hardware management

8/12/2019 Hardware Management

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HARDWARE MANAGEMENT

Q. 1. A. What are the necessary parts of computer system? Elaborate and explain each part.

Personal computer

Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has its own cooling fan.

Thepersonal computer,also known as the PC, is one of the most common types of computer due to itsversatility and relatively low price.Laptopsare generally very similar, although may use lower-power or

reduced size components.

Case

Main article:Computer case

The computer case is a plastic or metal enclosure that houses most of the components. Those found on

desktop computersare usually small enough to fit under a desk, but many newer computers use more

compact designs. Laptops are computers with a clamshell form factor, that fold up into a device that

includes an integrated screen.

Power supply

Main article:Power supply unit (computer)

A power supply unit (PSU) converts alternating current (AC) electric power to low-voltage DC power for

the internal components of the computer. Laptops are capable of running from a built-in battery, normally

for a period of hours.[5]

Motherboard

Main article:Motherboard

The motherboard is the main component inside the case. It is a large rectangular board with integrated

circuitry that connects the other parts of the computer including theCPU,theRAM,the disk drives(CD,

DVD,hard disk,or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the expansion slots.

Components directly attached to or part of the motherboard include:

TheCPU(Central Processing Unit) performs most of the calculations which enable a computer tofunction, and is sometimes referred to as the "brain" of the computer. It is usuallycooledby a heat

sink and fan. Most newer CPUs include an on-dieGraphics Processing Unit (GPU).

TheChipset,which includes thenorth bridge,mediates communication between the CPU and theother components of the system, including main memory.

TheRandom-Access Memory(RAM) stores the code and data that are being actively accessed bythe CPU.

TheRead-Only Memory(ROM) stores theBIOSthat runs when the computer is powered on orotherwise begins execution, a process known asBootstrapping,or "booting"or "booting up". The

BIOS(Basic Input Output System) includes bootfirmwareand power management firmware. Newer

motherboards useUnified Extensible Firmware Interface(UEFI) instead of BIOS.

Busesconnect the CPU to various internal components and to expansion cards for graphics andsound.

The CMOS battery is also attached to the motherboard. This battery is the same as a watch battery ora battery for a remote to your car's alarm system. Most batteries are CR2032 which keeps the

memory for date and time for your BIOS setting.
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Expansion cards

Main article:Expansion card

The [expansion card] in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of acomputer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus.

Storage devices

Main article:Computer data storage

Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components and recording media

that retain digital data. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers.

Fixed media

Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media.Hard disk drivesare found in virtually all older

computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, butsolid-state drivesare faster and more power efficient,

although currently more expensive than hard drives, so are often found in more expensive computers. Somesystems may use adisk array controllerfor greater performance or reliability.

Removable media

To transfer data between computers, aUSB flash driveorOptical discmay be used. Their usefulness

depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have an optical disk drive, and

virtually all have aUSBport.

Input and output peripherals

Main article:Peripheral

Inputandoutputdevices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The following are

either standard or very common to many computer systems.

Input

Input devicesallow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most personal

computers have amouseandkeyboard,but laptop systems typically use atouchpadinstead of a mouse.

Other input devices includewebcams,microphones,joysticks,andimage scanners.

Output device

Output devicesdisplay information in a human readable form. Such devices could includeprinters,speakers,

monitorsor aBraille embosser.

Mainframe computer

AnIBM System z9mainframe

Amainframe computeris a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many hundreds or

thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform large numbers ofcalculations for governments and large enterprises.
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Supercomputer

Asupercomputeris superficially similar to a mainframe, but is instead intended for extremely demanding

computational tasks. As of November 2013, the fastest supercomputer in the world is theTianhe-2,in

Guangzhou,China.[6]

B. Draw a computer block diagrams having early basic system, and todays PCarchitecture.
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Q. 2. A. When the you have an erratic or an unstable system then what are the troubleshootingneeded

Ans : In many ways, engine idle is a good measure of your engine's health. If anything is going wrong

under the hood, there's a good chance it will be affecting your car's idle speed and quality. Problems with

idle speed, things like slow idle, low idle, bad idle, lumpy idle, fast idle -- these are symptoms that should be

investigated, troubleshooted, diagnosed and repaired. The following symptoms and related problems should

act as a guide in helping you troubleshoot your idle issues.

