handbook of food products manufacturing || functional foods based on meat products

44Functional Foods Based on

Meat Products

Francisco Jimenez-Comenero

Instituto del Frıo (CSIC), Ciudad Universitaria, Jose Antonio Novais,

10, 28040-Madrid, Spain

44.1 Introduction 990

44.2 Meat Components and Health 991

44.2.1 Proteins 991

44.2.2 Lipids 991

44.2.3 Micronutrients 993

44.2.4 Other Components 994

44.3 Meat and Meat Products as Functional Foods: Technologies and Strategies 994

44.3.1 Improvement of Meat Components for Designing Meat-Based Functional Foods 994

44.3.1.1 Animal Production Practices for Meat-Based Functional Food

Production 995

44.3.1.2 Meat Transformation Systems Tailored to Meat-Based Functional Food

Production 999

44.3.1.3 Distribution and Storage Conditions 1008

44.3.1.4 Influence of Preparation and Consumption 1008

44.3.2 Bioavailability Considerations 1008

44.3.2.1 Synergistic Effect of Absorption of Nutrients in Muscle Foods 1009

44.3.2.2 Effect of Processing on Bioavailability of Meat Product Components 1009

44.4 Conclusions 1009

References 1010

[Note: All information in this chapter is the most current scientific and technical assessment and is unrelated to the

legal applications, if any, in individual countries.]

989

Handbook of Food Products Manufacturing. Edited by Y. H. HuiCopyright # 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

44.1 INTRODUCTION

Meat and meat products are valuable components of the human diet and the meat industry

is one of the most important industries in the world economy. Annual meat production is

projected to increase from 218 million metric tons in 1997–1999 to 376 million metric

tons by 2030 (WHO 2003). In the past, meat has been considered an important food

with great nutritional value. Consumption of meat was associated with good health and

prosperity and the consumer selected meat products mainly based on sensory factors.

Today, changes in dietary and life-style patterns have refocused consumer criteria to

choose meats that will promote health and quality of life. This fact has enormous impli-

cations owing to the intense competition in the food industry, which makes it extremely

sensitive to consumer demands and perceptions.

Nutrition is now recognized as a major modifiable determinant of noncommunicable

chronic diseases. There is increasing scientific evidence supporting the view that

diet alterations have strong positive and negative effects on health throughout life

(WHO 2003). It is in this context that the so-called functional foods have emerged

and have come to represent one of the fastest growing segments of the world food

industry.

Presently there is no universally accepted definition; however, a working definition has

been established in the consensus document concerning Scientific Concepts of Functional

Foods in Europe. Functional food is more a concept than a well-defined group of food pro-

ducts that fits the following definition: “A food can be regarded as a functional food if it is

satisfactorily demonstrated to affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body,

beyond adequate nutritional effects, in a way that is relevant to an improved state of health

and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease. Functional foods must remain foods

and they must demonstrate their effects in amounts that can normally be expected to be

consumed in the diet: they are not pills or capsules, but part of a normal food pattern”

(Diplock and others 1999).

The meat industry has been slow to follow the functional trends, despite the fact that it

is one of the sectors whose development may be of major interest. Over the last several

decades, one of the reasons meat products have come under increasing scrutiny by

medical, nutritional, and consumer groups is because of the associations between the con-

sumption of meat constituents (i.e., fat, cholesterol) and the risk of major society diseases

(i.e., ischemic heart disease, cancer, hypertension, and obesity). Based on nutrient and

dietary goal recommendations, meat-based functional foods have the opportunity to

improve their image and better serve the needs of consumers. Aside from meat’s

current relative importance, meat also constitutes a means for achieving a needed diversifi-

cation in taking a position in emerging markets with great implications for the future.

Therefore, developments in food processing and technology that enable the production

of functional foods are increasingly important.

The beneficial effects of functional foods are associated with the role of one or

more physiologically active components (functional or bioactive components). Knowl-

edge of these substances is essential for the identification, design, and development of

functional foods in general, and meat-based functional foods in particular. This

chapter will address the functional foods based on the different strategies that the

meat industry can utilize to affect potential functional components. The production of

functional meat products requires the fullest possible understanding of the health impli-

cations, both positive and negative, of meat components. It is only through this

990 FUNCTIONAL FOODS BASED ON MEAT PRODUCTS

knowledge that it is possible to devise proper strategies for the modulation of their

characteristics as needed.

44.2 MEAT COMPONENTS AND HEALTH

Foods are made up of thousands of biologically active components that have the potential

to cause functional effects (improvement of health status and well-being and/or reduction

of risk of disease). Although most of the biologically active components are produced by

plants, some are also found in meat and meat products. These components include import-

ant sources of highly available forms of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Meat contains

bioactive constituents known to have protective effects (Arihara 2004; Biesalski 2004).

Meats also contribute to components that, when ingested in excess, can have unhealthy

implications (e.g., fat, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, salt).

44.2.1 Proteins

Meat is a fundamental source of proteins of high biological value. Meat provides a well-

balanced source of amino acids that satisfies human physiological requirements such as

tissue growth and reconstruction. Supplying sufficient amino acids to maintain the

protein reserves of the body is also an important factor in antibody synthesis, thus promot-

ing acquired immunity to disease (Romans and others 1994). Certain amino acids present

in meat have favorable effects on the nervous and immune systems. Recently it has been

identified that some peptides released either during food processing or during digestion

are related to reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) or hypertension and

alleviating the effects of alcohol (Garnier 2004).

44.2.2 Lipids

A variety of evidence has led to the establishment of a relationship between dietary fat

and obesity, CVD, and certain types of cancer (WHO 2003). To prevent diet-related

chronic diseases, the following goals for dietary nutrient intake have been established:

Total dietary fat should provide between 15 and 30% of the calories consumed, with satu-

rated fatty acids (SFA) supplying less than 10% of said calories, polyunsaturated fatty acids

(PUFA) from 6% to 10% (v-6, 5–8%;v-3, 1–2%), and trans fatty acids less than 1%, while

cholesterol intake should be limited to less than 300 mg/day (WHO 2003). Meat and meat

products are important sources of dietary fat. The fat content in meat can vary widely

depending on factors such as species, type of cut, and extent of fat trimming (carcass

processing, primal cuts, retail cuts), among others. Meat lipids usually contain less than

50% SFA (of which only 25–35% have atherogenic properties) and up to 65–70% unsatu-

rated (monounsaturated, MUFA, and PUFA) (Table 44.1). Ruminant meat is also a source

of trans fatty acids, which are formed during biohydrogenation in the rumen.

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), a mixture of geometric and positional isomers of lino-

leic acid, is only found in useful amounts in meat and milk, especially from ruminants. The

majority of the CLA present is in the form of 9-cis, 11-trans octadecadienoic acid. Its

importance as a functional component lies in the fact that it appears to behave as an anti-

carcinogenic and antiatherogenic agent, and it induces a decrease in body fat and an

increase in protein content. Products obtained from ruminants constitute the main

44.2 MEAT COMPONENTS AND HEALTH 991

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992

source of CLA. Beef fat contains 3.1–8.5 mg/g fat (Hasler 1998) and lamb fat about

6 mg/g fat (Cassens 1999), while the lowest levels are found in the tissues of monogastric

animals: 0.6 mg/g fat for pork (Higgs 2000) and chicken (Takenoyama and others 1999).

