general, organic and biochemistry 7 th edition general chemistry copyright the mcgraw-hill...
TRANSCRIPT
General, Organic and Biochemistry 7th Edition
GE
NE
RA
L CH
EM
ISTR
Y
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
4.1 The Mole Concept and Atoms
• Atoms are exceedingly small– Unit of measurement for mass of an atom is
atomic mass unit (amu)• carbon-12 assigned the mass of exactly 12 amu
• 1 amu = 1.66 10-24 g
• Periodic table gives atomic weights in amu
1
• What is the atomic weight of one atom of fluorine? Answer: 19.00 amu
• What would be the mass of this one atom in grams?
• Chemists usually work with much larger quantities
– It is more convenient to work with grams than amu when using larger quantities
Mass of Atoms4.
1 T
he M
ole
Con
cept
and
A
tom
s
atom F
F g10156.3
Famu 1
g101.661
atom F
Famu 19.00 23-24
• A practical unit for defining a collection of atoms is the mole
1 mole of atoms = 6.022 1023 atoms
• This is called Avogadro’s number– This has provided the basis for the concept
of the mole
The Mole and Avogadro’s Number
4.1
The
Mol
e C
once
pt a
nd
Ato
ms
4.1
The
Mol
e C
once
pt a
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ms
The Mole
• To make this connection we must define the mole as a counting unit
– The mole is abbreviated mol
• A mole is simply a unit that defines an amount of something– Dozen defines 12– Gross defines 144
2
F mol 1
F atom10022.6
Famu 1
F g1066.1
F atom 1
Famu 00.19 2324
=19.00 g/mol F4.1
The
Mol
e C
once
pt a
nd
Ato
ms
Atomic Mass• The atomic mass of one atom of an element
corresponds to:
– The average mass of a single atom in amu
– The mass of a mole of atoms in grams
– 1 atom of F is 19.00 amu 19.00 amu/atom F
– 1 mole of F is 19.00 g 19.00 g/mole F
4.1
The
Mol
e C
once
pt a
nd
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ms
Calculating Atoms, Moles, and Mass
• We use the following conversion factors:
•Density converts grams milliliters
•Atomic mass unit converts amu grams
•Avogadro’s number converts moles number of atoms
•Molar mass converts grams moles
2
4.1
The
Mol
e C
once
pt a
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ms
Strategy for Calculations• Map out a pattern for the required
conversion
• Given a number of grams and asked for number of atoms
• Two conversions are required • Convert grams to moles
1 mol S/32.06 g S OR 32.06 g S/1 mol S
• Convert moles to atomsmol S (6.022 1023 atoms S) / 1 mol S
4.1
The
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e C
once
pt a
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ms
Practice Calculations1. Calculate the number of atoms in 1.7
moles of boron.