Symptom:The engine will not idle smoothly, or it stalls during idle when the engine is cold. When the

engine is cold and you take your foot off the gas pedal, the engine runs very rough and may even stall. When

you run the engine at higher speeds, it seems to run fine.

Possible causes:

1. If you have a carburetor (grandpa), you may have a bad accelerator pump or power circuit.The Fix:Replace accelerator pump or replace carburetor.

2. There may be a vacuum leak.The Fix:Check and replace vacuum lines as required.

3. There may be some type of ignition problem.The Fix:Check and replace distributor cap, rotor,ignition wiresandspark plugs.

4. The ignition timing may be set wrong.The Fix:Adjustignition timing.

5. There may be a fault in the computerized engine control system.The Fix:Check engine control systems with a scan tool. Test circuits and repair or replace

components as required. (Generally not a DIY job)

6. TheEGR valvemay be bad.The Fix:Replace EGR valve.

7. The engine may have mechanical problems.The Fix:Check compression to determine engine condition.

8. Idle speed set incorrectly.The Fix:Set idle speed to specs.

9. The fuel injectors may be dirty.Symptom:The engine will not idle smoothly, or it stalls during idle when the engine is warm. When the

engine is warm or hot and you take your foot off the gas pedal, the engine runs very rough and may even

stall. When you run the engine at higher speeds, it seems to run fine.

Possible causes:

1. If you have a carburetor (gramps), you may have a bad accelerator pump or power circuit.The Fix:Replace accelerator pump or replace carburetor.


3. The fuel pressure regulator may be operating at too low a pressure.The Fix:Check fuel pressure with a fuel pressure gauge. Replace fuel pressure regulator. (Generally

not a DIY job)

4. Idle speed set incorrectly.The Fix:Set idle speed to specs.



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7. The EGR valve may be bad.The Fix:Replace EGR valve.

8. The engine may have mechanical problems.The Fix:Check compression to determine engine condition.

9. The fuel injectors may be dirty.The Fix:Clean or replace fuel injectors.

Symptom:The engine idles too fast. After the engine has run long enough to be warm, the idle speed does

not come down to normal. You really notice it when you come to a stop and must have to push hard on the

brake pedal to keep the car from moving.

Possible causes:

1. If you have a carburetor, you may have a bad accelerator pump or power circuit.The Fix:Replace accelerator pump or replace carburetor.

2. The engine may be overheating.The Fix:Check and repair cooling system.

3. The fuel pressure regulator may be operating at too low a pressure.The Fix:Check fuel pressure with a fuel pressure gauge. Replace fuel pressure regulator. (Generallynot a DIY job)

4. The ignition timing may be set wrong.The Fix:Adjust ignition timing.





8. You have a bad idle speed control unit.The Fix:Replace idle speed control unit.9. The alternator may not be working properly.

The Fix:Replace alternator.

Symptom:Car stalls when stopped quickly. You are driving along and everything is just fine ... until you let

off the gas pedal and apply the brakes. The engine starts shaking and may even stall. Not a good thing to

happen because you lose power steering when the engine dies.

Possible causes:

1. There may be a serious vacuum leak.The Fix:Check and replace vacuum lines as required.



3. Broken linkage.The Fix:Repair or replace as required.

B. What Exactly is 32- Bit Software

Ans : Prominent 32-bit instruction set architectures used in general-purpose computing include theIBMSystem/360and its 32-bit successors, theDECVAX,theNS320xx,theMotorola 68000 family,theIntelIA-

3232-bit version of thex86architecture, and the 32-bit versions of theARM,SPARC,MIPS,PowerPCand
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PA-RISCarchitectures. 32-bit instruction set architectures used for embedded computing include the 68000

family andColdFire,x86, ARM, MIPS, PowerPC, andInfineon TriCorearchitectures.

