmaster GarryKasparov, former WorldChess Champion, isconsidered by many to be thegreatest chess player of alltime.

and Scrabble.

Titles and rankings

Main article: Chess titles

The best players can be awarded specific lifetime titles by the worldchess organization FIDE:[87]

Grandmaster (shortened as GM; sometimes InternationalGrandmaster or IGM is used) is awarded to world­class chessmasters. Apart from World Champion, Grandmaster is the highesttitle a chess player can attain. Before FIDE will confer the title ona player, the player must have an Elo chess rating (see below) of atleast 2500 at one time and three favorable results (called norms) intournaments involving other grandmasters, including some fromcountries other than the applicant's. There are other milestones aplayer can achieve to attain the title, such as winning the WorldJunior Championship.International Master (shortened as IM). The conditions are similarto GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is2400.FIDE Master (shortened as FM). The usual way for a player toqualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of2300 or more.Candidate Master (shortened as CM). Similar to FM, but with aFIDE rating of at least 2200.

All the titles are open to men and women. Separate women­only titles, such as Woman Grandmaster(WGM), are available. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earnedthe GM title, and most of the top ten women in 2006 hold the unrestricted GM title.[note 5]

As of August 2011, there are 1363 active grandmasters and 3153 international masters in the world. Topthree countries with the largest numbers of grandmasters are Russia, Ukraine, and Germany, with 208,78, and 76. The country with most grandmasters per capita is Iceland, with 11 GMs and 13 IMs amongthe population of 310,000.[88]

International titles are awarded to composers and solvers of chess problems and to correspondence chessplayers (by the International Correspondence Chess Federation). National chess organizations may alsoaward titles, usually to the advanced players still under the level needed for international titles; anexample is the Chess expert title used in the United States.

In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and national chess organizations use the Elo rating systemdeveloped by Arpad Elo. Elo is a statistical system based on the assumption that the chess performanceof each player in their games is a random variable. Arpad Elo thought of a player's true skill as theaverage of that player's performance random variable, and showed how to estimate the average fromresults of player's games. The US Chess Federation implemented Elo's suggestions in 1960, and thesystem quickly gained recognition as being both fairer and more accurate than older systems; it wasadopted by FIDE in 1970.[note 6] The highest FIDE rating of all time, 2881, was achieved by MagnusCarlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list.[89]

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Mathematicians Euler, Legendre, deMoivre, and Vandermonde studiedthe knight's tour.

Publications

Main articles: Chess libraries, List of chess books and List of chess periodicals

Chess has a very extensive literature. In 1913, the chess historian H.J.R. Murray estimated the totalnumber of books, magazines, and chess columns in newspapers to be about 5,000.[90][91] B.H. Woodestimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000.[91] David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that,"Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. Noone knows how many have been printed."[91] There are two significant public chess libraries: the JohnG. White Chess and Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library, with over 32,000 chess books andover 6,000 bound volumes of chess periodicals;[92] and the Chess & Draughts collection at the NationalLibrary of the Netherlands, with about 30,000 books.[93] Grandmaster Lothar Schmid owned the world'slargest private collection of chess books and memorabilia.[94] David DeLucia's chess library contains7,000 to 8,000 chess books, a similar number of autographs (letters, score sheets, manuscripts), andabout 1,000 items of "ephemera".[95] Dirk Jan ten Geuzendam opines that DeLucia's collection "isarguably the finest chess collection in the world".[96]

Mathematics and computers

See also: Computer chess, List of mathematicians who studied chess, Human­computer chessmatches, Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov and Chess engine

The game structure and nature of chess is related to severalbranches of mathematics. Many combinatorical and topologicalproblems connected to chess were known of for hundreds ofyears. In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theoryof game strategies, which is considered as one of thepredecessors of game theory.[97]

The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be between1043 and 1047 (a provable upper bound[98][99]), with a game­treecomplexity of approximately 10123. The game­tree complexity ofchess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10120, a numberknown as the Shannon number.[100] Typically an averageposition has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be asfew as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or as many as218.[101]

One of the most important mathematical challenges of chess is the development of algorithms that canplay chess. The idea of creating a chess­playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, thechess­playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax.[102] Serioustrials based on automatons, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful.

Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers andcomputer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess­playingmachines and computer programs.[103] The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming aComputer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Shannon.[note 7] He wrote:

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1990s chess­playing computer

The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply definedboth in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neitherso simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generallyconsidered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force useither to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of"thinking"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of moderncomputers.[105]

The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the firstmajor chess tournament for computers, the North AmericanComputer Chess Championship, in September 1970. CHESS 3.0,a chess program from Northwestern University, won thechampionship. Nowadays, chess programs compete in the WorldComputer Chess Championship, held annually since 1974. Atfirst considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs,for example Rybka, have become extremely strong. In 1997, acomputer won a chess match against a reigning World Championfor the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½(it scored two wins, one loss, and three draws).[106][107] In 2009,

a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating 2898: chess engine Hiarcs 13running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur tournament with nine wins andone draw.[108] The best chess programs are now able to beat the strongest human players.

With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to learn chessand prepare for matches. Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents all over theworld. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regardingcheating during games, most notably the "bathroom controversy" during the 2006 WorldChampionship.[109]

Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome ofa perfectly played game (either white can force a win, or black can force a win, or both sides can force atleast a draw).[110] However, according to Claude Shannon, there are 1043 legal positions in chess, andthe timeframe required to compute a perfect game puts this possibility beyond the limits of any feasibletechnology.[111]

Psychology

There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology.[note 8][note 9][113][114][115][116] Alfred Binetand others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core ofexpertise.[117][118] In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidlyperceive the key features of a position.[119] According to de Groot, this perception, made possible byyears of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Grootshowed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The abilityto memorize does not alone account for chess­playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced withrandom arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about half a dozen positions in each case).Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilledplayers from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the mastershad almost total positional recall.[120]

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A children's chess tournament in theUnited States

More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge andlook­ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role ofpersonality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chessexpertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise hasled to a lot of research recently. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficientfor reaching high levels of expertise in chess.[121] Recent research indicates that factors other thanpractice are also important. For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that strongerplayers started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are morelikely to have been born in late winter and early spring. Chess players are more likely to be non­right­handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill.[122]

Chess and intelligence

Although the link between performance in chess and generalintelligence is often assumed, researchers have largely failed toconfirm its existence.[123] For example, a 2006 study found nodifferences in fluid intelligence, as measured by Raven'sProgressive Matrices, between strong adult chess players andregular people.[124] There is some evidence towards a correlationbetween performance in chess and intelligence among beginningplayers. However, performance in chess also relies substantiallyon one's experience playing the game, and the role of experiencemay overwhelm the role of intelligence. Chess experts areestimated to have in excess of 10,000 and possibly as many as300,000 position patterns stored in their memory; long training isnecessary to acquire that amount of data.[125]

A 2007 study of young chess players in the United Kingdomfound that strong players tended to have above­average IQscores, but, within that group, the correlation between chess skilland IQ was moderately negative, meaning that smarter childrentended to achieve a lower level of chess skill. This result wasexplained by a negative correlation between intelligence andpractice in the elite subsample, and by practice having a higher influence on chess skill.[125]

Variants

Main article: Chess variant

There are more than two thousand published chess variants,[126] most of them of relatively recent origin.Variants can include, but are not limited to:

direct predecessors of chess such as chaturanga and shatranj;traditional national or regional games which share common ancestors with Western chess such asxiangqi, shogi, janggi, makruk, and sittuyin;modern variations employing different rules (e.g. Losing chess), or different forces (e.g.Dunsany's chess), or non­standard pieces (e.g. Grand Chess), or different board geometries (e.g.hexagonal chess). One of the most popular modern variants is Chess960, where the startingposition is selected randomly, rendering the use of prepared opening lines impracticable.[127]

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Gliński's hexagonal chess. Three bishops perplayer are the norm for hexagonal variants.

Game theory

Main article: Game theory

The 11­category, game theoretical taxonomy of chess includes: two player, no­chance, combinatorial,Markov state (present state is all a player needs to move; although past state led up to that point,knowledge of the sequence of past moves is not required to make the next move), zero sum, symmetric,perfect information, non­cooperative, discrete, extensive form (tree decisions, not payoff matrices),sequential.[128]

See also

Reference aids

Outline of chess (subject­wide table of contents)Glossary of chessIndex of chess articles

Lists

List of chess booksList of chess gamesList of chess playersList of chess world championship matchesList of strong chess tournaments

References

Notes

1. Without this additional restriction, which was added to the FIDE rules in 1972, it would be possible topromote a pawn on the e file to a rook and then castle vertically across the board (as long as the otherconditions are met). This way of castling was "discovered" by Max Pam and used by Tim Krabbé in a chesspuzzle before the rules were amended to disallow it. See Chess Curiosities by Krabbé. See also de:Pam­Krabbé­Rochade for the diagrams online.