The amount of cholesterol in meat and meat products depends on numerous factors. In

general, there is less than 75 mg cholesterol/100 g meat or meat product (Table 44.1). The

exceptions are some edible offal (heart, kidney, brain, and so on) where the concentrations

are much higher (Chizzolini and others 1999).

44.2.3 Micronutrients

Many of the apparent beneficial effects of animal source foods on human health and func-

tion are mediated in part by the micronutrients they contain. Meat is a good source of iron,

zinc, and phosphorus, with significant amounts of other essential trace elements such as

selenium, magnesium, and cobalt. Meat constitutes an excellent, highly bioavailable

source of iron (Table 44.1); 50–60% of this iron comes in the heme form and contributes

about 14–22% of total dietary iron intake (Schweitzer 1995; Higgs 2000). Iron deficiency

is one of the most prevalent nutritional deficiencies worldwide, both in developing and

developed nations (Neumann and others 2002). Menstruating women in particular consti-

tute a group at risk for iron deficiency. Surveys carried out in France and North America

reported iron deficiency in nearly 20% of these women (O’Sullivan and others 2002).

A reduction in the consumption of meat of 50% could result in an excessively low iron

intake (less than 8 mg/day) in one-third of women. This fact raises serious questions

about the appropriateness of the general message to reduce meat intake, especially in

certain populations (Carbajal 2004).

Meat is the richest food source of zinc, supplying approximately 20–40% of the

amount absorbed (Higgs 2000). Increasing attention is being paid to the global prevalence

of mild to moderate zinc deficiency both in developing countries and in disadvantaged

groups in industrialized countries. Because of the widespread effects of zinc deficiency

on morbidity, mortality, growth, and development, policy-makers must pay much more

attention to improving diet quality through food-based approaches or supplementation

where needed to address severe deficiency (Neumann and others 2002).

Selenium is one of the major antioxidants considered to protect against coronary heart

disease and cancers (Higgs 2000). Table 44.1 shows that meat also contains significant

amounts of selenium and provides about 25% of the daily requirement of this essential

mineral.

Meat and meat products are an excellent source of the B-group vitamins thiamine (B1),

riboflavin (B2), niacin, pantothenic acid, vitamin B6, and vitamin B12. Meat does not

contain significant amounts of vitamins A, C, D, E, or K, although vitamin A is abundant

in certain organs (liver, kidney). Recent analyses of meat and liver reveal significant

amounts of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, assumed to have a biological activity five times

that of cholecalciferol. This seems to indicate that the role of meat and meat products

in vitamin D intake has been underestimated, and that the importance of meat in the pre-

vention of rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, as well as its effect on bone

metabolism, should be reviewed (Higgs 2000). Meat is an important source of folate;

a folate-deficient diet has been associated with increased risk for different types of

cancer resulting from low intake of fruits and vegetables. However, it has been considered

that the bioavailability of folate from meat and liver is much better than that from fruits

and vegetables (Biesalski 2004).

44.2 MEAT COMPONENTS AND HEALTH 993

Meat also contains other micronutrients such as carnitine, creatine, choline, and so on;

their importance in human physiology is only just beginning to be recognized (Garnier 2004).

44.2.4 Other Components

Meat is one of the richest natural sources of glutathione, which is an important reducing

agent providing a major cellular defense against a variety of toxicological and pathologi-

cal processes. The importance of glutathione in the defense against chronic disease

signals a positive potential for meat (Higgs 2000). Natural polyamines (putrescine,

spermidine, and spermine), which are ubiquitous components of meat, are involved in

a multitude of basic metabolic processes with significant implications for human health;

for example, they are essential for the maintenance of the high cell turnover rate of

organs such as the gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, and spleen or of the high metabolic

activity of the normally functioning and healthy gut. However, in other cases, the intake

of polyamines should be minimized in an attempt to slow down the growth and progress

of a tumor (Bardocz 1995).

44.3 MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS AS FUNCTIONALFOODS: TECHNOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES

A functional food can be a natural food, a food to which a component has been added, or

a food from which a component has been removed by technological or biotechnological

means. It can also be a food in which the nature of one or more components has been modi-

fied, one in which the bioavailability of one or more components has been modified, or any

combination of these possibilities (Diplock and others 1999). Functional foods include

whole foods and fortified, enriched or enhanced foods (Hasler and others 2004).

A number of the approaches for functional food production (Roberfroid 2000; Jimenez-

Colmenero and others 2006) can be applied to meat processing (Fig. 44.1).

There are a number of ways to alter the presence of different functional components

that can result in the development of meat-based functional foods. Some strategies used

to achieve this are: genetic and nutritional, implemented through animal production

practices; strategies dependent on transformation systems (preparation of meat raw

materials, reformulation and processing), relative to distribution and storage; and

finally, targeting the conditions in which products are consumed (Jimenez-Colmenero

and others 2006).

Described in the following is an impact analysis of these strategies on the functional

components, as well as the procedures followed to improve meat and meat product composi-

tion, and procedures that affect the bioavailability of certain components with functional

effects. Likewise, the formation of some components whose presence may cause a deterio-

ration of health status and well-being and increase the risk of disease are considered.

44.3.1 Improvement of Meat Components for DesigningMeat-Based Functional Foods

From the farm to the table, there are a number of stages in which, either intentionally or

incidentally, the composition of meat and meat products can be changed . These changes

affect the presence of several functional components (Fig. 44.2).


44.3.1.1 Animal Production Practices for Meat-Based Functional FoodProduction. Animal production practices represent the first opportunity to condition

the presence of functional components. The composition of animal tissues, and hence car-

casses and commercial cuts (and meat raw materials), varies not only according to species,

but also according to breed, age, sex, type of feed, and so on. Several strategies are avail-

able for inducing changes (in vivo) in meat constituents. These strategies include genetic

selection, gene manipulation, nutrition and feeding management, growth-promoting and

nutrient-partitioning agents, and immunization of animals against target circulating

hormones or releasing factors.

Lipid Modification. As meats (and meat products) are among the major sources of dietary

fat, the attempt to approximate meat lipid characteristics (quantitative and qualitative) to

recommended dietary nutrient goals is considered essential.

FAT CONTENT REDUCTION. The fat content in meat has significantly decreased in recent

decades. Carcass fat has been reduced by about 6–15% in beef, 15–30% in pork, and

10% in lamb. Further reductions are anticipated for beef and lamb over the next few

years (Goutefongea and Dumont 1990; Higgs 2000). The extent of and method for accom-

plishing the reductions depend on the species.

Although animal fat has been reduced by traditional genetic means (selective breed-

ing), new alternatives have emerged with some of the genetic manipulation techniques

more recently made available. Genomic maps of farm animals used for meat production

have lately been constructed. This will enable the determination of regions within the

Figure 44.1 Approaches for meat-based functional food production.

