Chapter20GirdingforWar:TheNorthandtheSouth,

1861–1865

I.TheMenaceofSecession

• Lincoln'sinauguraladdress:• Firm,yetconciliatory• NoconflictunlessSouthprovokedit• Secessionwhollyimpractical• NorthandSouthconjoinedtwins,boundinseparablytogether

– Secessionwouldcreatenewcontroversies:• WhatshareoffederaldebtshouldSouthbeforcedtotake?

I.TheMenaceofSecession (cont.)

• WhatportionofjointlyheldfederalterritoriesshouldConfederatestatesbeallotted?• Howwouldfugitiveslaveissueberesolved?

– AunitedUnitedStateshadbeenparamountrepublicinWesternHemisphere:• IfU.S.A.brokeintotwohostileparts,Europecould:

– Transplanttheirconceptofbalanceofpower– Playdivide-&-conquergame—creatingadis-UnitedStates– DefyMonroeDoctrineandseizeterritoryinWesternHemisphere

II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter

– IssueofdividedUnioncametoaheadovermatteroffederalfortsinSouth:• Assecedingstatesleft,theyseizedU.S.arsenals,mints,andotherpublicpropertywithintheirborders• FortSumter,inCharlestonharbor

– Withfortlowonsupplies,Lincolnadoptedmiddle-of-theroadsolution

– HenotifiedSouthCaroliniansthatanexpeditionwouldbesenttoprovisionthegarrison,thoughnottoreinforceit

– Hepromised“noefforttothrowinmen,arms,andammunition”

– ToSoutherneyes,“provision”stillspelled“reinforcement”

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II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter(cont.)

• UnionnavalforcestartedonitswaytoFortSumter—amoveSouthregardedasactofaggression• April12,1861:Caroliniansopenedfireonfort• After34-hourbombardment,noliveslost,dazedgarrisonsurrendered• Northelectrifiedandprovokedtofighting:

– Fortwaslost,butUnionsaved– Lincolnturnedtacticaldefeatintoacalculatedvictory

II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter(cont.)

– Lincoln(April15)issuedcalltostatesfor75,000militiamen:• Volunteerssprangtocolors• April19and27,presidentproclaimedblockadeofSouthernseaports• CallfortroopsarousedtheSouth• Lincolnnowwagingwar—fromSouthernviewanaggressivewar—onConfederacy• Virginia,ArkansasTennesseereluctantlyjoinedConfederacy,asdidNorthCarolina(seeMap20.1)

II.SouthCarolinaAssailsFortSumter(cont.)

– Sevenstatesbecameelevenas“submissionists”and“Unionshriekers”wereovercome

– Richmond,Virginia,replacedMontgomery,Alabama,asConfederatecapital—toonearWashingtonforstrategiccomfortoneitherside

Map 20-1 p423

III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood

• Borderstates:–Missouri,Kentucky,Maryland,andDelaware=onlyslavestatesleftinUnion

– Contained:• WhitepopulationmorethanhalfthatofentireConfederacy• WithMaryland,Kentucky,andMissouri,manufacturingcapacityofConfederacywouldhavedoubled

III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)

• StrategicOhioRiverflowedalongnorthernborderofKentuckyandWestVirginia(“mountainwhite”areathattoreitselffromVirginiainmid-1861)• Twonavigabletributaries,CumberlandandTennesseeRivers,penetrateddeepintoDixie– AreaproducedmuchofConfederacy'sgrain,gunpowder,andiron

– TheBorderStates• Lincolnsuccessfullyusedmethodsofdubiouslegality• InMaryland,hedeclaredmartiallaw• DeployedUniontroopstowesternVirginiaandMissouri

III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)

– StatementofNorth'swaraimsprofoundlyinfluencedbyneedtoholdBorderStates:• Lincolndeclaredhewasnotfightingtofreeslaves• Antislaverywarextremelyunpopularin“Butternut”regionofsouthernOhio,Indiana,Illinois– AreasettledbySouthernerswhocarriedracialprejudiceswiththem

– Hot-bedofpro-SouthernsentimentwithinUnion• Wardidnotbeginbetweenslavesoilandfreesoil,butbeganaswarforUnion—withslaveholdersonbothsides

III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)

– SlaveryalsoshapedcharacterofwarinWest:• InIndianTerritory,mostCherokees,Creeks,Choctaws,Chickasaws,andSeminolessidedwithConfederacy• SomeIndians,esp.Cherokees,ownedslaves• Tosecuretheirloyalty,Confederategovernmentagreedtotakeoverfederalpaymentstotribes• Inreturn,tribessuppliedtroops• SomeCherokeesandmostPlainsIndianssidedwithUnion

III.Brothers'BloodandBorderBlood(cont.)

