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Linguistics and Language Development

Language Structure and Use

The Structure of Language

All languages are governed by a set of structures. The fundamental elements of language are shown in the following chart.

Element Definition Classroom Application Phonology The study of how sounds are

used and organized in language

Phonological awareness and phonics skills are crucial components of early literacy.

Morphology The study of morphemes- the smallest units of sound that contain meaning (e.g. affixes, roots)

Morpheme knowledge helps students to decode words. An understanding of roots and affixes is a key element of word analysis.

Syntax The organization of words into sentences

Knowledge of syntax leads to effective written and oral expression.

Semantics The study of the meaning of words. This includes:

• Denotation- the literaldefinition of a word

• Connotation- theimplied meaning(s) of aword

• Etymology- a word’sorigins

Students’ vocabularies are enhanced by studying both denotation and connotation. Etymology, including the study of roots (especially Greek and Latin), can help students decipher the meaning of unknown words.

Pragmatics The study of the use of language in various practical contexts

Students should learn how language is used differently according to context, including audience and purpose.



Phonology

Phonology is the study of phonemes—the individual sounds that make up words. The major English phonemes are listed in the following tables:

VowelsPhoneme Spelling (Example) Phoneme Spelling (Example) /a/ a (cat); ai (plaid); augh (laugh) /e/ e (egg); ea (head); eo (leopard); ei

(heifer); ie (friend); ai (said); a (many); ae (aesthetic)

/i/ i (igloo); o (women); u (busy); ui (guild); y (hymn); ie (sieve)

/o/ o (octopus); a (swan); ho (honor)

/u/ u (hug); o (monkey); oo (flood); ou (trouble)

/oo/ oo (cook); u (put); ou (would); o (wolf)

/ā/ a (baby); ea (great); ai (nail); ei (vein); eigh (weight); aigh (straight); ay (hay); et (bouquet); au (gauge); ey (they)

/ē/ e (me); ee (tree); ea (heat); y (baby); ey (key); oe (phoenix); ie (grief); i (ski); ei (receive); eo (people)

/ī/ i (spider); y (sky); igh (sigh); ie (lie); uy (guy); ye (bye); ai (aisle); is (island); eigh (height)

/ō/ o (open); oa (loan); oe (toe); ow(low); ough (though); oo (brooch);ew (sew); eau (beau)

/ü/ u (lute); oo (moon); ew (crew); ue (blue); oe (shoe); ough (through); ui (fruit); o (who); ou (group)

/ū/ u (use); ew (few)

/Ə/ er (ladder); ar (dollar); or (donor); ai (mountain); i (dolphin); u (cactus); eur (chaffeur); e (ticket)

/ow/ ow (cow); ou (out); ough (bough)

/oi/ oi (coin); oy (boy) /aw/ aw (paw); au (caught); a (bra)

/ä/ ar (car); ear (heart); er (sergeant) /ã/ air (chair); are (square); ere (where); eir (their); ayer (layer)

/ô/ or (fork); oor (door); ore (more); oar (board); our (four); ar (war)

/û/ ur (turn); ir (fir); er (term); yr (myrtle); ear (pearl); or (word); our (journey)

/ēƏ/ ear (hear); eer (steer); ere (here); ier (pier)

/üƏ/ ure (cure); our (tourist)

Short Vowels Long Vowels Diphthongs R-Controlled Vowels



Consonants

Phoneme Spelling (Example) Phoneme Spelling (Example) /b/ b (bat); bb (ribbon) /d/ d (dog) /f/ f (fox); ff (cliff); gh (laugh); lf (calf);

ph (phone); ft (often) /g/ g (go); gg (egg); gh (ghost); gue

(league) /h/ h (hot); wh (who) /j/ j (jelly); ge (cage); g (giraffe); dge

(edge); di (soldier); gg (exaggerate) /k/ k (kite); c (cat); ch (Christmas); lk

(folk); qu (croquet); cc (acclaim) /l/ l (log); ll (spill)

/m/ m (mat); mm (dimmer); mb (thumb); mn (autumn)

/n/ n (net); nn (sunny); kn (knife); gn (gnat); pn (pneumonic)

/ng/ ng (ring); ngue (tongue) /p/ p (pig); pp (happy) /r/ r (rat); rr (carrot); wr (wrong); rh