Incomputer architecture,32-bitintegers,memory addresses,or otherdataunits are those that are at most 32

bits(4octets)wide. Also, 32-bitCPUandALUarchitecturesare those that are based onregisters,address

buses,ordata busesof that size. 32-bitis also a term given to a generation ofmicrocomputersin which 32-

bitmicroprocessorsare the norm.

On thex86 architecture,a 32-bit application normally meanssoftwarethat typically (not necessarily) uses

the 32-bit linearaddress space(orflat memory model)possible with the80386and later chips. In this

context, the term came about becauseDOS,Microsoft WindowsandOS/2[2]were originally written for the

8088/8086and/or80286,16-bitmicroprocessors with asegmentedaddress space where programs had to

switch between segments to reach more than 64kilobytesofcodeand/or data. As this is quite time

consuming in comparison to other machine operations, the performance may suffer. Furthermore,

programmingwith segments tend to become complicated; specialfarand nearkeywords and/ormemory

modelshad to be used (with care), not only inassembly languagebut also in high level languages such as

Pascal,compiledBASIC,Fortran,C,etc.

The 80386 and its successors fully support the 16-bit segments of the 80286 but also segments for 32-bit

address offsets (using the new 32-bit width of the main registers). If the base addressof all 32-bit segmentsis set to 0, and segment registers are not used explicitly, the segmentation can be forgotten and the processor

appears as having a simple linear 32-bit address space.Operating systemslike Windows or OS/2 provide the

possibility to run 16-bit (segmented) programs as well as 32-bit programs. The former possibility exists for

backward compatibilityand the latter is usually meant to be used for newsoftware development.

In digital images/pictures, 32-bit usually refers toRGBA color space--24-bittruecolorimages with an8-bit

alpha channeli.e., 8 bits each for red, green, blue, and transparency; a total of 32 bits per pixel. A few

other much more rarely used images formats also require 32 bits per pixel, such asRGBE image format.

In digital images, 32-bit sometimes refers tohigh-dynamic-range imagingformats that use 32 bits per

channel

a total of 96 bits per pixel. 32-bit per channel images are used to represent values brighter thanwhite; these values can then be used to more accurately retain bright highlights when either lowering the

exposure of the image or when it is seen through a dark filter or dull reflection.

An example of this is the reflection seen in an oil slick; even though the reflection is only a fraction of that

seen in a mirror surface, the reflection of highlights can still be seen as bright white areas, not dull grey

shapes.

Q. 3.A. Explain briefly the ontel CPU family tree by 1stgeneration to 7th generation.

Ans : The Centrinobrand represents IntelWi-FiandWiMAXadapters. It was formerly a platform-marketinginitiative fromInteluntil January 7, 2010.

Previously, the brand covered a particular combination of mainboardchipset,mobileCPUandwireless

networkinterface in the design of alaptop.Intel claims systems equipped with these technologies deliver

better performance, longer battery life and broadwireless networkinteroperability.

Carmel platform (2003)

Industry-watchers initially criticized the Carmel platform for its lack of anIEEE 802.11g-solution, because

many independent Wi-Fi chip-makers likeBroadcomandAtheroshad already started shipping 802.11g

products. Intel responded that the IEEE had not finalized the 802.11g standard at the time of Carmel's

launch, and that it only wanted to launch products based on a finalized standard. In early 2004, after the
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finalization of the 802.11g standard, Intel permitted anIntel PRO/Wireless2200BGto substitute for the

2100. At the same time, they permitted the new Dothan Pentium M to substitute for the Banias Pentium M.

Initially, Intel permitted only the 855GM chipset, which did not support external graphics. Later, Intel

allowed the 855GME and 855PM chips, which did support external graphics, in Centrinolaptops.