44.3 TECHNOLOGIES AND STRATEGIES 995

genome that contain one or more genes with potential implications for quantitative par-

ameters (fat distribution) of interest for selection (Kirton and others 1997; Barroeta and

Cortinas 2004).

Carcass fatness can be manipulated in cattle, sheep, pig, and poultry by production

practices. Nutritional strategies are easier to apply in monogastric animals than in rumi-

nants. These strategies are determined largely by the composition of diets and by the

levels of feeding, particularly the energy and protein intake (Hays and Preston 1994;

Dikeman 1997). Using partitioning agents like anabolic steroids, growth hormones,

and so on, or immunization strategies, it is possible to alter some metabolic processes

that regulate the utilization of nutrients during growth in order to promote protein syn-

thesis and reduce fat deposition (Bass and others 1990; Byers and others 1993).

Additional management options to reduce carcass fat include elimination of castration,

selection according to maturity, size, and sex, and others (Bass and others 1990;

Dikeman 1997).

CHANGES IN FATTY ACID COMPOSITION. There are several ways to modify the fatty acid com-

position in farm animal fat, although the extent and procedure depend on the species.

Genetic methods now enable the modification of fatty acid composition, specifically the

Figure 44.2 From farm to table: strategies to affect meat and meat products components with potential

implications in human health.


contents in palmitic, palmitoleic, myristic, linoleic, and linolenic acids, of pork (Clop and

others 2003).

Lipid deposition in animal tissues can be endogenous, that is, synthesized de novo, or

exogenous, caused by diet. Dietary fatty acid composition is an extremely important part

of the fatty acid profiles of monogastric animals (pigs, poultry) and less important in rumi-

nants (cattle). For this reason, numerous animal feeding trials have been carried out in the

attempt to make the meat fatty acid composition more consistent with current human

health recommendations and consumer requirements. Feeding strategies in beef, pork,

lamb, or chicken have shown that plant (vegetable oils, plants rich in v-3, forages) and

marine sources (fish oil or fish meal) have been successfully used to significantly increase

the levels of v-3 PUFA (up to six-fold) and, more specifically, of eicosapentaenoic acid

(EPA, 20:5v3; e.g., up to 10-fold in beef ), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6v-3;

e.g., up to 60-fold in chicken), and linolenic acid (18:3v-3) (Enser 2000; Sloan 2000;

Barroeta and Cortinas 2004; Raes and others 2004). With these strategies, 100 g of

chicken meat can provide 90% of the recommended daily allowance of EPAþDHA

(Barroeta and Cortinas 2004).

Epidemiological, clinical, and biochemical studies have provided evidence of the che-

mopreventive activity of these fatty acids against some of the more common cancers

(breast and colon cancer), rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases, and CVD

(Hoz and others 2004). Dietary modification of fatty acid composition has also made it

possible to lower the v-6/v-3 ratios in farm animal tissues. This is important because

evidence has been accumulated that suggests that increased intake of v-6 and associated

relative v-3 deficiency, not cholesterol, is the major risk factor for cancers, coronary heart

disease, and cerebrovascular disease (Okuyama and Ikemoto 1999).

Dietary supplementation has been used to enrich chicken, pork, beef, and lamb with

CLA (Enser 2000; Lynch and Kerry 2000; Barroeta and Cortinas 2004; Raes and others

2004). Meat containing CLA has been described as a functional food (Pennington 2002;

Hasler and other 2004).

REDUCTION OF CHOLESTEROL. Selecting animals with the right genetics, feeding them diets

rich in unsaturated fats and treating them with growth-promoting or repartitioning agents

are the most common strategies for modifying the cholesterol content in living animals.

However, most of them have a negligible impact on cholesterol levels (Clarke 1997).

Although variations can be observed among species, muscles, or certain breeds,

between sexes or in relation to certain feeding regimes, their magnitude generally

appears to be too low for them to be of real use in the diet-related reduction of choles-

terol intake (Chizzolini and others 1999). The most promising method for selective

reduction of the muscle tissue cholesterol content in a living animal (by 20.4% in

breast muscle) appears to be through the provision of elevated dietary copper (Clarke

1997).

Vitamins. Increasing the presence of unsaturated fatty acids in meat causes heightened

susceptibility to oxidation, a process that leads to undesirable changes in sensory charac-

teristics. Food lipid oxidation is considered to pose a risk to human health. Some lipid

oxidation products are considered atherogenic and appear to have mutagenic, carcino-

genic, and cytotoxic effects (Chizzolini and others 1998). There are several means of

minimizing lipid oxidation associated with animal feeding. These means represent the

only technologies available to alter the oxidative stability of intact muscle foods.


Supplementing with dietary vitamin E (a-tocopherol) significantly in excess of physio-

logical levels reduces lipid oxidation as well as myoglobin oxidation in the meats of

poultry, pigs, cattle, and rabbits. The accumulation depends on species, muscle character-

istics, levels of supplementation, and duration of feeding. (Morrissey and others 1998;

Lynch and Kerry 2000; Dal Bosco and others 2001).

In addition to improving muscle quality, this strategy converts meat from a poor source

of vitamin E to at least a moderate one (Lynch and Kerry 2000). It has been suggested that

just 100 g of chicken can supply up to 30% of the recommended vitamin E intake

(Barroeta and Cortinas 2004). Tocopherols are known for their efficient antioxidant

activity in foods and biological systems; their ingestion helps to potentiate the antioxida-

tive capacity of the organism (Surai and Sparks 2001). Epidemiological studies have pro-

vided evidence of an inverse relationship between coronary artery disease and vitamin E

supplementation (Pryor 2003).

Dietary supplementation with the remaining fat-soluble vitamins or the water-soluble

vitamins does not significantly change their concentration in muscle (Lynch and Kerry

2000).

Minerals. Apart from selenium and, to a lesser extent, iron, these muscle minerals are not

responsive to dietary supplementation (Lynch and Kerry 2000).

Supplementation of the farm animal diet with iron increases muscle iron. However,

diets low in iron produce anemic animals and the paler meat that is preferred by consumers

(Lynch and Kerry 2000). It has been suggested that the use of supplemental iron (from

hemoglobin) to increase pig meat iron levels could play an important role in reducing

iron deficiency in some risk groups (O’Sullivan and others 2002; Ramırez and others

2002).

Dietary selenium supplementation makes it possible to increase the selenium levels in

pork, beef, veal, and poultry (Wenk and others 2000; Surai and Sparks 2001). This strategy

is presently utilized in most farm animal diets (Wenk and others 2000) and produces high-

selenium pork that contains about ten times the selenium content of traditional pork

(Anon. 2000).

The elimination of supplemental copper from the diet of broilers improves the

oxidative stability of the meat, although the muscle copper concentration is not affected

(Morrissey and others 1998).