2. The 50 move rule is not applied at FICGS.[5]3. At that time the Spanish word would have been written axedrez. The Spanish "x" was pronounced as English

"sh", as the Portuguese "x" still is today. The spelling of ajedrez changed after Spanish lost the "sh" sound.4. This is stated in The Encyclopaedia of Chess (1970, p.223) by Anne Sunnucks, but is disputed by Edward

Winter (chess historian) in his Chess Notes 5144 and 5152(http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/winter38.html).

5. Current FIDE lists of top players with their titles are online at "World Top Chess players"(http://ratings.fide.com/toplist.phtml). FIDE. Retrieved 2010­07­20.

6. For the official process see "02. FIDE Rating Regulations (Qualification Commission)"(http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=11&view=category). FIDE. Retrieved 2008­11­29.

7. Alan Turing made an attempt in 1953.[104]8. A survey is given in Mark Jeays, "A brief survey of psychological studies of chess"

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Citations

8. A survey is given in Mark Jeays, "A brief survey of psychological studies of chess"(http://jeays.net/files/psychchess.htm).

9. Chess is even called the "drosophila" of cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence (AI) studies, becauseit represents the domain in which expert performance has been most intensively studied and measured.[112]

1. "Laws of Chess" (http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=124&view=article). FIDE. Retrieved2010­08­03.

2. FIDE Laws of Chess, article 3.8b (http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?id=124&view=article)3. Larry Evans (1995­07­16). "Castling Confuses Even Grandmasters" (http://articles.sun­sentinel.com/1995­

07­16/entertainment/9507110283_1_rook­anatoly­karpov­castle). Sun Sentinel.4. Burgess (2000), p. 4815. "50 moves rules" (http://www.ficgs.com/membership.html#chess). FICGS. Retrieved 2009­12­01.6. See paragraph "E. Algebraic notation" in "E.I.01B. Appendices" (http://www.fide.com/component/handbook/?

id=125&view=article). FIDE. Retrieved 2008­11­26.7. "FIDE Laws of Chess" (http://www.fide.com/fide/handbook.html?id=125&view=article). FIDE. Retrieved

2010­09­04.8. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 929. "Botvinnik vs. Yudovich, USSR Championship 1933" (http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?

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gid=1006866). ChessGames. (Java needed)14. Harding (2003), pp. 1–715. Lasker (1934), p. 7316. Watson (1998), p. 163ff17. Harding (2003), pp. 138ff18. Evans (1958), pp. 22–6719. Tamburro (2010), p. 1820. Tarrasch (1987)21. Evans (1958), p. 17522. Harding (2003), p. 32–15123. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 8624. Silman (1998), pp. 202–525. Hooper & Whyld (1992), p. 37326. Harding (2003), p. 187ff27. http://en.chessbase.com/post/hindi­and­the­origins­of­chess28. Leibs (2004), p. 9229. Robinson & Estes (1996), p. 3430. Murray (1913)31. Bird (1893), p. 6332. ζατρίκιον (http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?

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Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, The Oxford Companion to Chess (2nd ed. 1992), p. 358. ISBN 0­19­866164­9."Schmid owns the largest private collection of chess books and other chess material." Harry Golombek,Golombek's Chess Encyclopedia, Crown Publishers, 1977, p. 290. ISBN 0­517­53146­1. In 1992, Hooper andWhyld stated that Schmid's chess library "is the largest and finest in private hands, with more than 15,000items". Hooper & Whyld, p. 226 ("libraries" entry). In 2008, Susan Polgar stated that Schmid "has over20,000 chess books".[1] (http://susanpolgar.blogspot.com/2008/02/chess­records.html) Dirk Jan tenGeuzendam states that Schmid "boasts to have amassed 50,000 chess books. Dirk Jan ten Geuzendam, "TheFinest Chess Collection in the World", New in Chess, 2010, No. 5, p. 18. The title of the article refers toDavid DeLucia's collection, not Schmid's.

