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Chapter7

TheRoadtoRevolution1763–1775

I.TheDeepRootsofRevolution

• AmericawasarevolutionaryforcefromthedayofitsdiscoverybyEuropeans:– TheNewWorldnurturednewideasaboutthenatureofsociety,citizens,andgovernment.

– Republicanism—definedajustsocietyasoneinwhichallcitizenswillinglysubordinatedtheirprivate,selfishintereststothecommongood.

– Stabilityandgovernmentdependedonthevirtueofthecitizenry.

I.TheDeepRootsofRevolution (cont.)

• Virtueofthecitizenry—itscapacityfor:– Selflessness– Self-sufficiency– Courage– Appetiteforcivicinvolvement

• Republicanismwasopposedtohierarchicalandauthoritarianinstitutionssuchasaristocracyandmonarchy.


• RadicalWhigs:BritishpoliticalcommentatorswhoseideasfundamentallyshapedAmericanpoliticalthought:– Theyfearedthethreattolibertyposedbythe

arbitrarypowerofthemonarchandhisministersrelativetoelectedrepresentativesinParliament.

– Theywarnedcitizenstoguardagainst“corruption”andconspiraciestotakeawaytheirliberties.


• Americanshadgrownaccustomedtorunningtheirownaffairs.

• ThegreatdistancefromBritainweakenedroyalauthority.

II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances

• Mercantilism:– Restedonthebeliefthatwealthwaspower.– Acountry’seconomicwealth(anditsmilitaryandpoliticalpower)couldbemeasuredbytheamountofgoldorsilverinitstreasury.

– Toamassgoldorsilver,acountryneededtoexportmorethanitimported.

II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances(cont.)

• Coloniesconferreddistinctadvantages:– Couldsupplyrawmaterialstomothercountry,reducingneedforforeignimports.

– Couldprovideguaranteedmarketforexports.– LondongovernmentviewedAmericancoloniesastenants.


• FromtimetotimeParliamentpassedlawstoregulatethemercantilistsystem:– NavigationLaw(1650)—aimedatDutchshippers

—saidthatallcommerceflowingtoandfromcoloniescouldbetransportedonlyinBritish(includingcolonial)vessels.

– EuropeangoodsdestinedforAmericafirsthadtolandinBritain,wheretariffdutiescouldbecollectedandBritishmiddlemengotprofits.


• OtherlawsstipulatedthatAmericanmerchantsmustship“enumerated”products,notablytobacco,exclusivelytoBritain,eventhoughpricesmightbebetterelsewhere.

• Britishpolicyinflictedacurrencyshortageonthecolonies.

• Thissituationforcedthecoloniestoissuepapermoney.


• ButParliamentprohibitedcoloniallegislaturesfromprintingpapercurrency.

• TheBritishcrownreservedtherighttonullifyanylegislationpassedbycolonialassembliesifitwouldharmthemercantilistsystem.

• Royalvetowasrarelyused,butjusttheideaofavetoincitedcolonialanger.

III.TheMeritsandMenaceofMercantilism

• TheBritishmercantilesystemseemedoppressive,butitslawswerelooselyenforced.

• Americansalsoreapeddirectbenefits:– Londonpaidliberalbountiestocolonialproducers.– Colonieshadprotectionoftheworld’smostpowerfulnavyandastrong,seasonedarmy.

III.TheMeritsandMenaceofMercantilism(cont.)

• Themercantilesystemburdenedcolonistswithannoyingliabilities:– ItstifledeconomicinitiativeandimposedaranklingdependencyonBritishagentsandcreditors.

• Colonistsfoundittobedebasing:– Theyfeltusedandkeptinastateofperpetualeconomicadolescence.

IV.TheStampTaxUproar

• AftertheSevenYears’War,Britainheldoneofworld’slargestempiresandthebiggestdebt.

• Itmovedtoredefineitsrelationshipwiththecolonies.

• 1763:PrimeMinisterGeorgeGrenvilleorderedthenavytostrictlyenforcetheNavigationLaws.

IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)

• 1764:HesecuredfromParliamenttheSugarAct,thefirstlawpassedbyParliamenttoraiserevenueforthecrownfromcolonies:– IncreaseddutyonsugarfromtheWestIndies.– Afterbitterprotests,dutieswereloweredsubstantially,andagitationdieddown.