Other Components. As animals cannot synthesize carotenoids, their presence in tissues

depends completely on diet. They are absorbed from the food and transferred along the

food chain. Carotenoids are used in animal feeds principally to enhance the color of

poultry meat, eggs, and the flesh of some species of fish. Their potential role as anti-

oxidants has increased the interest in achieving their incorporation into animal tissue

(Morrissey and others 1998; Lynch and Kerry 2000). Carotenoids have been related to

CVD risk reduction, cancer prevention, and immune function enhancement in mammals

(Torrissen 2000). Diets enriched with different carotenoids (b-carotene, lycopene,

zeaxanthin, lutein, and so on) have been employed to feed poultry (Morrissey and

others 1998; Torrissen 2000; Sagarra and others 2001).

Inclusion in animal diets of other compounds with potential antioxidant activity

(ubiquinone, plant phenolics, glutathione, phytoestrogens, carnosine, carnitine, and so

on) has been described as a method to increase the oxidative stability of muscle food


(Decker and Xu 1998; Lynch and Kerry 2000). Feeding pigs certain types and amounts of

soybean meal increases the amount of isoflavin in the meat, a circumstance that should

justify the claims that pork is a functional meat as isoflavones have been shown to

improve cardiovascular health in humans (Quaife 2002).

44.3.1.2 Meat Transformation Systems Tailored to Meat-Based FunctionalFood Production. Meat processing is another level at which it is possible to introduce

changes in the amounts and types of functional components in processed meats

(Table 44.2). Several basic approaches (Fig. 44.2) can be used to successfully induce

the desired effects (Jimenez-Colmenero and others 2006). These measures focus on the

treatment of the ingredients in order to secure a raw material suitable in terms of compo-

sition, reformulation of meat products to induce certain changes in their composition, and

TABLE 44.2 Approaches for Improving the Composition of

Meat-Based Functional Products.

Reducing

† Lipid components:

– Total fat

– Saturated fatty acids

– Trans-monosaturated fatty acid

– Trans-polyunsaturated fatty acids

– v-6/v-3 PUFA ratio

– Cholesterol

† Sodium

† Unhealthy compounds (formed during processing, distribution, storage or

consumption): nitrosamines, biogenic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydro-

carbons, heterocyclic amines, lipid oxidation products

Replacing

† Lipid: animal fat by vegetable and fish oils

Increasing

† Lipid fraction

– cis-monounsaturated fatty acids

– v-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (linolenic acid 18:3v-3; eicosapentae

noic acid, 20:5v-3; docosahexaenoic acid, 22:6v-3)

– Conjugated linoleic acid

† Vitamin E

† Minerals (Ca, Se, Fe, Mg, Mn)

† Other compounds

Adding

† Plant-based protein

† Dietary fiber

† Probiotics

† Carotenoids

† Vitamin C

† Plant sterols

† Phytate

† Other substances


adaptation of the processing technologies. There are numerous aspects to be taken into

account in the development of the new meat product and they all must respond to the

same quality criteria (technological, sensory, nutritional, safety, convenience, and so

on) as any other product.

Modification of the Meat Raw Material Composition. Whether for direct consumption

or transformation into meat products, meat can be subjected to different treatments that

modify the composition, generally regarding fat and cholesterol. The desirability of limit-

ing the fat content in commercial cuts and meat products has encouraged the development

of various procedures designed to separate and/or extract both visible fat and fat that is

located in less accessible parts of the muscle tissue The most immediate system consists

in extensive trimming to remove external and internal fat from the carcass; further

trimming is done on primal cuts and, where necessary, the defatting can be completed

on retail cuts. The final fat percent is limited by the intramuscular fat content and in

some cases is truly low.

In products involving more structural breakdown, a number of procedures have been

developed to reduce the percentage of fat in meat raw materials. These procedures

require the reduction of meat particle size, followed by a preparatory phase (modification

of pH, ionic strength of medium, and so on) prior to actual separation or removal using

cryoconcentration, centrifugation, decantation, and so forth (Giese 1992; Jimenez-

Colmenero 1996). Supercritical fluid extraction to remove fat and cholesterol from

meat has been performed with beef, pork, and chicken. This innovative technique is

very effective when the meat is partially dehydrated, with fat and cholesterol extraction

even surpassing 90–95%. At normal moisture levels, the results of supercritical fluid

extraction have been poor (Clarke 1997).

Modification of the Formulation Process. The most versatile manner of modifying the

composition of meat products includes a wide range of options for changing the ingredi-

ents employed in their preparation and, consequently, these options alter the content of

different endogenous and exogenous bioactive compounds. This strategy makes it possible

to apply a number of the approaches proposed for the production of functional foods: redu-

cing, increasing adding and/or replacing different functional components (exogenous and

endogenous) (Fig. 44.1). The technological difficulties involved depend on the type of

product (composed of identifiable pieces of meat, coarsely or finely ground, emulsions,

heat treatment, curing, and so on) and on the modification to be introduced. The different

types of reformulation approaches for designing meat-based functional foods, many of

which can be applied simultaneously, are analyzed below.

REDUCTION OF COMPONENTS. Because some components normally present in meat and meat

products have been associated with the development of certain diseases, the first approach

to the reduction of disease risk (functional effect) involves reducing their concentration to

appropriate limits (Table 44.2).

Reduction of Fat and Caloric Contents. The fat content of lean meat is less than 6%;

meat products, however, can contain fat levels as high as 50% (Table 44.1). For

humans in western societies, the major fat intake from meat products is the backfat of

the pig, which is present in many processed meat products; subcutaneous fat from rumi-

nants is generally consumed less often (Raes and others 2004).


The major effort to reduce dietary fat focuses on frequently consumed foods having the

highest fat percentages. Fat-reduction techniques are usually based on two main criteria:

the utilization of leaner meat raw materials and the reduction of the fat density (dilution)

by adding water and other ingredients. In the development of low-fat products, factors

associated with meat raw materials, nonmeat ingredients (fat replacements or substitutes:

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids), and manufacturing and preparation procedures should be

taken into account (Keeton 1994; Jimenez-Colmenero 1996). Low-fat foods (e.g., meats)

are functional foods (Thomson and others 1999) that are currently available in markets.

Population nutrient-intake goals for preventing diet-related chronic diseases (WHO

2003) take into account both the percentage of total fat energy and the relative contribution

of different types of fatty acids. They are, therefore, a key consideration in designing the

new composition of any product.

In general, in industrialized countries, the caloric intake from fat has been decreasing.

The proportion of calories from fat is now roughly 36–40% (still quite far from the 30%

recommended). Almost a fourth of the fat calories come from the consumption of meat and

meat products (Sheard and others 1998; Chizzolini and others 1999). Fat contains twice

the kilocalories per gram as proteins or carbohydrates (9 for fat versus 4 for protein and

carbohydrates). Caloric intake is most frequently limited by reducing the proportion of

fat. Depending on several factors, the calories can be reduced by nearly 50% with

respect to normal-fat meat products (Wirth 1991; Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis 2000).