– Conflictbetween“BillyYank”and“JohnnyReb”abrothers'war(seepp.426-427)

–ManyNorthernvolunteersfromSouthernstates–ManySouthernvolunteersfromNorthernstates– FromBorderStates,onebrotherrodenorth(Blue)andonebrotherrodesouth(Gray)

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IV.TheBalanceofForces

– Atfirst,Southseemedtohavegreatadvantages:• Couldfightdefensivelybehindinteriorlines• NorthhadtoinvadevastConfederacy,conquerit,anddragitbackintoUnion• Southonlyneedadrawtowinitsindependence• Southfoughtforself-determinationandpreservation• Southatfirstenjoyedhighmorale• Militarily,Southhadmosttalentedofficers,esp.Lee

IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)

• OrdinarySouthernersaccustomedtomanaginghorsesandbearingarms• Southseemedhandicappedbyscarcityoffactories,butmanagedtoobtainsufficientweaponry

– SouthernDrawbacks:• Graveshortagesofshoes,uniforms,andblankets• EconomywasSouth'sgreatestweakness,butNorth'sgreateststrength• Northnotonlyahugefarmbutalsoasprawlingfactory(seeTable20.1)

Table 20-1 p425

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IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)

• Yankeesboasted¾ofnation'swealthand¾ofits30,000milesofrailroads• Northcontrolledseaswithsuperiornavy• SeapowerenabledNorthtoexchangehugequantitiesofgrainformunitionsandsuppliesfromEurope• Unionenjoyedmuchlargerreserveofmanpower:

– 22millionpopulation– Secedingstates9million,including3.5millionslaves

• AddingtoNorth'sadvantages,EuropeanimmigrantscontinuedtopourintoNorth(seeTable20.2)

Table 20-2 p428

IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)

• 1/5ofUnionforceswereforeign-born• InitiallyordinaryNorthernboyslesspreparedthanSoutherncounterpartsformilitarylife• Northmuchlessfortunateinitshighercommanders• Lincolnusedtrial-and-errormethodstofindmosteffectiveleaders,finallyuncoveringUlyssesS.Grant• Northernstrengthsovertimeproveddecisive• Earlyinwar,Confederatewinquitepossible

IV.TheBalanceofForces(cont.)

– Fourfascinatingmight-have-beens:• IfBorderStateshadseceded• IfuncertainstatesofupperMississippiValleyhadturnedagainstUnion• IfwaveofNortherndefeatismhaddemandedanarmistice• IfBritainand/orFrancehadbrokenUnion'snavalblockadeofSouthernports• ThenSouthmightwellhavewon• Butasfourfailedtomaterialize,Southcouldnothopetowin

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V.DethroningKingCotton

• Successfulrevolutionsgenerallysucceedbecauseofforeignintervention:– OfConfederacy'spotentialassets,foreigninterventionwasmostimportant

– Europe'srulingclassesopenlysympathetictoConfederatecause:• HadlongabhorredAmericandemocraticexperiment• Cherishedfellow-feelingforSouth'ssemifeudal,aristocraticsocialorder

V.DethroningKingCotton (cont.)

–MostworkingpeopleinBritainpulledforNorth• HadreadUncleTom'sCabinandsensedthatwarmightextinguishslaveryifNorthwon

– Fearingoppositionandhome,EnglandandFrancedecidednottochallengeUnion'sblockade

– BritishtextilemillsdependedonSouthfor75%oftheircottonsupplies

V.DethroningKingCotton (cont.)

–WhydidKingCottonfailSouth?• Strongproductioninprewaryears,1857-1860• ExportshadpiledupsurplusesinBritishwarehouses• OnlylaterweremanyBritishworkersunemployed• Directeffectsof“cottonfamine”relievedby:

– UnionsentfoodstuffstofeedunemployedBritishworkers– UnionvictoriesgaveNorthcottontoshiptoBritain– Confederatesransomecottonthroughblockades– CottongrowersinEgyptandIndia,respondingtohighprices,increasedoutputandcapturedshareofworldcottonmarkets

V.DethroningKingCotton (cont.)