• ResentmentrenewedwhentheQuarteringAct(1765)requiredcoloniestoprovidefoodandquartersforBritishtroops.


• 1765:Stamptaxwasimposed:– Itaimedtoraiserevenuetosupportthenewmilitaryforce.

– Itmandatedtheuseofstampedpaperoraffixingofstamps,certifyingtaxpayment.

– Stampswererequiredonbillsofsaleforabout50tradeitems.

– Grenvilleregardedthesemeasuresasreasonable.– PeopleinEnglandpaidahigherstamptax.


• ButAmericanswereangry:– Thenewlawpinchedpocketbooksandseemedto

strikeatlocalliberties.– Somecoloniesrefusedtocomplywiththe

QuarteringAct;somevotedonlytosupplyafractionofthesuppliesrequested.

– TheactsalsoseemedtojeopardizethebasicrightsofcolonistsasEnglishmen.

– Offendersweretriedinadmiraltycourtswithoutjuriesand“innocentuntilprovenguilty”concept.


• WithFrenchandIndiansdefeated,whatneedwasthereforamilitaryforceinthecolonies?– Colonistsfearedaconspiracytostripthemoftheirhistoricliberties.

– TheStampActbecamethechieftargetoftheiranger.


• Americansmadeadistinctionbetween“legislation”and“taxation”:– TheyconcededtherightofParliamenttolegislate

mattersrelatedtotheentireempire.– TheydeniedtherightofParliament,inwhichno

Americanswereseated,toimposetaxesonAmericans.

– Suchtaxeswereseenasrobbery.– Onlycolonialassembliescouldtaxcolonists.


• Grenvilleusedthetheoryof“virtualrepresentation”:– AllcitizenswererepresentedbyParliament.

• ThedisputeeventuallycausedAmericansto:– DenytheauthorityofParliament– Considertheirownpoliticalindependence

V.ForcedRepealoftheStampAct

• Colonialprotestagainstthehatedstamptaxtookvariousforms:

• StampActCongressof1765:– Statedtherightsandgrievancesofcolonists– BeseechedthekingandParliamenttorepealtherepugnantlegislation

–WasignoredinEngland–Wasasignificantsteptowardintercolonialunity

V.ForcedRepealoftheStampAct(cont.)

• Nonimportationagreements:– AgreementsagainstimportingBritishgoods–Wereapromisingstridetowardunion– HelpedunitetheAmericanpeopleforthefirsttimeincommonaction

– GaveAmericansnewopportunitiestoparticipateincolonialprotests


• SonsofLibertyandDaughtersofLiberty:– Tooklawintotheirownhands– Cried,“Liberty,Property,andNoStamps”

• Shakenbycolonialcommotion,themachineryforcollectingthetaxbrokedown.– Bythetimetheactwastogointoeffect(1765),allstampagentshadbeenforcedtoresign.

• TheboycottalsohurttheEnglisheconomy.• ParliamentrepealedtheStampActin1766.


• ParliamentthenpassedtheDeclaratoryActreaffirmingitsright“tobind”colonies“inallcaseswhatsoever.”

• TheBritishgovernmentdefineditsconstitutionalprinciple:absoluteandunqualifiedsovereigntyoverthecolonies.

• Thestagewassetforcontinuingconfrontationascolonieswantedameasureoftheirownsovereignty.

VI.TheTownshendTeaTaxandtheBoston“Massacre”

• 1767:TownshendActs:– Imposedalightimportdutyonglass,whitelead,paper,paint,andtea

–WasanindirectcustomsdutypayableatAmericanports

• Colonistsrefusedanytaxeswithoutrepresentation.

• Theywereespeciallyconcernedbecausethesetaxeswouldpaysalariesofroyalgovernors.

VI.TheTownshendTeaTaxandtheBoston“Massacre”(cont.)

• NonimportationagreementswererenewedagainstTownshendActs,but– Coloniststookthelightnewtaxlessseriously.– Theyfoundtheycouldgetcheapteaviasmuggling.

• Toenforceorder,BritishthenlandedtworegimentsoftroopsinBostonin1768.

• March5,1770:AclasheruptedthatbecameknownastheBostonMassacre.

VI.TheTownshendTeaTaxandtheBoston“Massacre”(cont.)