Reduction of Cholesterol Content. The amount of fat is not always directly related

to cholesterol level (Table 44.1). In dry matter, the amount of cholesterol in lean beef,

pork, lamb, and poultry tissue may be as much as twice that present in adipose tissue,

but in wet matter, the cholesterol content of lean tissues is slightly lower than that of

adipose tissue (Mandigo 1991). Therefore, reduction of the percentage of fat does not

seem to be a suitable method of reducing cholesterol in meat products (Jimenez-

Colmenero and others 2001).

It has even been suggested that if fat reduction is achieved by increasing the proportion of

lean meat, it can actually increase the cholesterol level in the product (Mandigo 1991). The

way to obtain meat products with less cholesterol is by replacing meat raw materials–fat and

protein–with others that are devoid of cholesterol, particularly plant products or vegetable

oils. The original composition of a number of meat products (ground beef, frankfurters,

pork patties, and so on) has been modified by reducing animal fat and/or partially replacing

it with vegetable oils (olive, corn, sunflower, soybean) and by incorporating different plant-

based proteins (soy, corn, oat, wild rice, wheat gluten) or gums (Clarke 1997). This dilution

method has made it possible to significantly reduce cholesterol content. For example, a

cholesterol reduction of around 20% with respect to conventional meat products has been

reported in low-fat ground-beef and pork sausages (Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis 2000).

Replacement of 60% of the beef fat in frankfurters containing 29% fat with peanut oil

reduced the cholesterol content by more than 35% (Marquez and others 1989). Using

olive, cottonseed, and soy oils, Paneras and others (1998) obtained frankfurters (10% fat)

with up to 59% less cholesterol than regular frankfurters containing 30% animal fat.

Reduction of Sodium Content. High salt intake has been related to high blood pressure,

one of the major risk factors for CVD (Antonios and MacGregor 1997). The sodium intake

in most developed countries greatly exceeds physiological requirements. The current level

of salt consumption ranges between 6 and 20 g per day (Antonios and MacGregor 1997),


much higher than the ,5 g per day recommended (WHO 2003). Although meat in itself is

relatively low in salt, meat products with an elevated salt content present much higher

sodium levels (Table 44.1). Over 80% of the current salt intake now comes from that

added by food manufacturers (Antonios and MacGregor 1997), 20% being attributed to

meat products (Wirth 1991). There is growing interest among consumers and processors

in reducing the use of salt (minimizing sodium) in meat processing.

A variety of approaches for reducing the sodium content of meat products has been

reported, including partial substitution of the sodium chloride added to meat products

by other compounds (potassium and magnesium salts, phosphates, alginates, lactates,

hydrolysates of collagen and peptides, and microbial transglutaminase). These substi-

tutes can produce similar effects on sensory, technological, and microbiological prop-

erties. The extent to which salt levels can be limited depends on the type of meat

product (Wirth 1991). In recent years, the salt content in meat products has been

reduced to the point that there are now several commercially available salt-free meat

products.

Reduction of Nitrites. Sodium nitrite is traditionally added to cured meat products to

give meat products a characteristic color, to contribute to the aroma and taste, to inhibit

the development of certain microorganisms (Clostridium botulinum and other food-borne

pathogens), and as a potent antioxidant. In recent years, dietary nitrite has been associated

with methemoglobinemia and the formation of nitrosamines, which are considered to be

chemical agents with proven carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic activities. These

compounds occur in a number of foods, including heat-cured meat products. They can

form either in the food itself (depending on the heat-treatment conditions, salt, nitrite,

and ascorbate concentrations, or pH) or in the stomach of the consumer (Pegg and

Shahidi 1997).

As nitrosamine production depends on the residual nitrite level, the reduction of the

latter will reduce the risk of these carcinogenic compounds forming. Another strategy is

to use nitrosamine inhibitors. In fact, residual nitrite has been substantially reduced (up

to 80%) in recent years. This change can be attributed to reduced nitrite addition, increased

use of ascorbate, improvements in manufacturing processes and changes in composition

(Cassens 1999). In coming years, Europe could increase the legal restrictions on nitrate

and nitrite levels in meat processing.

REPLACING, ADDING AND INCREASING DIFFERENT COMPOUNDS IN MUSCLE FOOD PRODUCTS. A good

way to increase the dietary intake of functional components is to incorporate them into

common foods (Jimenez-Colmenero and others 2006). Meat product processing makes

it possible to replace, add, or increase nonmeat ingredients (familiar or unfamiliar) with

potential functional effects. Although replacement has focused mainly on lipids (and to

a lesser extent on proteins), adding or increasing (fortified, enriched, or enhanced

foods) involves a wide range of bioactive substances, unfolding myriad potential strategies

(Table 44.2). Food fortification, which is considered to be one of the most successful

approaches to functional foods (Wahlqvist and Wattanapenpaiboon 2002), plays an

important role. The functional components have been used

1. In the form of specific preparations (of greater or lesser purity) utilized intentionally,

and as constituents of certain nonmeat ingredients (extracts, flours, concentrates,

homogenates, and so on); and


2. For different purposes (technological, sensory, nutritional, microbiological, econ-

omical) in the meat industry.

In reality, many of those nonmeat ingredients are of plant origin (oats, soybean, wheat,

sunflower, rosemary, apple, mushroom, walnut), and their composition includes a wide

range of beneficial components (phytochemicals) (Pennington 2002). Thus, their utiliza-

tion as nonmeat ingredients implies the assurance of the presence of added bioactive

components in many commercially processed meats. On the other hand, new possibilities

arise as a consequence of migratory waves that introduce novel ethnic and regional

specialties. These new foods and tastes enable the introduction of additional, more health-

ful products that may require expanding the array of components and technology.

The different types of functional components employed in the production of meat-

based functional food are described below. Although they are presented individually

here, in many cases the use of nonmeat ingredients containing complex mixtures of bio-

active substances involves the coexistence of several types of interventions.

Modification of the Fatty Acid Profile. Meat product fatty acid composition can be modi-

fied by the formulation approach through the ingredients employed: meat raw material and

nonmeat ingredients (Fernandez-Gines and others 2005). The first case entails the use of

meat that, as a result of animal production practices (Section 44.3.1.1), presents a more

favorable lipid profile in terms of improving the health status of the population (increased

MUFA or v-3 PUFA contents and reduced v-6/v-3 PUFA ratio). Several types of products

have been prepared in this manner. Frankfurters and low-fat sausages containing high con-

centrations of MUFA have been made with meat raw materials from pigs fed on safflower,

sunflower, and canola oils (St. John and others 1986; Shackelford and others 1990). Dry fer-

mented sausages, cooked ham, and pork liver pate with a healthier v-6/v-3 PUFA ratio

have been manufactured using materials (backfat and meat) enriched in v-3 PUFA, obtained

from pigs fed on linseed-oil-enriched diets (Hoz and others 2004; Santos and others 2004;

D’Arrigo and others 2004).

The second procedure consists in replacing part of the animal fat normally present in

the product with another more suited to human needs – that is, with less saturated fatty

acids and more MUFA (oleic acid) or PUFA and, moreover, without cholesterol.

Simple fat replacement does not reduce the caloric content. Fish oils (v-3 polyunsaturated

oil) have been used for this purpose in low-fat frankfurters (Park and others 1989).