2. Find the mass in grams of 2.5 mol Na (sodium).
3. Calculate the number of atoms in 5.0 g aluminum.
4. Calculate the mass of 5,000,000 atoms of Au (gold)
Interconversion Between Moles, Particles, and Grams
4.1
The
Mol
e C
once
pt a
nd
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ms
4.2 The Chemical Formula, Formula Weight, and Molar
Mass• Chemical formula - a combination of
symbols of the various elements that make up the compound
• Formula unit - the smallest collection of atoms that provide two important pieces of information– The identity of the atoms– The relative number of each type of atom
3
4.2
The
Che
mic
al F
orm
ula,
F
orm
ula
Wei
ght a
nd M
olar
Mas
sChemical Formula
Consider the following formulas:
• H2 – 2 atoms of hydrogen are chemically bonded forming diatomic hydrogen, subscript 2
• H2O – 2 atoms of hydrogen and 1 atom of oxygen, lack of subscript means one atom
• NaCl – 1 atom each of sodium and chlorine
• Ca(OH)2 – 1 atom of calcium and 2 atoms each of oxygen and hydrogen, subscript outside parentheses applies to all atoms inside
4.2
The
Che
mic
al F
orm
ula,
F
orm
ula
Wei
ght a
nd M
olar
Mas
sChemical Formula
Consider the following formulas:
• (NH4)3SO4 – 3 ammonium ions and 1 sulfate ion
– Ammonium ion contains 1 nitrogen and 4 hydrogen
– Sulfate ion contains 1 sulfur and 4 oxygen
– Compound contains 3 N, 12 H, 1 S, and 4 O
• CuSO4.5H2O
– This is an example of a hydrate - compounds containing one or more water molecules as an integral part of their structure
– 5 units of water with 1 CuSO4
Comparison of Hydrated and Anhydrous Copper Sulfate
Hydrated copper sulfate Anhydrous copper sulfate
4.2
The
Che
mic
al F
orm
ula,
F
orm
ula
Wei
ght a
nd M
olar
Mas
s
Marked color difference illustrates the factthat these are different compounds
Formula Weight and Molar Mass• Formula weight - the sum of the atomic weights
of all atoms in the compound as represented by its correct formula
– expressed in amu
• What is the formula weight of H2O?– 16.00 amu + 2(1.008 amu) = 18.02 amu
• Molar mass – mass of a mole of compound in grams / mole– Numerically equal to the formula weight in amu
• What is the molar mass of H2O?
– 18.02 g/mol H2O
4.2
The
Che
mic
al F
orm
ula,
F
orm
ula
Wei
ght a
nd M
olar
Mas
s
4
Formula Unit
• Formula unit – smallest collection of atoms from which the formula of a compound can be established
4.2
The
Che
mic
al F
orm
ula,
For
mul
a W
eigh
t and
Mol
ar M
ass
What is the molar mass of (NH4)3PO4?
3(N amu) + 12(H amu) + P amu + 4(O amu)=
3(14.01) + 12(1.008) + 30.97 + 4(16.00)= 149.10 g/mol (NH4)3PO4
Molar Mass• Molar mass - The mass in grams of 1 mole of
atoms
• What is the molar mass of carbon?
12.01 g/mol C
• This means counting out a mole of Carbon atoms (i.e., 6.022 1023) they would have a mass of 12.01 g
• One mole of any element contains the same number of atoms, 6.022 1023, Avogadro’s number
4.2
The
Che
mic
al F
orm
ula,
For
mul
a W
eigh
t and
Mol
ar M
ass
4.3 The Chemical Equation and the Information It Conveys
A Recipe For Chemical Change• Chemical equation - shorthand notation of
a chemical reaction– Describes all of the substances that react and all
the products that form, physical states, and experimental conditions
– Reactants – (starting materials) – the substances that undergo change in the reaction
– Products – substances produced by the reaction
5
4.3
The
Che
mic
al E
quat
ion
and
the
Info
rmat
ion
It C
onve
ysFeatures of a Chemical Equation1. Identity of products and reactants must
be specified using chemical symbols2. Reactants are written to the left of the
reaction arrow and products are written to the right
3. Physical states of reactants and products may be shown in parentheses
4. Symbol over the reaction arrow means that energy is necessary for the reaction to occur
5. Equation must be balanced
)(O )2Hg( )2HgO( 2 gls
Physical states are shown in parentheses
– energy is needed
Features of a Chemical Equation
Products and reactants must be specified using chemical symbols
Reactants – written on the left of arrow
ProductsProducts – written on the right
4.3
The
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mic
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and
the
Info
rmat
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It C
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ys
The Experimental Basis of a Chemical Equation
We know that a chemical equation represents a chemical change
• One or more substances changed into new substances
• Different chemical and physical properties
4.3
The
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mic
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and
the
Info
rmat
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It C
onve
ys
Evidence of a Reaction OccurringThe following can be visual evidence of a reaction:
•Release of a gas– CO2 is released when acid is placed in a solution
containing CO32- ions
•Formation of a solid (precipitate)– A solution containing Ag+ ions mixed with a solution
containing Cl- ions
•Heat is produced or absorbed – Acid and base are mixed together
•Color changes
4.3
The
Che
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and
the
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It C
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4.3
The
Che
mic
al E
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and
the