• CrispusAttucks,a“mulatto”andaleaderofthemob,wasoneofthefirsttodie.

• Bothsidessharedblamefortheincident,butonlytworedcoatswerefoundguilty.

• Thesoldierswerethenreleasedafterbeingbrandedonthehand.

VII.TheSeditiousCommitteesofCorrespondence

• By1770,youngKingGeorgeIIIwasattemptingtoassertthepowerofmonarchy.

• Hesurroundedhimselfwith“yesmen,”notablyhisprimeminister,LordNorth.

• TownshendActs:– Theyfailedtogeneraterevenue.– Buttheydidproducenear-rebellion.– NonimportationactionshurtEnglisheconomy.

VII.TheSeditiousCommitteesofCorrespondence(cont.)

• ParliamenteventuallyrepealedmostTownshenddutiesbutkeptthetaxontea.

• Butflamesofdiscontentcontinuedbecause:– BritishofficialsincreasedeffortstoenforcetheNavigationLaws.

– ZealousSamuelAdamscontinuedtoincitewhatwascalledhis“trainedmob.”

• AdamsorganizedfirstcommitteesofcorrespondenceinMassachusetts.


• Committeesofcorrespondence:– AfteronewasorganizedinBoston(1772),some80townssetupsimilarorganizations.

– TheyexchangedlettersthatkeptaliveoppositiontoBritishpolicy.

– Intercolonialcorrespondencecommitteeswerethenextlogicalstep.

– Virginialedthewayin1773.– Twelveothercoloniessoonjoinedtheeffort.


• Theyplayedakeyroleinstimulatinganddisseminatingsentimentinfavorofunitedaction.

• TheyevolveddirectlyintothefirstAmericancongresses.

VIII.TeaBrewinginBoston

• By1773,thepowerfulBritishEastIndiaCompanywasfacingbankruptcy:– Ithad17millionpoundsofunsoldtea.– BritishministryawardeditacompletemonopolyoftheAmericanteabusiness.

– Itcouldsellitsteaataverylowprice.– Butcolonistssawthisasanattempttotrickthemintoacceptingtaxes.

VIII.TeaBrewinginBoston (cont.)

• Britishauthoritiesdecidedtoenforcethelaw:– Colonistsroseupinanger.–Massdemonstrationsforcedtea-bearingshipstoreturntoEnglandwiththeircargo.

– OnlyinBostondidaBritishofficialrefusetobecowed.

– GovernorThomasHutchinsonrefusedtobudge.


• HutchinsoninfuriatedBoston’sradicalswhenheorderedteashipsnottoleaveBostonuntiltheyhadunloadedtheircargoes:– December16,1773:About100Bostonians,looselydisguisedasIndians,boardedtheships.

– Theysmashedopen342chestsofteaanddumpedthecontentsintotheharbor.

– ThisactionbecameknownastheBostonTeaParty.


• Reactionvaried:– Sympatheticcolonistsapplauded.– Referringtoteaas“abadgeofslavery,”theyburnedthehatedleavesinsolidaritywithBoston.

– Hutchinson,chastenedanddisgusted,retreatedtoBritain,nevertoreturn.

– TheBritishchoseaperilouspaththatledonlytoreprisals,bitterness,andescalatingconflict.

IX.ParliamentPassesthe“IntolerableActs”

• Parliamentrespondedwithmeasuresin1774thatbrewedarevolution:– Itpassedaseriesofactstochastisecolonists,especiallyinBoston.

– Theactswerebrandedincoloniesas“themassacreofAmericanLiberty.”

• MostdrasticwastheBostonPortAct:– Itclosedtheportuntildamageswerepaid.

IX.ParliamentPassesthe“IntolerableActs”(cont.)

• OtherIntolerableActslimitedrightstraditionallypracticedinMassachusetts:– Restrictionswereplacedontownmeetings.– Unlikebefore,officialswhokilledcolonistsinlineofdutycouldnowbesenttoBritainfortrial.

– NewQuarteringActgavelocalauthoritiespowertolodgesoldiersanywhere,evenprivatehomes.


• QuebecAct(1774)coveredFrenchsubjectsinCanada:– ItguaranteedtheirCatholicreligion.– Theycouldmaintaininstitutions(whichdidnotincluderepresentativeassemblyortrialbyjury).