Different vegetable oils (corn, cottonseed, palm, peanut, soybean, high-oleic acid

sunflower, olive, linseed) have been used to replace animal fats (pork backfat or beef

fat) in meat products such as frankfurters (Marquez and others 1989; Paneras and

others 1998), ground beef patties (Liu and others 1991), and fermented sausages

(Bloukas and others 1997; Muguerza and others 2002; Ansorena and Astiasaran 2004).

Other types of nonmeat ingredients, such as walnut, have been utilized to produce heal-

thier changes in the fatty acid profiles of frankfurters and restructured beefsteaks

(Jimenez-Colmenero and others 2003). Walnuts display a high fat content (62–58%),

being rich in MUFA (oleic acid) and PUFA (with linoleic and linolenic acids constituting

58% and 12%, respectively, of PUFA content). Besides modifications in the diet of the

animals (Section 44.3.1.1), the interest in increasing the presence of CLA has led to its

direct addition to meat products (Joo and others 2000).

On the other hand, the varying effects of fats (in part, depending on fatty acid composi-

tion) on satiety signals could be used in the development of fat-containing food (meat


products) that modulates satiety. Specific manipulations of fats (as well as proteins and

carbohydrates) have the potential to act as functional foods for appetite control (Dye

and Blundell 2002).

Factors associated with both the nature of the lipid material used for replacement and

the type of product (degree of structural disintegration, fresh, cooked, fermented, and so

on) condition its impact on the properties of the product and, consequently, the amount

of meat fat that can be replaced.

Plant-based-Proteins. Several plant-based proteins have been used as ingredients in

meat products essentially for technological (as binders and extenders), economical

(reduce formulation cost), and compositional (nutritional and health) purposes.

Examples of these protein additives are wheat flour, vital wheat gluten, soy flour,

soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, textured soy protein, cottonseed flour,

oat flour, corn germ meal, and rice flour, among others. Some of them have been

used as fat replacements in low-fat meat products (Keeton 1994). Several of these

nonmeat ingredients also contain bioactive compounds (Pennington 2002). For this

reason, soy protein products have been widely studied. Owing to the presence, in

addition to soy protein, of other compounds such as fiber, isoflavones, saponins, and

so on they have been associated with health benefits such as reduced risk of heart

disease, prevention of cancers and osteoporosis, and reduced menopausal symptoms

(Hasler 1998). Other plant proteins also employed in meat products (sunflower,

walnut) contain high proportions of arginine (a nitric oxide precursor) having a low

lysine/arginine ratio. Many studies support the hypothesis that arginine or the low

lysine/arginine ratio reduce arteriosclerosis and report beneficial effects on heart

failure, blood pressure, and stroke (Feldman 2002).

Dietary Fiber. Regular fiber intake has a number of beneficial effects. Fiber is

involved in regulating blood glucose and blood lipids, reducing the risk of diabetes,

and preventing CVD, colon cancer, and regulating intestinal transit time. Europeans

generally consume around 20 g/day, versus the more than 25 g/day recommended

(WHO 2003). The incorporation of fiber into commonly consumed foods, like meat

products, could help correct this deficiency. Fiber has been widely added to meat pro-

ducts, not only for its known physiological effects, but as a technological ingredient to

improve water-binding properties, texture, and emulsion stability, helping to overcome

the effects on the characteristics of meat products produced by composition changes

(e.g., the fat reduction process).

Dietary fiber from oats, sugar beets, soy, rice, apples, peas, citrus fruits (lemon, orange),

and so on, have been added to the formulation of several meat products such as ground

meat and sausages (Keeton 1994; Kim and others 2000; Jimenez-Colmenero and others

2001; Fernandez-Lopez and others 2004; Fernandez-Gines and others 2005). Of special

importance is inulin, a soluble dietary fiber composed of a blend of fructose polymers

extracted from chicory that is being incorporated into numerous foods, including meat pro-

ducts (Pszczola 1998; Sloan 2000). The addition of antioxidant dietary fiber and chitosan

to meat products also raises interesting possibilities.

Probiotics. Probiotics are living microbial food ingredients that are beneficial in such

health concerns as gastrointestinal disorders, food allergies, inflammatory bowel diseases,

and immune function. Examples of probiotics are lactic acid bacteria or bifidobacteria,


primarily of the Lactobacillus species (Tyopponen and others 2003). The idea of

using probiotic bacteria as fermenting agents in meat products is just beginning to

develop.

Dry sausages are nonheated meat products that may be suitable carriers to deliver

probiotics into the human gastrointestinal tract. Several of these products have been inocu-

lated with Bifidobacterium lactis, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus paracasei, and

Lactobacillus rhamnosus. One essential aspect consists in ensuring that they survive the

processing conditions (presence of nitrite, sodium chloride, or hostile environment) and

the environment of the gastrointestinal tract. In order to achieve a health effect, the

minimum daily intake of probiotic bacteria is estimated to be 109 – 10 viable microbes.

Thus, 10–100 g of dry sausage containing 108 viable microbes/g could be the

minimum daily dose (Tyopponen and others 2003). Dry sausages with an added probiotic

culture are already being commercialized.

Tocopherols. Diet supplementation with vitamin E improves the oxidative capacity of

meat (Morrissey and others 1998). Supplementation of meat products, such as reformed

and restructured cured turkey products (Walsh and others 1998), cooked ham (Santos

and others 2004), and dry fermented sausage (Hoz and others 2004) are also improved

with vitamin E.

The antioxidant nutrient profile of meat products also has been improved by

adding vitamin E during the manufacturing process, either as a specific preparation or

as a component of nonmeat ingredients. Vitamin E has been added in vitro to several

meat products (sausages, ham) and, in some cases, such as certain cured products,

has been shown to decrease the production of nitrosamines (Gray and others 1982). Of

the different plant sources that have been employed in the formulation of meat

products, of particular interest are the wheat germ in frankfurters (Gnanasambandam

and Zayas 1992) and walnut in restructured steak (Jimenez-Colmenero and others

2003). Although walnuts contain very low amounts of a-tocopherol (compared with

other nuts), they have a high g-tocopherol content, constituting an excellent dietary

source of this vitamin.

Interestingly, g-tocopherol exhibited a high antioxidant activity with potentially

important physiological implications (Olmedilla and others 2006). Kim and others

(2000) improved the oxidative stability of roast beef by incorporating the natural antiox-

idants (vitamin E vitamers and oryzanols) present in rice bran oil. Honey, which also has

considerable antioxidant properties including a-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, catalase, and

flavonoids, has been added to muscle food to protect against lipid oxidation (Pszczola

1998). At the present time, there are a number of commercially available vitamin-E-enriched

meat products.