(rhyme) /s/ s (sat); ss (kiss); c (cent); se (horse);

ce (rice); sc (scene); ps (psychology); st (listen)

/t/ t (toad); tt (better); th (Thomas); ed (tapped)

/v/ v (vase), f (of), ve (live)

/w/ w (wet), wh (why) /y/ y (yes) /z/ z (zoo); s (has); ze (maze); se (nose);

ss (scissors); x (xylophone) /ch/ ch (choose); tch (catch); tu (future);

ti (question); te (righteous) /sh/ sh (fish); s (sure); ci (special); ti

(option); si (tension); ch (machine); sci (conscious)

/th/ th (throw)

/th/ th (feather) /zh/ s (treasure), si (vision); z (azure)

Single Consonant Sounds Consonant Digraphs

Key terms: • Diphthong- two or more vowels that combine into a single sound

(phoneme)• R-controlled vowel- vowel that has a unique sound when

followed by the letter “r”• Consonant digraph- two consonants that combine to form a

single sound (phoneme)• Consonant blend- two or more distinct consonant sounds that are

voiced in succession, such as “br” at the beginning of “brake”(These are not in the table because they are not phonemes.)



Phonemes are also characterized by how they are produced.

• Point of articulation- where in the mouth the phoneme issounded from (tip, middle, or back of the tongue)

• Manner of articulation- the way the airstream is obstructed• Voiced vs. voiceless- whether or not the vocal cords vibrate• Pitch- the vibration of vocal cords, creating a higher or lower

sound; often used to convey tone and meaningo Intonation- pitch changes at the sentence level affect

meaning (e.g., in English, questions typically end with a raisein pitch while statements end with a falling pitch)

o Tone languages- use pitch differences at the syllable level toaffect meaning (e.g., many East Asian languages)

• Stress- emphasis placed on certain words or syllables via pitch,volume, or vowel duration; can affect meaning in homonymswhich can be confusing for ELLs (e.g., the verb pro-JECT has adifferent meaning from the noun PRO-ject)

Morphology

Morphemes are the smallest units of sound to contain meaning. This includes roots and affixes. An affix is an addition to the beginning (called a prefix) or the end (called a suffix) of a word to change its meaning. For example, you can alter the root word “use” by adding the prefix “re-“ (forming “reuse”), by adding the suffix “-able” (forming “usable”), or by adding both (forming “reusable”).

There are a few ways that morphemes are classified. Free morphemes can stand as words on their own, while bound morphemes can only exist in combination with other morphemes. Bound morphemes can be further divided into the categories of derivational and inflectional. Derivational morphemes alter a root such that the word changes in meaning and/or part of speech. For example, “un-“ is a derivational



morpheme because it changes the basic meaning of the word to which it is attached (e.g., “happy” and “unhappy” have opposite meanings). Likewise, “-tion” is a derivational morpheme because it changes the part of speech (e.g., “create” is a verb while “creation” is a noun). Inflectional morphemes change neither the basic meaning nor the part of speech. The plural “s,” for example, is an inflectional morpheme. “Girl” and “girls” have the same basic meaning and are both nouns.

Another way to break down a word is into two parts known as onset and rime. The onset of a word consists of all letters that appear before the first vowel. The rime of a word is the rest of the word after the onset, beginning with the first vowel. For example, in the word “trace,” “tr” is the onset and “ace” is the rime.

A syllable is a part of a word that contains one vowel sound. A word may have only one syllable (monosyllabic) or many syllables (polysyllabic). Syllabication is the ability to correctly divide words into syllables. There are six types of syllables in the English language:

Syllable Type Description Example

Closed A short vowel sound followed by consonants; could end with a single consonant (CVC) or multiple consonants after the vowel

but-ton

bark

Open Ends with a single long vowel sound pho-to-graph

Vowel-Consonant-e (VCe)

Contains a vowel, a single consonant, and a silent “e” (there may be one or more consonants before the vowel)

bake

Vowel Team Contains multiple consecutive vowels acting as a single sound

toil

R-controlled Contains a single vowel followed by “r” wash-er

Consonant-le A consonant followed by “le” pud-dle



Krashen’s Hypothesis Key Ideas Acquisition Learning Hypothesis

Two ways individuals learn language: 1. Acquisition- the subconscious absorption of

vocabulary and grammatical conventions; thisis the way children learn their native language;seen as the better way to achieve fluency