– Québec’sboundariesextendedtotheOhioRiver.• FromFrenchviewpoint,theQuebecActwasashrewdandconciliatorymeasure.


• FromAmericanviewpoint,theactwasnoxious:– Ithadamuchwiderrange.– Itsetadangerousprecedentbydenyingjurytrialsandbyallowingunrepresentativeassemblies.

– Italarmedlandspeculatorsbysnatchingahugetrans-Alleghenyareafromtheirgrasp(Map7.1).

– Itangeredanti-CatholicsbyextendingCatholicjurisdictionsouthintoaregionaboutthesizeofthe13colonies.

X.Bloodshed

• AmericandissentersrespondedtotheplightofMassachusetts:– ColoniessentfoodtothestrickencityofBoston.– RicewasshippedfromfarawaySouthCarolina.

• MostmemorablewassummoningoftheFirstContinentalCongressin1774:– ItmetinPhiladelphiatoredressgrievances.– 12of13colonies(exceptGeorgia)sent55men:S.Adams,J.Adams,G.Washington,P.Henry.

Map 7.1 p127

X.Bloodshed(cont.)

• FirstContinentalCongress(cont.):– Deliberatedfor7weeksinfall1774.– Notalegislativebutaconsultativebody.– Aconventionratherthanacongress.– JohnAdamsplayedakeyrole.– ItdrewupaDeclarationofRightsaswellasasolemnappealtootherBritishcolonies,totheking,andtotheBritishpeople.

X.Bloodshed(cont.)

• MostsignificantactionwascreationofTheAssociation:– CalledforcompleteboycottofBritishgoods:nonimportation,nonexportation,nonconsumption

• Delegateswerenotcallingforindependence.• Theysoughtmerelytorepealoffensivelegislation.

X.Bloodshed(cont.)

• Butfataldrifttowardwarcontinued:– ParliamentrejectedCongress’spetitions.– ViolatorsofAssociationweretarredandfeathered.–Musketsweregatheredandmenbegantodrillopenly.

– April1775:BritishcommanderinBostonsenttroopstoLexingtonandConcordtoseizestoresofgunpowder.

X.Bloodshed(cont.)

– TroopswerealsosupposedtoarrestringleadersSamuelAdamsandJohnHancock.

– AtLexington,“MinuteMen”refusedtodisperse.– Shotswerefired,killing8Americansandwoundingseveralmore.

– RedcoatsthenpushedontoConcord,wheretheysufferedheavylosses.

– Britainnowhadawaronitshands.

XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness

• Americansbrashlyrebelledagainstamightyempire:– Population:7.5millionBritonsto2.5millioncolonists

–MonetarywealthandnavalpoweroverwhelminglyfavoredEngland.

– Britain’sprofessionalarmyequaledsome50,000menascomparedtonumerousbutpoorlytrainedAmericanmilitia.

XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness(cont.)

• Mightyempire(cont.):– GeorgeIIIcouldalsohireforeignsoldiers,includingsome30,000Germans(theHessians).

– Britishenrolledabout50,000AmericanLoyalistsandenlistedsomeIndians.

• YetBritainwasweakerthanitseemed:– OppressedIrelandrequiredtroopstomaintainBritishcontrol.

– FrancewaswaitingtogetevenwithBritain.


• Britain’sweakness(cont.):– TheLondongovernmentwasweakandinept.– TherewasnoWilliamPitt,onlystubbornGeorgeandhispliantprimeminister,LordNorth.

–ManyBritonshadnodesiretokillAmericans.– EnglishWhigsopposedLordNorth’sTories.–WhigsbelievedabattleforBritishfreedomwasbeingfoughtinAmerica.


• Britain’sarmyinAmericaoperatedundernumerousdifficulties:– Generalsweresecond-rate.– Soldierswerebrutallytreated.– Provisionswereoftenscarce,rancid,andwormy.– Britainhadtooperate3,000milesfromhome.– Distancegreatlyincreaseddelaysanduncertaintiesfromstormsandmishaps.


• DifficultiesofBritisharmy(cont.):–MilitaryordersissuedinLondonbutreceivedmonthslaterdidnotfitachangingsituation.