Carotenoids. In addition to nutritional strategies to incorporate carotenoids into intact

muscle (Section 44.3.1.1), the use of carotenoids as an exogenous antioxidant additive in

meat products with a certain structural disintegration has also been tested. Carotenoids are

naturally present in different vegetables (Pennington 2002) employed as nonmeat ingredi-

ents in various processed meats (beef patties, restructured beef steak, frankfurters, and

meat/liver loaves). Such is the case for tomato pulp (rich in lycopene) (Sanchez-Escalante

and others 2003), carrot and sweet potato (rich in provitamin A) (Saleh and Ahmed 1998;

Devatkal and others 2004), and spinach (rich in lutein and zeaxanthin) (Pizzocaro and

others 1998).


Vitamin C. Ascorbic acid supplementation offers beneficial health effects as this

vitamin produces a number of physiological effects that enhance immune function

and help to prevent heart diseases and certain types of cancer (Johnston 2003). It is

added to meat products either in the form of ascorbic acid or as part of certain

nonmeat ingredients (mainly vegetables) employed in the formulation of meat products.

Ascorbic acid has been incorporated into beef patties (Sanchez-Escalante and others

2001). Citrus byproducts have been added to cooked and dry-cured sausages as a

source of ascorbic acid (Fernandez-Lopez and others 2004). The antioxidant properties

of honey, resulting from its special composition (rich in ascorbic acid, among other

substances), has led to its use as a protective agent (functional) against lipid oxidation

in roasted chicken (Pszczola 1998) and cooked pork meat (O’Connell and others 2002).

Minerals. Certain meat products (e.g., sausages and turkey sausages) have been

enriched with calcium (Harris 2000) and fluoridated salt. Their consumption is aimed at

children to aid in bone and tooth development. On the other hand, the utilization of

some nonmeat ingredients in processed meat can increase the levels of copper, magnesium,

and manganese.

Plant Sterols. Plant sterols are present in most plants (Pennington 2002), some of which

are used as nonmeat ingredients in processed meats. Structurally, plant sterols and stanols

(saturated derivatives of sterols) are very similar to the cholesterol with which they

compete during absorption in the intestinal tract. Stanol esters reduce the blood total choles-

terol and low-density lipoproteins (LDL), without affecting the high-density lipoprotein

(HDL) or triglyceride content. In 2000, the FDA authorized health claims for plant sterol

and stanol esters based on evidence that they may help to reduce the risk of CVD. Several

products have been developed in the form of foods typically consumed on a daily basis,

including meat products such as frankfurters and broiler meatballs (Leino 2001).

Phytates. Phytate (myo-inositol hexaphosphate) is a natural antioxidant present in

many plants (most cereals, nuts, and legumes). These phytochemicals also exhibits

other health effects. Although phytate has antinutritional properties affecting mineral

absorption, it also has anticarcinogenic effects, decreases kidney stones, lowers blood

cholesterol in humans, and improves the glycemic index in human foods (Lee and

others 1998). Phytates have been added to meat products; either in the form of commercial

preparations (sodium phytate) in restructured beef (Lee and others 1998), or as com-

ponents of several phytate-rich plants used as additives in different meat products; for

example, rice fiber added to beef roast (Kim and others 2000).

Other Compounds. A number of other compounds are added to meat products during

processing. They may be incorporated intentionally to achieve specific objectives or as

components of one of the ingredients (soybean, nuts, onions) employed in the formulation.

Examples of the intentional use are the addition of taurine, carnosine or spices to enhance

lipid stability (Morrissey and others 1998; Sanchez-Escalante and others 2001) or limit the

formation of mutagenic/carcinogenic heterocyclic amines (Gibis and others 1999). Other

compounds are added unintentionally as ingredient components. Examples of uninten-

tional use are isoflavones present in soy products (Sadler 2004) or the flavonols (which

inhibit human platelet aggregation and prevent atherosclerosis) and allyl sulfides in

onion (Pennington 2002; Fista and others 2004).


Consequences of Manufacturing Procedures on Meat Product ComponentsImplicated in Human Health. In addition to the steps related to meat raw material

and formulation, meat processing involves many other interventions that can modify

the composition of the already formulated product. They can affect the content of

(increasing or decreasing) some nutrients or other food components naturally present

in food or the formation of others, as well as alter the microbial systems in functional

foods (Knorr 1998). Some of these changes may have notable implications for human

health. They can produce an increase in the density of some nutrients (e.g., due to

cooking, drying) or the loss of others (due to cooking). On the other hand, meat and

meat products undergo major chemical changes during processing (grinding, cooking,

frying, smoking) that result in the formation of numerous compounds, many of

which impart desirable characteristics to the food. Others, however, can have negative

implications for human health. For example, although fermentation is intended to

produce probiotics (Knorr 1998), in other cases, substances that possess potentially

harmful biological properties may be formed, as is the case of nitrosamines, polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), heterocyclic amines, biogenic amines, and lipid

oxidation products.

Cooking of cured meats may enhance nitrosamine formation. Polycyclic aromatic

hydrocarbons result from the combustion of organic matter in the cooking and smoking

of meat and meat products, as in many other foods. Their presence is determined by

a number of factors, among them the composition of the product and the heat treatment

applied. The importance of these hydrocarbons in certain meat products lies in the fact

that some of them are carcinogenic (Hotchkiss and Parker 1990). Biogenic amines are

compounds that are present in a large number of foods, including meat products. The bio-

genic amine concentration is conditioned by numerous factors, among them processing

(curing) and preservation conditions. Consumption of foods with high concentrations of

biogenic amines can cause migraine, headaches, gastric and intestinal problems, and

pseudo-allergic responses, chiefly brought about by the toxic action of histamine and

tyramine (Smith 1980).

Processing operations that disrupt the oxidation balance of skeletal muscle

include particle size reduction (facilitates contact between oxygen and oxidizable lipids),

cooking (causes a loss of antioxidant enzyme activity and release of protein-bound iron),

and salting (increases the catalytic activity of iron and reduces antioxidant enzyme

activity). These processing operations can dramatically increase lipid oxidation in

muscle foods. Technological strategies to minimize the development of unhealthy

products (Decker and Xu 1998) would help to reduce the risk of disease.

Recent research is disclosing the role of the proteins in meat as precursors of bioactive

peptides, that is, fragments that are inactive within the precursor protein, but that can be

released in vivo or in vitro by means of hydrolysis, and may exert different physiological

functions in the organism. Arihara and others (1999) detected angiotensin-I-converting

enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptides in several commercial fermented meat products

(e.g., cured loin of pork from Spain) and model sausages fermented with lactic acid

bacteria. ACE plays an important physiological role in regulating blood pressure. Those

authors suggested that ACE inhibitory activities can be generated from muscle proteins

and could be utilized to develop functional foods (Arihara 2004). Some peptides from col-

lagen hydrolysates inhibit fibrin polymerization and platelet formation, important

elements of CVD (Garnier 2004).


Interestingly, CLA increases in foods that are cooked and/or otherwise processed

(Arihara 2004). This is significant in view of the fact that many mutagens and carcinogens

have been identified in cooked meats (Hasler 1998).

44.3.1.3 Distribution and Storage Conditions. From manufacture to consumer,

meat products (like all other foods) must go through stages of distribution and storage,

During this time changes can take place favoring the formation of harmful compounds

such as those derived from lipid oxidation and biogenic amines. These changes can com-

promise the viability of probiotic strains (Knorr 1998).