– BoomingwarindustriesinEngland,whichsuppliedNorthandSouth,relievedunemployment

• KingWheatandKingCorn—themonarchsofNorthernagriculture—provedmorepotentpotentatesthanKingCotton• NorthproducedbountifulcropsofgrainandharvestedthemwithMcCormick'smechanicalreaper• becauseofbadharvests,BritainforcedtoimporthugequantitiesofgrainfromAmerica• Englandneededaccesstofoodmorethanaccesstocotton

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VI.TheDecisivenessofDiplomacy

• Trentaffair(1861)—– UnionwarshipinCubanwatersstoppedBritishmailsteamer,Trent• TooktwoConfederatediplomatsboundforEurope• Britonsoutraged• Warpreparationsbuzzed• Red-coatedtroopsembarkedforCanada• Lincolnreleasedtwoprisonersbecausenotwanttofacetwowarsatthesametime

VI.TheDecisivenessDiplomacy(cont.)

• Alabama—– SecondmajorcrisisinAnglo-Americanrelations:• Non-neutralbuildinginBritainofConfederatecommerce-raiders– Alabamaescapedin1862toPortugueseAzores,loadedweaponsandcrewsfromtwoBritishshipsthatfollowedit

– FlyingConfederateflagandofficeredbyConfederates,itwasmannedbyBritonsandneverenteredaConfederateport

• BritainwaschiefnavalbaseofConfederacy

VI.TheDecisivenessDiplomacy(cont.)

• “Britishpirate”capturedoversixtyvessels• AlabamafinallyacceptedchallengefromaUnioncruiseroffcoastofFrancein1864andwasdestroyed• IssueofBritish-builtConfederateraidersstayedalive• MinisterCharlesFrancisAdamsproddedBritishtoseethatallowingsuchshipswasdangerousprecedent:– Somedaycouldbeusedagainstthem

VI.TheDecisivenessDiplomacy(cont.)

• Britaindidnotremainneutral:– Confederatecommerce-destroyers,chieflyBritish-built,capturedover250Yankeeships

– SeverelycrippledAmericanmerchantmarine• AngryAmericanslookednorthandtalkedaboutgrabbingCanadawhenwarover

VII.ForeignFlare-ups

• FinalAnglo-Americancrisis:– Lairdrams—twoConfederatewarshipsbeingconstructedbyJohnLairdandSonsinGreatBritain

– DesignedtodestroyUnionwoodenshipswithironramsandlarge-caliberguns

–MinisterAdamswarned“thisiswar”ifshipsreleased

– Londonrelented;boughtthetwoshipsforRoyalNavy

VII.ForeignFlare-ups(cont.)

• Britain:– Agreedin1871tosubmitAlabamadisputetoarbitration

– In1872paidAmericanclaimants$15.5millionfordamagescausedbycommerce-raiders

– AmericanrancoralsodirectedatCanada:• ConfederateagentsplottedtoburnNortherncities• OneConfederateraidintoVermontleftthreebanksplunderedandoneAmericancitizendead

VII.ForeignFlare-up (cont.)

• DominionofCanada1867:– TwogreatnationsemergedfromfieryfurnaceofAmericanCivilWar:• OnewasreunitedUnitedStates• OtherwasaunitedCanada

• EmperorNapoleonIII:• DispatchedaFrencharmytooccupyMexicoCity• InstalledapuppetgovernmentwithAustrianarchdukeMaximilianasemperorofMexico

VII.ForeignFlare-up (cont.)

• BothactsflagrantviolationsofMonroeDoctrine– UnitedStatesaidedresistancemovementledbyMexico'snationalhero:BenitoJuarez• AfterCivilWarover,AmericanspreparedtoheadsouthtoMexico• Napoleonrealizedhisgamblewasdoomed• Abandonedpuppetgov'tin1867• MaximilianthenexecutedbyMexicanfiringsquad

VIII.PresidentDavisVersusPresidentLincoln

• Confederategovernmentweakness:– Itsconstitutioncontainedonedeadlydefect• Createdbysecession,itcouldnotlogicallydenyfuturesecessiontoitsconstituentstates

– JeffersonDaviswantedastrongcentralgovernment,butopposedbystates'righters

– Richmondencountereddifficultypersuadingsometroopstoserveoutsidetheirownstate

VIII.PresidentDavisVersusPresidentLincoln(cont.)

• Davisneverenjoyedpersonalpopularityandwasoftenatloggerheadswithhiscongress– Serioustalkofimpeachment– Heoverworkedhimself– Taskprovedbeyondhisabilities

VIII.PresidentDavisVersusPresidentLincoln(cont.)