Despite criticisms, the Carmel platform won quick acceptance amongOEMsand consumers. Carmel could

attain or exceed the performance of older Pentium 4-M platforms, while allowing for laptops to operate for 4

to 5 hours on a 48W-hbattery. Carmel also allowed laptop manufacturers to create thinner and lighter

laptops because its components did not dissipate much heat, and thus did not require large cooling systems.

Sonoma platform (2005)

The Mobile 915 Express chipset, like its desktop version, supports many new features such asDDR2,PCI

Express,Intel High Definition Audio,andSATA.Unfortunately, the introduction of PCI Express and faster

Pentium M processors causes laptops built around the Sonoma platform to have a shorter battery-life than

their Carmel counterparts; Sonoma laptops typically achieve between 3.54.6 hours of battery-life on a 53

W-h battery.

Napa platform (2006)

The codenameNapadesignates the third-generation Centrino platform, introduced in January 2006at the

WinterConsumer Electronics Show.The platform initially supportedIntel Core Duoprocessors but the

newerCore 2 Duoprocessors were launched and supported in this platform from July 27, 2006

onwards.Intel uses Centrino Duobranding for laptops with dual-coreCore Duoprocessors and retains the

Centrino name for laptops with single core (Core Solo)processors. Some of the initial Core Duo laptops are

still labeled as Intel Centrino rather than Centrino Duo.

Santa Rosa platform (2007)

The Santa Rosa platform comes with dynamic acceleration technology, allowing single threadedapplications to execute faster. When a single threaded application is running, the CPU can turn off one of its

cores and overclock the active core. In this way the CPU maintains the same Thermal Profile as it would

when both cores are active. Santa Rosa performs well as a mobile gaming platform due to its ability to

switch between single threaded and multithreaded tasks.[7]Other power savings come from an Enhanced

Sleep state where both the CPU cores and the chipset will power down.

The wireless chipset update was originally intended to includeWWANInternet access viaHSDPA(3.5G),

(codenamed Windigo) co-developed withNokia.[8][9]After announcing a working partnership, both later

retracted the deal citing the lack of a clear business case for the technology. Support forWiMAX(802.16)

was originally scheduled for inclusion in Santa Rosa but was later delayed until Montevina in 2008.[8]

It is branded as "Centrino Pro" when combined with the enhanced security technologies Intel introduced

withvProand "Centrino Duo" when they are not used.

Montevina platform (2008)

The codename Montevinarefers to the fifth-generation Centrino platform, now formally named Centrino 2

to avoid confusion with previous Centrino platforms. It was scheduled for release at Computex Taipei 2008,

which took place on June 37, 2008,[11]but was delayed until July 15, due to problems with integrated

graphics and wireless certification. It is branded as Centrino 2 vProwhen combined with built-in security

and manageability features technologies.
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Calpella Platform (2009)

The codenameCalpellarefers to the sixth-generation Centrino platform. Though originally scheduled to

premiere in Q3 2009 with the second iteration ofNehalemprocessors,[14]Intel had stated that due to pressure

from computer manufacturers, they would delay the release of the platform until at least October 2009 (Q4

2009) to allow OEM partners to clear excess inventory of existing chips. This was believed to be spurred by

the lowered demand due to unfavorable economic conditions throughout 2009.

Huron River platform (2011)

he codename " Huron River"refers to the seventh-generation Centrino platform.

Centrino Huron River platform

Mobilechipset

an Intel Mobile Express Series 6 chipset (PCHM codenamed Cougar Point ).

Gigabit Ethernet LAN controllers 82579LM and 82579LF (codenamed Lewisville).