44.3.1.4 Influence of Preparation and Consumption. Initially, in the selection

of products, and later, during their preparation and consumption, consumers may

modify food components that have implications for human health. Many foods, among

them meats, undergo certain treatments before being consumed that markedly affect

their composition.

The amount of fat ingested from a given product can vary widely depending on factors

associated with the conditions of preparation and consumption. Cooking methods appear

to be important. The fat content of cooked meat is sometimes higher than that of the

corresponding raw meat, when expressed on a percentage basis, due to loss of large quan-

tities of water during cooking. However, with respect to dietary fat intake, it is more mean-

ingful to calculate the fat content on an absolute basis, based on an initial 100 g. Expressed

thus, the cooking process reduces fat content in a proportion that depends on the type of

product, its fat percentage, and the cooking method used: deep frying, grilling, roasting,

boiling, or pan frying. In some cases, up to 25% or even 35% of the fat initially present

can be lost during cooking (Sheard and others 1998). To make the most of this circum-

stance, pads have even been designed to absorb fat lost during the cooking process (micro-

wave), minimizing the fat contact with food (Giese 1992). Even though the cholesterol

content (per 100 g of meat) normally increases on a wet tissue basis after the cooking

process (mainly due to loss of water), no changes in cholesterol content are observed in

dry matter (Chizzolini and others 1999).

The amount of fat ingested also varies according to the manner in which it is separated

from the meat during its preparation for cooking or when it is being eaten. The consumer

can remove fat from meat, reducing the overall fat intake by variable amounts. Thus, trim-

ming fat is a more effective means of reducing fat intake than simply reducing red meat

consumption. The situation is rather different with meat products where the fat is

present in a highly comminuted form and evenly distributed throughout the product

(Sheard and others 1998).

44.3.2 Bioavailability Considerations

The presence of bioactive components in functional foods is not only to be considered.

Other aspects that affect the bioavailability of the components are also relevant

(Diplock and others 1999; Roberfroid 2000). In the different stages between meat

production and its consumption, including processing, distribution, and storage, there

are a number of factors that can affect the bioavailability of some components, modifying

their functional effect and, thus, the role of meat products as functional foods.


44.3.2.1 Synergistic Effect of Absorption of Nutrients in Muscle Foods. It is

believed that muscle foods possess intrinsic factors (“meat factors”), most of which have

not been entirely delineated. These factors improve the bioavailability of a variety of

nutrients. The most clearly established intrinsic effect of muscle food on a nutrient

involves heme iron (Godber 1994). Meat enhances iron absorption from plant foods, so

the presence of meat in a meal can double the amount of iron absorbed from other

components of the meal.

Zinc absorption and retention are greater with high-meat diets, compared to low-meat

or zinc-supplemented diets (Higgs 2000). The bioavailability of trace minerals such as

zinc and copper is lower in plant foods than in muscle foods, which may even promote

the bioavailability of calcium and/or magnesium given the apparent effect of these

foods on bone mineralization. It has also been suggested that certain other nutrients,

including vitamin B6, folic acid, and niacin, are more readily available from animal

sources than from plant sources (Godber 1994).

44.3.2.2 Effect of Processing on Bioavailability of Meat ProductComponents. A variety of processing procedures used in the manufacture of meat

products, their distribution and storage, and even consumer practices can have an

impact on the efficiency of absorption of some nutrients, and interactions between differ-

ent food components can affect the bioavailability of some of them. These interactions can

take place during meat processing involving certain nonmeat ingredients, such as fiber or

phytic acid. These ingredients bind a number of minerals, which decreases mineral bio-

availability (Godber 1994; Kim and others 2000). However, meat provides an assured

source of iron, as heme-iron is unaffected by the numerous inhibitors of iron absorption

such as phytate (Higgs 2000). In addition to the formation of several compounds that

have negative effects on health, lipid oxidation also leads to the loss of nutrients suscep-

tible to oxidative degradation, as is the case for fat-soluble vitamins A and E and certain

water-soluble vitamins, including thiamin and folic acid (Godber 1994).

Studies have shown that, depending on different factors, cooking (whether by the meat

processor or the consumer) can reduce the bioavailability of some bioactive compounds in

muscle tissue, such as taurine, carnosine, coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone), and creatine. These

compounds are associated with several health benefits. For example, carnosine and

coenzyme Q10 have antioxidant properties and taurine presents antioxidant activity and

protects against exercise-induced muscle damage, but, under certain circumstances,

creatine contributes to the formation of muscle mass (Purchas and others 2003). Losses

of carnitine during storage and cooking of meat have been reported. This small molecule

is essential for fat metabolism as a vitamin-like material and has a relation with various

diseases (Wakamatsu 1999).

44.4 CONCLUSIONS

The meat industry is changing rapidly, impelled by changes in food technology and

demand. Functional foods pertain to a category of products that clearly respond to consu-

mer preferences, and a good way to increase functional components into the diet is to

incorporate them into common foods. As meat is one of those most widely consumed,

it would appear to be an excellent vehicle for functional component delivery.

44.4 CONCLUSIONS 1009

Although the idea of functional foods is more closely associated with other foods, meat

and meat products contain a number of compounds (naturally present or added) that confer

the properties of functional food to them. A number of technological and biotechnological

strategies make it possible to modify the content and/or bioavailability of functional

components from different sources, a circumstance that raises considerable expectations

concerning the possibility of generating meat products better adapted to the specific

needs of large sectors of society. Meat-based functional foods would help to integrate

meat and meat products into healthful diets.

Most of the studies on meat-based functional foods (like those dealing with most

functional foods) focus mainly on production systems, concentrating on the presence of

one or more functional components. One aspect that may place in doubt the benefits of

some of these practices is modifications affecting the bioactive components of meat pro-

ducts that may decrease the quantitative importance at a dietary level. However, dietary

diversification and modification is one of the intervention strategies recommended to

increase the intake of certain food components and reduce the occurrence of micronutrient

malnutrition (Gibson and Hortz 2001).

Although essential, there are few studies designed to elucidate the behavior and bio-

logical activity of the different functional components of meat products (or other func-

tional foods) in terms of the processing conditions, as well as their functional impact on

the organism. In this respect, it is crucial to assess the possible changes in the bioavailabi-

lity of the functional components after the many stages of preparation and preservation of

foods for human consumption.

It is also of the utmost importance to clearly establish the optimal levels of most of the

biologically active components in order to ensure that their effects are truly beneficial at

the doses and under the conditions in which they are consumed (Hasler 1998). Foods can

be regarded as functional if they can be demonstrated to affect beneficially one or more

target functions in the body, beyond an adequate nutritional effect, in a way that is relevant

to an improved state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk of disease. In-depth

studies that provide scientific evidence of the functional effects of meat-based functional

foods are indispensable.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by project AGL2001-2398-C03-01, Plan Nacional de Investiga-

cion Cientıfica, Desarrollo e Innovacion Tecnologica (IþDþ I), Ministerio de Ciencia y

Tecnologıa.

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