2. Learning- conscious study of a languageSecond language learning combines these processes.

Affective Filter Hypothesis

Emotional factors influence the ability to learn a language, including self-confidence, motivation, and anxiety

Input Hypothesis In order to improve, learners must be given information (inputs) that is slightly above their ability level; ELLs should be given information (e.g., texts, speech) at a level such that they can understand most of it but it contains some unfamiliar language, which gives motivation for further learning.

Monitor Hypothesis As an individual learns grammatical rules, he or she can begin to self-monitor; distinguishes between personality types’ monitoring habits:

• Introverts tend to employ more self-monitoring and attune more to their grammarbefore speaking

• Extroverts tend to ignore grammaticalconventions in favor of plunging ahead intothe conversation

Natural Order Hypothesis

Second language acquisition follows predictable patterns; therefore language instruction should be given in a specific order to align with the natural order

Another theorist of second language learning is Jim Cummins. His is a cognitive approach to learning that emphasizes the benefits of bilingualism and the importance of the transference of knowledge from L1 to L2. Cummins’ model contains four major components:



1. BICS and CALP2. Common Underlying Proficiency3. Task Difficulty4. Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism

Cummins has identified two major categories of language, both of which are critical to true mastery of a language. These categories separate “social” language from “academic” language and are known as BICS and CALP. An ELL is not considered fluent in English until both BICS and CALP are mastered.

Common underlying proficiency (CUP) is the idea that when learning a first language, children develop a set of skills and knowledge that can be drawn upon when learning a subsequent language. CUP provides the basis for learning both L1 and L2. This means that any improvement in CUP in one language will have benefits for the development of the other language. This theory also helps to explain why it typically becomes easier to

Basic Interpersonal Conversation Skills (BICS)

• Basic skills required for socialinteractions

• Require understanding of context• Less cognitively demanding than

CALP• Typically acquired within 6

months to 2 years of languagestudy

Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)

• Formal language of academicdiscourse

• Involves the ability to read, write,and speak about academiccontent at grade level

• Requires vocabulary, grammaticalproficiency, and academic skills

• Typically takes 5 to 7 years oflanguage study to achieve



learn subsequent languages—the necessary foundational knowledge and skills are already there are you need only to place the new language within that existing framework.

Task difficulty is a four quadrant matrix Cummins uses to describe the level of difficulty that ELLs should be expected to have with a given task. The x-axis shows a continuum of the cognitive load required to perform the task. The y-axis describes how well the task is embedded within a broader context (e.g., visual aids, oral cues) that would help the ELL to better understand the information given. On the matrix (shown below), tasks in quadrant D would be the most difficult and those is quadrant A would be the least difficult.

The final component of Cummins’ theory is distinguishing between additive and subtractive bilingualism.

• Additive bilingualism- L1 continues to develop alongside L2• Subtractive bilingualism- L2 comes to replace L1

Cummins is a proponent of additive bilingualism, and encourages schools to place value on students’ native languages and culture.



Processes and Stages of Second Language Acquisition

There are two types of bilingualism:

• Simultaneous bilingualism- both languages are taught at thesame time (from birth)

• Successive (or sequential) bilingualism- the child learns a nativelanguage from birth and then a second language later

WIDA has outlined the following stages of language acquisition for language learners beginning at any age:

The younger children are when they start learning a second language, the easier it is to attain fluency. Early childhood—while children are already developing their first language—is the ideal time to learn a second language. There is a cognitive window for language development that makes the process occur more rapidly and naturally than at any other stage in life. Older children and adults can certainly become proficient in a second language, but the rate of language acquisition is slower.