Mobileprocessor

Processors, based on IntelSandy Bridge microarchitecture

Wirelessnetwork

Wireless Modules

Intel Centrino Ultimate-N 6300 AGNmini-PCIeadapter[19](codenamed Puma Peak33), or

Intel Centrino Advanced-N + WiMAX 6250 AGN mini-PCIe adapter[20](codenamed Kilmer Peak 2x2), or

Intel Centrino Advanced-N 6205 AGN mini-PCIe adapter[21](codenamed TaylorPeak 22), or

Intel Centrino Advanced-N 6230 AGN mini-PCIe adapter with Bluetooth[22](codenamed Rainbow Peak 22), or

Intel Centrino Wireless-N + WiMAX 6150 BGN mini-PCIe adapter[23](codenamedKelsey Peak 2x1), or

Intel Centrino Wireless-N 1030 BGN mini-PCIe adapter with Bluetooth[24](codenamed Rainbow Peak 21), or

Intel Centrino Wireless-N 1000 BGN mini-PCIe adapter[25](codenamed CondorPeak 21)

Chief River platform (2012)

The codenameChief Ri verrefers to the eighth-generation Centrino platform.

Centrino Chief River platform

Mobilechipset

an Intel Mobile Express Series 7 chipset (PCHM codenamed Panther Point)

Gigabit Ethernet LAN controllers ... (codenamed ...).

Mobile processor Processors, based on IntelIvy Bridge microarchitecture

Wireless network Wireless Modules
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Intel Centrino Ultimate-N 6300 Intel Centrino Advanced-N 6235 Intel Centrino Advanced-N 6205 Intel Centrino Wireless-N 2230 (codenamed Jackson Peak) Intel Centrino Wireless-N 2200 Intel Centrino Wireless-N 135 Intel Centrino Wireless-N 105 (codenamed Canyon Peak)

Shark Bay platform (2013)

The codename Shark Bayrefers to the ninth-generation Centrino platform.

Centrino Shark Bay platform

Mobilechipsetan Intel Mobile Express Series 8 chipset (PCHM codenamed Lynx Point)

Gigabit Ethernet LAN controllers ... (codenamed Clarkville).Mobile processor Processors, based on IntelHaswell microarchitecture

Wireless network Wireless Modules Wilkins Peak

B. What are SIMMS?Ans : A SIMM, or single in-line memory module, is a type of memory module containingrandom access

memoryused in computers from the early 1980s to the late 1990s. It differs from adual in-line memorymodule(DIMM), the most predominant form of memory module today, in that the contacts on a SIMM are

redundanton both sides of the module. SIMMs were standardised under theJEDECJESD-21C standard.

Most early PCmotherboards(8088-based PCs,XTs,and earlyATs)used socketedDIPchips. With the

introduction of286-based IBM XT/286, which could use larger amounts of memory, memory modules

evolved to save motherboard space and to ease memory expansion. Instead of plugging in eight or nine

singleDIPDRAMchips, only one additional memory module was needed to increase the memory of the

computer. A few 286-based computers used (often non-standard) memory modules likeSIPP memory

(single in-line pin package). The SIPP's 30 pins often bent or broke during installation, which is why they

were quickly replaced by SIMMs which used contact plates rather than pins.

SIMMs were invented and patented byWang Laboratories.Wang invented what was to become the basic

memory module, now known as a SIMM (single in-line memory module) in 1983. The original memory

modules were built upon ceramic and had pins. Later the pins were removed and the modules were built on

standard PCB material.

The first variant of SIMMs has 30 pins and provides 8bitsof data (plus a 9th error-detection bit inparity

SIMMs). They were used in AT (286),386,486,Macintosh Plus,Macintosh II,Quadra,Atari STEand

Wang VSsystems.

The second variant of SIMMs has 72 pins and provides 32 bits of data (36 bits in parity andECCversions).