• Lincolnhadhistroubles:– LessexperiencedbutmoreflexiblethanDavis– Abletorelaxatcriticaltimes– “OldAbe”grewaswardraggedon– Tactful,quiet,patient,yetfirm– Developedgeniusforinterpretingandleadingficklepublicopinion

– DemonstratedcharitablenesstowardSouthandforbearancetowardbackbitingcolleagues

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IX.LimitationsonWartimeLiberties

• CongressgenerallyacceptedorconfirmedLincoln'squestionablewartimeacts• Lincolndidnotexpecthisironhandedauthoritytocontinueoncewarended• Congressnotinsessionwhenwarstarted,soLincolngatheredreinsintohisownhands– Brushingasidelegalobjections,heproclaimedablockade(laterupheldbySupremeCourt)

– ArbitrarilyincreasedsizeofFederalarmy—somethingonlyCongresscandounderConstitution(seeArt.I,Sec.VIII,para12);Congresslaterapproved

IX.LimitationsonWartimeLiberties(cont.)

– DirectedTreasurytoadvance$2millionwithoutappropriationofsecurityto3privatecitizensformilitarypurpose:» GraveirregularitycontrarytoConstitution(seeArt.I,Sec.IX,para.7)

– Suspendedprivilegeofwritofhabeascorpussoanti-Unionistscouldbearrested» DefieddubiousrulingbychiefjusticethathabeascorpuscouldbesetasideonlywithauthorizationofCongress(seeArt.I.,Sec.IX,para.2)

– Hisregimewasguiltyofmanyotherhighhandedacts• DavislessablethanLincolntoexercisearbitrarypower,mainlybecauseofstates'righters

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X.VolunteersandDraftees:North andSouth

• Wardemandedmen—lotsofmen:– Northernarmiesfirstmannedsolelybyvolunteers• Eachstateassignedaquotabasedonpopulation

– 1863Congresspassedfirstconscriptionlaw• Grosslyunfairtopoor• Couldhireasubstituteorpay$300forexemptionrights• DraftopposedinDemocraticstrongholdsofnorth,esp.NewYorkdraftriotsof1863

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X.VolunteersandDraftees:NorthandSouth(cont.)

• Elsewhereinnorth,conscriptionmetwithresentmentandoccasionalminorriot• 90%ofUniontroopswerevolunteers• Socialandpatrioticpressuresaswellasgenerousbounties• Desertersstillplentiful—Unionarmyrecordedabout200,000deserters• Confederateauthoritiesplaguedwithdesertionproblemofsimilardimensions

X.VolunteersandDraftees:NorthandSouth(cont.)

• TheSouth:– Reliedmainlyonvolunteersatfirst:• MuchlesspopulousthanNorth(seeTable20.3)• Richmondresortedtoconscriptionin1862(nearly1yearbeforeUnion)• Robbedboth“cradleandgrave”(draftage17to50)

– Confederatedraftworkedseriousinjustices

Table 20-3 p434

X.VolunteersandDraftees:NorthandSouth(cont.)

• Amancouldhireasubstituteorpurchaseexemption• Slaveownersoroverseerswith20slavescouldalsoclaimexemption• Confederationconscriptionagentsavoidedareasinhibitedbysharpshootingmountainwhites

XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar

• Northerneconomy:– Hadaneasiertimefundingwar:• ExcisetaxesontobaccoandalcoholincreasedbyCongress• Incometaxleviedforfirsttime• Customsreceiptsprovidedimportantrevenue

– Congress1861passedMorrillTariffAct:• Increaseddutiessome5to10percent• Soonincreasedmorebynecessitiesofwar

XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)

– Partlytoraiserevenue– Partlytoprovidemoreprotectionforprosperousmanufacturershitbynewinternaltaxes

• ProtectivetariffbecameidentifiedwithRepublicanparty,asmostindustrialistswereRepublican

– Greenbacks:• Washingtonissuedpapermoney,totalingnearly$450millionatfacevalue• Printing-presscurrencyinadequatelysupportedbygold,hencevaluedeterminedbynation'scredit• Inflationundercutvalueofpapermoney

XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)

– Bonds=majorsourceofwarfunding:• Governmentnetted$2,621,916,786fromsaleofbonds• Methodsofsalethrough“drives”andpayrolldeductionsnotyetdevised• TreasuryforcedtomarketbondsthroughprivatebankinghouseofJayCookeandCompany,whichreceivedcommissionofthree-eightsof1%• Withprofitsandpatriotismatstake,bankerssucceededinmakingeffectiveappealstocitizenpurchasers

XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)

• NationalBankingSystem– Financiallandmarkofthewar• AuthorizedbyCongressin1863• Launchedasstimulanttosaleofgovernmentbonds• Alsoestablishedstandardbank-notecurrency• BanksthatjoinedNationalBankingSystemcouldbuygovernmentbondsandissuesoundpapermoneybackedbythem

XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)

– Firstsignificantsteptowardaunifiedbankingnetworksince1836:• Existedfor50years,untilreplacedbyFederalReserveSystemin1913

• Southernfinancialwoes:– CustomdutiescutoffbyUnionblockade– Confederatebondssoldamountedto$400million– Increasedtaxessharply– Imposed10%levyonfarmproduce

XI.TheEconomicStressesofWar(cont.)