Canale and Swain describe the broad skills needed for mastery of a language in terms of four core communicative competencies:



Other key processes involved in second language acquisition include:

• The use of repetition to aid learning• The use of formulaic expressions—predetermined “chunks” of

language such as sentence frames, idiomatic phrases, andcollocations

• Self-monitoring (metacognition)• Appeals for assistance and requests for clarification• Code switching- alternating use between two languages

Communicative Competencies

Grammatical Competence • The ability to

write and speakwith grammaticalaccuracy

Sociolinguistic Competence • The knowledge of

sociocultural rulesof communication

Discourse Competence • The ability to

construct wordsand sentencesinto a meaningfulwhole

Strategic Competence • The ability to

overcomedifficulties incommunication



focus on meaning. Fluent readers are able to focus on text comprehension rather than decoding. They automatically connect sound symbols to concepts and more readily construct meaning from text. Instructional strategies to develop fluency include:

• Modeled fluent reading• Choral reading• Echo reading• Guided oral reading• Phrase cued text

• Cloze reading• Partner reading• Selecting appropriate

leveled, decodable texts

Another key component of literacy is vocabulary acquisition. There are two types of vocabulary—receptive vocabulary, which is the words that you understand upon hearing or reading them, and expressive vocabulary, which are the words that you use when speaking or writing. Receptive vocabularies develop earlier and remain larger that expressive vocabularies. This is especially true for ELLs, who tend to find it easier to understand spoken and written English than to produce the language themselves. Words must first be a part of the receptive vocabulary before they can be used as expressive vocabulary.

In learning a first language, children primarily develop their receptive vocabularies through listening. They figure out meanings to the words they hear based on context, refining their definitions over time. Once children learn to read, they can also increase their receptive vocabularies by reading texts containing new words. In learning a second language, these same strategies can be employed, although it is also important for students to undergo targeted, purposeful vocabulary instruction, especially for words they will need on a regular basis in order to function effectively in an English-speaking environment.



When faced with an unfamiliar word, there are many strategies that can help students to discern the meaning of the word. These strategies include:

• Using context clues• Using knowledge of word parts such as affixes and root words• Making connections between English and L1 (e.g., cognates)

Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it, and understand its meaning.

Best practices that promote reading comprehension include:

• Explicit strategy instruction• Metacognitive modeling (think aloud)• Integrated instruction of graphics, print and digital media• Extended time for students to engage in independent reading• Dialogue between students and teachers, as well as students and

peers, about texts• Providing guided student choice in selecting leveled texts• Collaborative learning• Frequent feedback



There are two main types of reading comprehension: literal and critical.

For English language learners, as with any readers, literal comprehension comes easier than critical comprehension. Critical comprehension requires both higher order thinking skills and a greater command of the language. A key component of successful reading instruction for English language learners is to teach them how to be strategic readers. Like other reading skills, comprehension strategies should be explicitly taught, modeled, guided, and transferred to students following the gradual release of responsibility model. Key reading comprehension strategies include:

Strategy Definition Instructional Supports Making predictions

Anticipating what will happen next

• Previewing/text feature walk• Skimming for key words• Anticipation guides• Semantic features analysis• Highlighting signal words• Analyzing text features

Determining importance

Identifying the main idea and supporting details

• Information sorts• Retelling• Outlining• Constructing narrative timelines



Strategy Definition Instructional Supports Questioning Generating and

responding to questions about the text

• Question frames• Question webs• Text annotation• Think-aloud• Question-Answer Relationship

(QAR) sorts/chartsMaking connections

Relating the text to other contexts • Text-to-Self• Text-to-Text• Text-to-World

• Journaling (e.g., double entryresponse journals)

• KWL charts• Venn diagrams• Connection mapping

Inference Identifying implicit meanings

• Evidence logs• Flagging textual support• Character analysis grids• Reading wordless picture books

Synthesis Merging new and prior knowledge

• Using mentor texts• Creating process charts to map

concept evolution• Re-writing text to demonstrate

author bias/point of view• Running evidence chart to

determine author’s purpose• Constructing a comparison matrix

As students’ fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension skills improve over time, they will be able to handle increasingly complex texts. It is important to match students with texts that are appropriately leveled for them. Texts that are too easy will fail to challenge students and won’t let them continue to grow in their learning. They may even become boring. Texts that are too difficult lead to frustration and burnout. The majority of the time, students should be reading texts that are on a level that is appropriately challenging for them.



Some students with specific needs may need individualized objectives that are different than those of the general population. Objectives for all students should be developmentally appropriate and should express a high level of expectation. Expectations for students do not have to be identical, but they should be equitable. All students should be held to high standards with objectives that are appropriately challenging for that student.