Info
rmat
ion
It C
onve
ysSubtle Indications of a Reaction
• Heat or light is absorbed or emitted
• Changes in the way the substances behave in an electrical or magnetic field before and after a reaction
• Changes in electrical properties
Strategies for Writing Chemical Reactions
• General types of chemical reactions:– combination– decomposition– single-replacement– double-replacement
• Recognizing the pattern will help you write and understand reactions
4.3
The
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and
the
Info
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It C
onve
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6
A + B AB
• Examples:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
MgO(s) + CO2(g) MgCO3(s)
Combination Reactions
• The joining of two or more elements or compounds, producing a product of different composition
4.3
The
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and
the
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It C
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Types of Combination Reactions
1. Combination of a metal and a nonmetal to form a salt
2. Combination of hydrogen and chlorine molecules to produce hydrogen chloride
3. Formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen molecules
4. Reaction of magnesium oxide and carbon dioxide to produce magnesium carbonate
4.3
The
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and
the
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rmat
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It C
onve
ys
AB A + B
• Examples:
2HgO(s) 2Hg(l) + O2(g)
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Decomposition Reactions
• Produce two or more products from a single reactant
• Reverse of a combination reaction
4.3
The
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and
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4.3
The
Che
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and
the
Info
rmat
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It C
onve
ys Types of Decomposition Reactions
1. Heating calcium carbonate to produce calcium oxide and carbon dioxide
2. Removal of water from a hydrated material
1. Single-replacement
• One atom replaces another in the compound producing a new compound
• Examples:
Cu(s)+2AgNO3(aq) 2Ag(s)+Cu(NO3)2(aq)
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
A + BC B + AC
Replacement Reactions 4.
3 T
he C
hem
ical
Equ
atio
n a
nd th
e In
form
atio
n It
Con
veys
1. Replacement of copper by zinc in copper sulfate
2. Replacement of aluminum by sodium in aluminum nitrate
4.3
The
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mic
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and
the
Info
rmat
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It C
onve
ys Types of Replacement Reactions
2. Double-replacement• Two compounds undergo a “change
of partners”
• Two compounds react by exchanging atoms to produce two new compounds
Replacement Reactions
AB + CD AD + CB
4.3
The
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the
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AB + CD AD + CB
Types of Double-Replacement
• Reaction of an acid with a base to produce water and salt
HCl(aq)+NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq)+H2O(l)
• Formation of solid lead chloride from lead nitrate and sodium chloride
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaCl(aq)
PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
4.3
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Writing Chemical Reactions
Consider the following reaction:
hydrogen reacts with oxygen to produce water
• Write the above reaction as a chemical equation
H2 + O2 H2O
4.3
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4.4 Chemical Equations Represent Chemical Change
• A chemical equation shows the molar quantity of reactants needed to produce a particular molar quantity of products
• The relative number of moles of each product and reactant is indicated by placing a whole-number coefficient before the formula of each substance in the chemical equation
Law of Conservation of Mass
• Law of conservation of mass - matter cannot be either gained or lost in the process of a chemical reaction
– The total mass of the products must equal the total mass of the reactants
4.3
The
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and
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)(O )2Hg( )2HgO( 2 gls
Coefficient - how many of that substance are in the reaction
4.4
Bal
anci
ng C
hem
ical
E
quat
ions
Balancing
• The equation must be balanced – All the atoms of every reactant must also
appear in the products• Number of Hg on left? 2
– on right 2• Number of O on left? 2
– on right 2
7
4.4
Bal
anci
ng C
hem
ical
E
quat
ions
Examine the Equation
H2 + O2 H2O
• Is the law of conservation of mass obeyed as written? NO
• Balancing chemical equations uses coefficients to ensure that the law of conservation of mass is obeyed
• You may never change subscripts!
• WRONG: H2 + O2 H2O2
Step 1. Count the number of moles of atoms of each element on both product and reactant sides
Reactants Products 2 mol H 2 mol H 2 mol O 1 mol O
4.4
Bal
anci
ng C
hem
ical
E
quat
ions
Steps in Equation Balancing
The steps to balancing:
H2 + O2 H2O
H2 + O2 H2O
H2 + O2 2H2O
This balances oxygen, but is hydrogen still balanced?