These appeared first in the early 1990s in theIBM PS/2,and later in systems based on the486,Pentium,

Pentium Pro,earlyPentium II,and contemporary/competing chips of other brands. By the mid 90s, 72-pin

SIMMs had replaced 30-pin SIMMs in new-build computers, and were starting to themselves be replaced by

DIMMs.
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ikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_packagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/80286http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_packagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_AThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Personal_Computer_XThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_8088http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JEDEChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redundancy_%28engineering%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_memory_modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_in-line_memory_modulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_access_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haswell_%28microarchitecture%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_processorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chipset


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Non-IBM PC computers such as UNIXworkstationsmay use proprietary non-standard SIMMs. The

Macintosh IIfxuses proprietary non-standard SIMMs with 64 pins.

DRAM technologies used in SIMMs includeFPM(Fast Page Mode Memory, used in all 30-pin and early

72-pin modules), and the higher-performanceEDODRAM (used in later 72-pin modules).

Due to the differing data bus widths of the memory modules and some processors, sometimes several

modules must be installed in identical pairs or in identical groups of four to fill a memory bank. The general

rule of thumb is a 286, 386SX,68000or low-end68020/68030(e.g. Atari, Mac LC) system (using a 16 bit

wide data bus) would require two 30-pin SIMMs for a memory bank. On 386DX, 486, and full-spec 68020

through68060(e.g. Amiga 4000, Mac II) systems (32 bit data bus), either four 30-pin SIMMs or one 72-pin

SIMM are required for one memory bank. OnPentiumsystems (data bus width of 64 bits), two 72-pin

SIMMs are required. However, some Pentium systems have support for a "half bank mode", in which the

data bus would be shortened to only 32 bits to allow operation of a single SIMM. Conversely, some 386 and

486 systems use what is known as "memory interleaving", which requires twice as many SIMMs and

effectively doubles the bandwidth.

The earliest SIMM sockets were conventional push-type sockets. These were soon replaced byZIFsockets

in which the SIMM was inserted at an angle, then tilted into an upright position. To remove one, the twometal or plastic clips at each end must be pulled to the side, then the SIMM must be tilted back and pulled

out (low-profile sockets reversed this convention somewhat, like SODIMMs - the modules are inserted at a

"high" angle, then pushed downto become more flush with the motherboard). The earlier sockets used

plastic retainer clips which were found to break, so steel clips replaced them.

Some SIMMs supportpresence detect(PD). Connections are made to some of the pins that encode the

capacity and speed of the SIMM, so that compatible equipment can detect the properties of the SIMM. PD

SIMMs can be used in equipment which does not support PD; the information is ignored. Standard SIMMs

can easily be converted to support PD by fitting jumpers, if the SIMMs have solder pads to do so, or by

soldering wires on.[1]

Q. 4. A. Explain different types of Rams?

Random Access Memory(RAM)is the best known form of Computer Memory. The Read andwrite (R/W)memoryof acomputeris called RAM. The User can write information to it and readinformation from it.With Ram any location can be reached in a fixed ( and short) amount of timeafter specifying its address.

The RAM is a volatile memory, it means information written to it can be accessed as long as poweris on. As soon as the power is off, it can not be accessed. so this mean RAM computer memory

essentially empty.RAM holds data and processing instructions temporarily until theCPUneeds it.RAM is considered random access because you can access any memory cell directly if youknow the row and column that intersect at that cell. RAM is made in electronic chips made of socalled semiconductor material, just like processors and many other types of chips. In RAM,transistors make up the individual storage cells which can each remember an amount of data, forexample, 1 or 4 bits as long as thePCis switched on. Physically, RAM consists of small electronicchips which are mounted in modules (small printed circuit boards). The modules are installed inthe PCs motherboard using sockets there are typically 2, 3 or 4 of these.

There are two basic types of RAM :

(i) Dynamic Ram

(ii) Static RAM
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Dynamic RAM : loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when powersupply is on. D-RAMs are cheaper & lower.

Similar to a microprocessor chip is an Integrated Circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors andcapacitors.In the most common form of computer memory, Dynamic Memory Cell, represents asingle bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as aswitch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state. Acapacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the

bucket is filled with electrons.