– Shortonrevenue,governmentforcedtoprintblue-backedpapermoney

– “Runawayinflation”occurredwithtreasurynotes,totalingmorethan$1billion

– Confederatedollareventuallyworthonly1.6cents– InflationrateinConfederacyeventually9,000%– Contrastonly80%forUnion

XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom

• WartimeprosperityinNorthwaslittleshortofmiraculous:– Newfactories,shelteredbynewprotectivetariffs,mushroomed

– Soaringpricespincheddaylaborerandwhite-collarworkertosomeextent

–Manufacturersandbusinesspeoplerakedin“thefortunesofwar”

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XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)

– CivilWarbredamillionaireclassforfirsttimeinAmericanhistory:• GraftmoreflagrantinNorthpartlybecausetherewasmoretosteal• Greedyputprofitsabovepatriotism

– NewlaborsavingmachineryenabledNorthtoexpandeconomically:• Eventhoughwardrainedoffmanpower• Sewingmachinewroughtwondersinfabricatinguniformsandmilitaryfootwear

XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)

• Marriageofmilitaryneedandinnovativemachineryendedproductionofcustom-tailoredclothing– Graduatedstandardmeasurementsintroduced

• Mechanicalreapersnumbered250,000by1865– Releasedtensofthousandsoffarmboysforarmyandfedthemtheirfieldrations

– Producedvastsurplusesofgrainforexport– HelpeddethroneKingCotton– Providedprofitstobuymunitionsandsuppliesfromabroad– ContributedtoprosperityofNorth—aprosperitythatenabledUniontoweatherwar

XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)

• Otherindustrieshummed:– Discoveryofpetroleum(1859)• “Fifty-Niners”toPennsylvania• Birthof“petroleumplutocracy”and“coaloilJohnnies”

– 300,000pioneerscontinuedtopushwestward• HomesteadAct(1862)

– Onlyocean-carryingtradesufferedcripplingsetback

XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)

• CivilWarawomen'swar,too:• Womenoftenassumedmen'sjobsasmenwenttowar• Washington,D.C.,500womenbecamegovernmentclerks,withmorethan100inTreasuryDepartment• Countlesswomendrawnintoindustrialemployment• Somesteppeduptofightingfront:

– Dr.ElizabethBlackwell,America's1stfemalephysicianhelpedorganizeU.S.SanitaryCommissiontoassistUnionarmies

XII.TheNorth'sEconomicBoom(cont.)

– U.S.SanitaryCommission:• Trainednurses,collectedmedicalsupplies,andequippedhospitals• Helpedwomenacquireorganizationalskillsandself-confidencethatwouldpropelwomen'smovement• ClaraBartonandDorotheaDixhelpedtransformnursingintorespectfulprofession• EquallyrenownedwasSallyTompkins,whoraninfirmaryforwoundedConfederates

–Womenorganizedbazaarsandfairstoraisemoney

XIII.ACrushedCottonKingdom

• Southfoughttopointofexhaustion:– Suffereddestructionofwarandsuffocationofblockade

– Possessed30%ofnationalwealth(1860),Southclaimedonly12%in1870

– CivilWarsqueezedaverageSouthernincometo2/5ofNorthernlevel(hadbeen2/3in1860)

– Bidforindependenceexacteddevastatingcost

XIII.ACrushedCottonKingdom(cont.)

– Transportationcollapsed:• Driventoeconomiccannibalismofpullinguprailstorepairmainones

–Windowweightsmelteddownintobullets– Gourdsreplaceddishes

• Toend,Southmusteredremarkablespirit:–Womenbuoyedupmenfolk– Proposalmadethatwomencutlonghairandsellitabroad,butstoppedbyblockade

XIII.ACrushedCottonKingdom(cont.)

–WomentookprideindenyingthemselvessilksandsatinsofNorthernsisters

• Atwar'send,North'sCaptainsofIndustryhadconqueredSouth'sLordsoftheManor

• Cottoncapitalismlostouttoindustrialcapitalism

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