4.4
Bal
anci
ng C
hem
ical
E
quat
ions
Step 2. Determine which elements are not balanced – do not have same number on both sides of the equation
– Oxygen is not balanced
Step 3. Balance one element at a time by changing the coefficients
Steps in Equation Balancing
Reactants Products 4 mol H 4 mol H
2 mol O 2 mol O4.4
Bal
anci
ng C
hem
ical
E
quat
ions
Steps in Equation Balancing
H2 + O2 2H2O
How will we balance hydrogen?
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Step 4. Check! Make sure the law of conservation of mass is obeyed
Balancing an Equation4.
4 B
alan
cing
Che
mic
al
Equ
atio
ns
4.4
Bal
anci
ng C
hem
ical
E
quat
ions
Practice Equation Balancing
Balance the following equations:
1. C2H2 + O2 CO2 + H2O
2. AgNO3 + FeCl3 Fe(NO3)3 + AgCl
3. C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O
4. N2 + H2 NH3
Classifying Chemical Reactions
Precipitation Reactions
• Chemical change in a solution that results in one or more insoluble products
• To predict if a precipitation reaction can occur it is helpful to know the solubilities of ionic compounds
4.3
The
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al E
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and
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Info
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It C
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ys8
Solubilities of Some Common Ionic Compounds
4.3
The
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Predicting Whether Precipitation Will Occur
• Recombine the ionic compounds to have them exchange partners
• Examine the new compounds formed and determine if any are insoluble according to the rules in Table 4.1
• Any insoluble salt will be the precipitate
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2 NaCl(aq)
PbCl2 (?) + 2NaNO3 ( ?)(s) (aq)
4.3
The
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ys8
Predict Whether These Reactions Form Precipitates
• Potassium chloride and silver nitrate
• Potassium acetate and silver nitrate
4.3
The
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and
the
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ys
Reactions with Oxygen• Reactions with oxygen generally release
energy
• Combustion of natural gas
– Organic compounds CO2 and H2O are usually the products
CH4+2O2CO2+2H2O
• Rusting or corrosion of iron
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O34.3
The
Che
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and
the
Info
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It C
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ys
The H+ on HCl was transferred to the oxygen in OH-, giving H2O
Acid-Base Reactions
• These reactions involve the transfer of a hydrogen ion (H+) from one reactant (acid) to another (base)
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
4.3
The
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Two electrons are transferred from Zn to Cu2+
Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
• Reaction involves the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)
4.3
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4.5 Calculations Using the Chemical Equation
• Calculating quantities of reactants and products in a chemical reaction has many applications
• Need a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of interest
• The coefficients represent the number of moles of each substance in the equation
9
4.5
Cal
cula
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s U
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the
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General Principles
1. Chemical formulas of all reactants and products must be known
2. Equation must be balanced to obey the law of conservation of mass
• Calculations of an unbalanced equation are meaningless
3. Calculations are performed in terms of moles
• Coefficients in the balanced equation represent the relative number of moles of products and reactants
Using the Chemical Equation
• Examine the reaction:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
• Coefficients tell us?
– 2 mol H2 reacts with 1 mol O2 to produce 2 mol H2O
• What if 4 moles of H2 reacts with 2 moles of O2?
– It yields 4 moles of H2O4.5
Cal
cula
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quat
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2H2 + O2 2H2O
4.5
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the
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Using the Chemical Equation
• The coefficients of the balanced equation are used to convert between moles of substances
• How many moles of O2 are needed to react with 4.26 moles of H2?