– America’sgeographicalexpansewasenormous:roughly1,000by600miles.

– Colonieshadnourbannervecenters.– Britisharmiestookeverycityofanysize.

• Americanswiselytradedspacefortime.

XII.AmericanPlusesandMinuses

• Americanadvantages:– Theyhadoutstandingleaders:GeorgeWashington,BenjaminFranklin.

– EventuallytheyhadforeignaidfromFrance.– Europeanofficersvolunteeredtofightforpay.–MarquisdeLafayetteprovedinvaluableinsecuringfurtheraidfromFrance.

XII.AmericanPlusesandMinuses(cont.)

• OtherconditionsaidedAmericans:– Theywerefightingdefensively,withoddsfavoringthedefender.

– Colonieswereself-sufficientinfood.– Americansenjoyedamoraladvantagefrombeliefinajustcause.

• ButAmericanrebelswerepoorlyorganized:– ContinentalCongresswasmostlyadebatingsociety.


• Americanspoorlyorganized(cont.):– Disorganizedcolonistsfoughtalmosttheentirewarbeforeadoptingaconstitution—theArticlesofConfederation—in1781.

– Jealousyhinderedthewareffort:• Individualstates,regardingthemselvesassovereign,resistedattemptsbyCongresstoexerciseitspowers.• Sectionaljealousyboiledovertheappointmentofmilitaryleaders.


• Economicdifficulties:–Metalmoneyhadbeendrainedaway.– TheContinentalCongress,unwillingtoraisetaxes,massivelyprinted“Continental”papermoney.

– Confusionproliferatedwhenindividualstatesissueddepreciatedpapermoney.

– Inflationskyrocketedprices.

XIII.AThinLineofHeroes

• Militarysuppliesincolonieswerescanty:– Inearlierwars,Englandprovidedfundsandweapons.

– Rebelswerecaught:thecostofhomedefensemountedjustasthesupplyofBritishfundsandwarmaterialevaporated.

– Sufficientstoresofgunpowder,cannon,andotherarmamentscouldnotbefoundinagriculturalcolonies.

XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)

• Lackofmilitarysupplies(cont.):– AmongthereasonsforalliancewithFrancewasneedforareliablesourceofmilitarysupplies.

– AtValleyForge,Pa.,soldierswentwithoutbreadfor3daysinthecruelwinterof1777–1778.

– Inonecampaign,somemenfaintedforlackoffood.

–Manufacturedgoodswereinshortsupply.– Clothingandshoeswereappallinglyscarce.


• Militiamenwerenumerousbutunreliable:– Theyreceivedonlyrudimentarytraining.– Besidesdesertion,troopswerehitbysmallpox.

• WomenplayedasignificantpartintheRevolution:– Theymaintainedfarmsandbusinesseswhilefathersandhusbandsfought.


• Thepartofwomen(cont.):–Manyfemalecampfollowersaccompaniedarmy:• TheyCookedandsewedinreturnformoneyandrations.• OneMassachusettswomandressedinmen’sclothingandservedinthearmyfor17months.

• Seventoeightthousandregularswerefinallywhippedintoshapebysterndrillmasters:– GermanBaronvonSteubenwasanorganizationalgenius.


• BlacksfoughtanddiedfortheAmericancause:–Manystatesinitiallybarredthemfromthemilitary.

– Buteventuallymorethan5,000blacksenlisted.– Thelargestcontingentscamefromnorthernstateswithsubstantialnumbersoffreeblacks.

– BlacksfoughtatTrenton,Brandywine,Saratoga,andotherimportantbattles.


• AfricanAmericansalsoservedontheBritishside:– InNovember1775thegovernorofVirginiapromisedfreedomforanyslavewhojoinedtheBritisharmy.

– EventuallythousandsofslavesfledtotheBritish.– Attheendofthewar,theBritishevacuated14,000“BlackLoyalists.”


• MoraleintheRevolutionaryarmywasunderminedbyAmericanprofiteers:– TheysoldtotheBritishbecauseBritishcouldpayingold.

– Speculatorsforcedpricessky-high.– SomeBostoniansmadeprofitsof50%to200%.


• Brutaltruth:Onlyaminorityofcolonistsselflesslydevotedthemselvestothecauseofindependence.

• Seldomhavesofewdonesomuchforsomany.

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