To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitors bucket is that it has a leak. In a matterof a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, eitherthe CPU or the Memory Controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding it

before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and then writes it rightback. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.

This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamicallyrefreshed all of the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is thatit takes time and slows down the memory.

Static RAM uses a completely different technology. S-RAM retains stored information only aslong as the power supply is on. Static RAMs are costlier and consume more power. They havehigher speed than D-RAMs. They store information in Hip-Hope.

In static RAM, a form of flipflop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes fouror six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAMsignificantly faster than dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell

takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get less memoryper chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive. Static RAM is fast and expensive, anddynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPUs speedsensitivecache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.

Some other RAMS are :

(a) EDO (Extended Data Output) RAM : In an EDO RAMs, any memory location can beaccessed. Stores 256 bytes of data information into latches. The latches hold next 256 bytes of

information so that in most programs, which are sequentially executed, the data are availablewithout wait states.

(b) SDRAM (Synchronous DRAMS), SGRAMs (Synchronous Graphic RAMs) These RAMchips use the same clock rate as CPUuses. They transfer data when the CPU expects them to beready.

(c) DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate

SDRAM) :This RAM transfers data on both edges ofthe clock. Therefore the transfer rate of the data becomes doubles.


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ROM :Read only memory: Its non volatile memory, ie, the information stored in it, is not losteven if the power supply goes off. Its used for the permanent storage of information. It also possesrandom access property. Information can not be written into a ROM by the users/programmers. Inother words the contents of ROMs are decided by the manufactures.

The following types of ROMs an listed below :

(i) PROM : Its programmable ROM. Its contents are decided by the user. The user can storepermanent programs, data etc in a PROM. The data is fed into it using a PROM programs.

(ii) EPROM :An EPROM is an erasable PROM. The stored data in EPROMs can be erased byexposing it to UV light for about 20 min. Its not easy to erase it because the EPROM IC has to beremoved from the computer and exposed to UV light. The entire data is erased and not selectedportions by the user. EPROMs are cheap and reliable.

(iii) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) :The chip can be erased & reprogrammed onthe board easily byte by byte. It can be erased with in a few milliseconds. There is a limit on thenumber of times the EEPROMs can be reprogrammed, i.e.; usually around 10,000 times.

Flash Memory : Its an electrically erasable & programmable permanent type memory. It usesone transistor memory all resulting in high packing density, low power consumption, lower cost &higher reliability. Its used in all power, digital cameras, MP3 players etc.

B. How to detect & solve IRQ conflicts?

Ans : AnInterrupt ReQuest (IRQ) line allows a device to signal the CPU to request its attention. Sometimesthese interrupts get mixed up and the message does not get through. For example, if two devices use the

same IRQ, and the driver is not written to handle this, it may end up processing an IRQ for which it wasn't

supposed to. Modern device drivers typically resolve this themselves, but sometimes they need help.

A BIOS (Basic Input Output System) starts your computer for you, and allows you to configure devices

before the computer is booted. Most times the BIOS can be accessed by pressing ESC, Del or F2 when you

first power on the computer. If you have no experience with changing BIOS options, you do not want to

change any of the settings without the help of knowledgable person.

n acomputer,an interrupt request(or IRQ) is a hardware signal sent to the processor that temporarily

stops a running program and allows a special program, an interrupt handler, to run instead. Interrupts areused to handle such events as data receipt from a modem or network, or a key press or mouse movement.

Theinterrupt request level(IRQL) is thepriorityof an interrupt request.