• Use the factor-label method to perform this calculation
2H2 + O2 2H2O
2
22 H mol__
O __molH mol 26.4 2.13 mol O2
4.5
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Use of Conversion Factors
• Digits in the conversion factor come from the balanced equation
1
2
4.5
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Conversion Between Moles and Grams
• Requires only the formula weight
• Convert 1.00 mol O2 to grams
– Plan the path
– Find the molar mass of oxygen
• 32.0 g O2 = 1 mol O2
– Set up the equation
– Cancel units 1.00 mol O2 32.0 g O2
1 mol O2 – Solve equation 1.00 32.0 g O2 = 32.0 g O2
moles ofOxygen
grams ofOxygen
9
4.5
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Conversion of Mole Reactants to Mole Products
• Use a balanced equation
• C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
• 1 mol C3H8 results in: – 5 mol O2 consumed 1 mol C3H8 /5 mol O2
– 3 mol CO2 formed 1 mol C3H8 /3 mol CO2
– 4 mol H2O formed 1 mol C3H8 /4 mol H2O
• This can be rewritten as conversion factors
4.5
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Calculating Reacting Quantities
• Calculate grams O2 reacting with 1.00 mol C3H8
• Use 2 conversion factors – Moles C3H8 to moles O2
– Moles of O2 to grams O2
– Set up the equation and cancel units
– 1.00 mol C3H8 5 mol O2 32.0 g O2 = 1 mol C3H8 1 mol O2
– 1.00 5 32.0 g O2 = 1.60 x 102 g O2
moles Oxygen
grams Oxygen
moles C3H8
4.5
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Calculating Grams of Product from Moles of Reactant
• Calculate grams CO2 from combustion of 1.00 mol C3H8
• Use 2 conversion factors – Moles C3H8 to moles CO2– Moles of CO2 to grams CO2
– Set up the equation and cancel units
– 1.00 mol C3H8 3 mol CO2 44.0 g CO2 = 1 mol C3H8 1 mol CO2
– 1.00 3 44.0 g CO2 = 1.32 102 g CO2
moles CO2
grams CO2
moles C3H8
4.5
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Relating Masses of Reactantsand Products
• Calculate grams C3H8 required to produce 36.0 grams of H2O
• Use 3 conversion factors – Grams H2O to moles H2O– Moles H2O to moles C3H8– Moles of C3H8 to grams C3H8
– Set up the equation and cancel units
36.0 g H2O 1 mol H2O 1 mol C3H8 44.0 g C3H8 18.0 g H2O 4 mol H2O 1 mol C3H8
– 36.0 [1/18.0] [1/4] 44.0 g C3H8 = 22.0 g C3H8
moles H2O
grams C3H8
moles C3H8
grams H2O
4.5
Cal
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Calculating a Quantity of Reactant
• Ca(OH)2 neutralizes HCl• Calculate grams HCl neutralized by 0.500 mol
Ca(OH)2 – Write chemical equation and balance
• Ca(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l)
– Plan the path
– Set up the equation and cancel units
0.500 mol Ca(OH)2 2 mol HCl 36.5 g HCl 1 mol Ca(OH)2 1 mol HCl
Solve equation 0.500 [2/1] 36.5 g HCl = 36.5 g HCl
molesCa(OH)2
grams HCl
molesHCl
A Visual Example of the Law of Conservation of Mass
4.5
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4.5
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General Problem-solving Strategy
Na + Cl2 NaCl
4.5
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Sample Calculation
1. Balance the equation
2. Calculate the moles Cl2 reacting with 5.00 mol Na
3. Calculate the grams NaCl produced when 5.00 mol Na reacts with an excess of Cl2
4. Calculate the grams Na reacting with 5.00 g Cl2
2Na + Cl2 2NaCl
%100yield ltheoretica
yield actual yield %
4.5
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Theoretical and Percent Yield
• Theoretical yield - the maximum amount of product that can be produced – Pencil and paper yield
• Actual yield - the amount produced when the reaction is performed– Laboratory yield
• Percent yield:
= 125 g CO2 actual 100% = 97.4% 132 g CO2 theoretical
10
4.5
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Sample Calculation
If the theoretical yield of iron was 30.0 g and actual yield was 25.0 g, calculate the percent yield:
2 Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) Al2O3(aq) + 2Fe(aq)
• [25.0 g / 30.0 g] 100% = 83.3%
• Calculate the % yield if 26.8 grams iron was collected in the same reaction