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Further reading

85744­404­3. OCLC 52949851 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52949851).Keene, Raymond (1993). Gary Kasparov's Best Games. London: B. T. Batsford. ISBN 0­7134­7296­0.OCLC 29386838 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/29386838).Lasker, Emanuel (1934). Lasker's Chess Primer. London: Billings (1988 reprint). ISBN 0­7134­6241­8.Leibs, Andrew (2004). Sports and Games of the Renaissance. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN 0­313­32772­6.Levitt, Gerald M. (2000). The Turk, Chess Automaton. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company. ISBN 0­7864­0778­6. OCLC 226148928 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/226148928).Li, David H. (1998). The Genealogy of Chess. Bethesda, Md.: Premier. ISBN 0­9637852­2­2.OCLC 39281682 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39281682).Metzner, Paul (1998). Crescendo of the Virtuoso: Spectacle, Skill, and Self­Promotion in Paris during theAge of Revolution (http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft438nb2b6&brand=ucpress).Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0­520­20684­3. OCLC 185289629(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/185289629).Murray, H.J.R. (1913). A History of Chess. Northampton, Mass.: Benjamin Press (originally published byOxford University Press). ISBN 0­936317­01­9. OCLC 13472872 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/13472872).Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History.New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0­684­80164­7.Pritchard, David (1994). The Encyclopedia of Chess Variants. Godalming: Games & Puzzles Publications.ISBN 0­9524142­0­1. OCLC 60113912 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/60113912).Pritchard, David (2000). Popular Chess Variants. London: Batsford Chess Books. ISBN 0­7134­8578­7.OCLC 44275285 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44275285).Robbins, T.W.; Anderson, E. J.; Barker, D. R.; Bradley, A. C.; Fearnyhough, C.; Henson, R.; Hudson, S.R.; Baddeley, A. D. (1996). "Working Memory in Chess"(http://www.dur.ac.uk/c.p.fernyhough/Robbinsetal1996.pdf) (PDF). Memory & Cognition 24: 83–93.doi:10.3758/BF03197274 (https://dx.doi.org/10.3758%2FBF03197274).Saariluoma, Pertti (1995). Chess Players' Thinking: A Cognitive Psychological Approach. New York:Routledge. ISBN 978­0­415­12079­1.Silman, Jeremy (1998). The Complete Book of Chess Strategy. Los Angeles: Silman­James Press. ISBN 978­1­890085­01­8.Shibut, Macon (2004). Paul Morphy and the Evolution of Chess Theory. New York: Courier DoverPublications. ISBN 0­486­43574­1. OCLC 55639730 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55639730).Steinitz, William; Landsberger, Kurt (2002). The Steinitz Papers: Letters and Documents of the First WorldChess Champion. Jeferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company. ISBN 0­7864­1193­7. OCLC 48550929(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48550929).Tamburro, Pete (September 2010). "Challenging the Ruy Lopez". Chess Life: 18–21.Tarrasch, Siegbert (1987). The Game of Chess. New York: Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0­486­25447­X. OCLC 15631832 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/15631832).Vale, Malcolm (2001). The Princely Court: Medieval Courts and Culture in North­West Europe, 1270–1380.Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0­19­926993­9. OCLC 47049906(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/47049906).Verwer, Renzo (2010). Bobby Fischer for Beginners. Alkmaar: New in Chess. ISBN 978­90­5691­315­1.Watson, John (1998). Secrets of Modern Chess Strategy. London: Gambit Publications. ISBN 978­1­901983­07­4.Weenink, H.G.M. (1926). Hume, G., and White, A.C., ed. The Chess Problem. Stroud: Office of The ChessAmateur. OCLC 3617028 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3617028).Weissberger, Barbara F. (2004). Isabel Rules: Qonstructing Queenship, Wielding Power. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0­8166­4164­1. OCLC 217447754(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/217447754).Wilkinson, Charles K. (May 1943). "Chessmen and Chess". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin. NewSeries 1 (9): 271–279. doi:10.2307/3257111 (https://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F3257111). JSTOR 3257111(https://www.jstor.org/stable/3257111).Yalom, Marilyn (2004). Birth of the Chess Queen. New York: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN 0­06­009064­2.

03/09/2015 Chess ­ Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Dunnington, Angus (2003). Chess Psychology: Approaching the Psychological Battle Both on and Off theBoard. Everyman Chess. ISBN 978­1­85744­326­4.Fine, Reuben (1983). The World's Great Chess Games. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0­486­24512­8.OCLC 9394460 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/9394460).Hale, Benjamin (2008). Philosophy Looks at Chess. Open Court Publishing Company. ISBN 978­0­8126­9633­2.Mason, James (1947). The Art of Chess. Dover Publications. ISBN 0­486­20463­4. OCLC 45271009(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45271009). (see the included supplement, "How Do You Play Chess")Rizzitano, James (2004). Understanding Your Chess. Gambit Publications. ISBN 1­904600­07­7.OCLC 55205602 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/55205602).

External links

Chess (https://www.dmoz.org/Games/Board_Games/Abstract/Battle_Games/Chess/) at DMOZ

International organizations

FIDE (http://www.fide.com/) – World Chess FederationICCF (http://www.iccf.com/) – International Correspondence Chess Federation

News

Chessbase news (http://www.chessbase.com/)The Week in Chess (http://www.theweekinchess.com/)

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