Interrupt lines are often identified by an index with the format ofIRQfollowed by a number. For example,

on theIntel 8259family ofPICsthere are eight interrupt inputs commonly referred to asIRQ0through

IRQ7. Inx86basedcomputer systemsthat use two of thesePICs,the combined set of lines are referred to as

IRQ0throughIRQ15. Technically these lines are namedIR0throughIR7, and the lines on theISAbus to

which they were historically attached are namedIRQ0throughIRQ15

Newerx86systems integrate anAdvanced Programmable Interrupt Controller(APIC) that conforms to the

Intel APIC Architecture.These APICs support a programming interface for up to 255 physical hardware

IRQ lines per APIC, with a typical system implementing support for only around 24 total hardware lines.
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SeeIntel 8259for a common list and discussion of hardware IRQ lines inx86systems.

Typically, on systems using theIntel 8259,16 IRQs are used. IRQs 0 to 7 are managed by one Intel 8259

PIC, and IRQs 8 to 15 by a second Intel 8259 PIC. The first PIC, the master, is the only one that directly

signals the CPU. The second PIC, the slave, instead signals to the master on its IRQ 2 line, and the master

passes the signal on to the CPU. There are therefore only 15 interrupt request lines available for hardware.

On newer systems using theIntel APIC Architecture,typically there are 24 IRQs available, and the extra 8

IRQs are used to route PCI interrupts, avoiding conflict between dynamically configured PCI interrupts and

statically configured ISA interrupts. On early APIC systems with only 16 IRQs or with onlyIntel 8259

interrupt controllers, PCI interrupt lines were routed to the 16 IRQs using a PIR integrated into the

southbridge.

Q. 5.

A.Explain processors & their specification?Ans : Incomputer science,a preprocessoris aprogramthat processes its input data to produce output thatis used as input to another program. The output is said to be a preprocessedform of the input data, which is

often used by some subsequent programs likecompilers.The amount and kind of processing done dependson the nature of the preprocessor; some preprocessors are only capable of performing relatively simple

textual substitutions andmacroexpansions, while others have the power of full-fledgedprogramming

languages.

he most common example of this is theC preprocessor,which takes lines beginning with '#' asdirectives.

Because it knows nothing about the underlying language, its use has been criticized and many of its features

built directly into other languages. For example, macros replaced with aggressive inlining and templates,

includes with compile-time imports (this requires the preservation of type information in the object code,

making this feature impossible to retrofit into a language);conditional compilationis effectively

accomplished with if-then-elseand dead code elimination in some languages.

Asmall form factorcomputer had been widely speculated and requested long before the release of the Mac

Mini. Rumors predicted that the "headless iMac" would be extremely small, include no display, and would

be positioned as Apple's entry-level desktop computer.[8]On January 10, 2005, the Mac Mini was

announced alongside theiPod shuffleat theMacworld Conference & Expoand was described by Apple

CEOSteve Jobsat the time as "the cheapest, most affordable Mac ever".[6][9]

The Mac Mini is an entry-level computer intended for budget-minded customers. Until the 2011 release, the

Mac Mini had much less processing power than the other computers of the Macintosh lineup. Unlike regular

desktop computers, which use standard-sized components such as 3.5-inchhard drives,Apple uses lower

power laptop components in the Mac Mini to fit all the necessary components into the small case and toprevent overheating, common in such compact spaces.[10]Previously, with the choice of components on the

older models, the machine was considered somewhat slower than standard desktop computers. It also had

less storage and memory than comparable desktops. However, the 2011 upgrade addressed many of these

previous complaints.

In general, the Mac Mini has been praised as a relatively affordable computer with a solid range of features.

However, the press also agrees that it is relatively high priced for a computer aimed at the lower segment of

the market. It is possible to buy small form factor computers at the same price with faster processors, better

graphics card, more memory, and/or more storage.[11]The small form factor has made the Mac Mini

particularly popular as a home theater solution. In addition, the small size and observed reliability has helped

keep resale values high.[12]

On October 22, 2009, Apple introduced a new server version of the Mac Mini along with revisions of the

computer. This model lacks an optical drive, but contains a second hard drive in its place. This version is

marketed as an affordable server for small businesses and schools.
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