Effective teachers plan ahead and keep the big picture in mind, even as they plan day-to-day activities. Instructional planning should start “big” and move to the more specific. In planning instruction for the school year, the teacher should start by looking at the scope and sequence of the entire curriculum and plotting out how long can be devoted to each unit. In some districts, this is already prescribed as part of the curriculum. From there, teachers can plan each unit, asking themselves the following questions as they plan:

• What should students know or be able to do by the end of theunit? (terminal objectives)

• How will I know the student has learned and met the objectives?(summative assessment)

• What smaller goals will students need to meet in order to leadup to the unit objectives? (enabling objectives)

• What do students need to already know or be able to do in orderto be successful in this unit? (prerequisite knowledge/skills)

• How will I assess whether students have the necessary requisiteknowledge or skills? What will I do for students who do not?

After planning the unit with broad strokes, teachers can go through the same basic process on a lesson-by-lesson basis.



Instructional Strategies

When teaching, there are a variety of instructional techniques that can promote student engagement and successful completion of learning objectives. Above all, teaching style should attend to the needs of the students.

When providing direction instruction, teachers should engage in modeling. It is important to “show”—not just “tell.” Demonstrate the skills, techniques, and procedures you want students to perform before giving them adequate time for practice. Allow students to engage in both supervised, guided practice and more independent practice.

Effective lessons should address multiple levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. The following table lists the levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy is order of increasing complexity, defines them, and provides examples of key tasks associated with each cognitive level within the hierarchy.

The Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA) is an instructional model for second language learning based on cognitive

Level Definition Tasks Knowledge Recalling information Define

Identify List Describe

Comprehension Understanding new information

Explain Summarize

Paraphrase Discuss

Application Using new information in a novel context

Construct Demonstrate

Solve Produce

Analysis Identifying parts of concepts and interrelationships

Categorize Compare

Contrast Differentiate

Synthesis Integrating concepts to create new ideas

Formulate Create

Develop Hypothesize

Evaluation Assessing information and making judgments

Critique Conclude

Justify Support



theory developed by Anna Uhl Chamot and J. Michael O’Malley. In this model, instruction focuses both on building academic language competency and on developing learning strategies to help with both language and content acquisition. CALLA instruction follows five steps:

Instructional Delivery Models for Bilingual Education

There are a variety of different models by which ELLs are educated in this country. Some schools provide a great deal of resources for meeting the unique needs of ELLs, while others do little by way of accommodation.

On one end of the spectrum is a total lack of English language instruction designed for ELLs. Submersion occurs when ELLs are educated entirely in mainstream English classrooms with no modifications made to provide for their academic and language support. This “sink or swim” approach often leaves ELLs struggling.

ELD instruction (also known as ESL or ESOL) focuses specifically on English language instruction and is given in addition to typical content area instruction. This may occur as:

• Push In: An ESL teacher pushes into the regular classroom toprovide additional support for ELLs

•Activate background knowledge

Preparation

•Introduce newinformation

Presentation •Students engage

in practice

Practice

•Students self-evaluate

Evaluation •Students apply

new knowledgeand skills to othercontexts

Expansion



• Pull Out: ELLs are removed from the regular classroom for aportion of the day to receive small-group English instruction; thisis the most common method

Specifically Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE), also known as Sheltered English, is a pull-out model that teaches grade-level academic content alongside English language. Students learn to read, write, and speak English through the context of content-area learning. There are four main components of the SDAIE approach: content, connections, comprehensibility, and interaction.

Bilingual education can also be classified by its length and goals. Transitional (or Early-Exit) Bilingual Education aims to provide temporary support for ELLs as they develop English skills. The goal is to transition them as quickly as possible to English-only education. A drawback of this approach is that these students typically develop BICS but not adequate CALP and they fall behind academically when pushed into English-only too early without support.

Maintenance Bilingual Education, on the other hand, seeks to support

Content •Lessons are designed to include content,language, and learning strategy objectives

Connections •Lesson content is tied to students' priorknowledge and backgrounds

Comprehensibility •Lesson delivery designed to promoteunderstanding through strategies such asrepetition, paraphrasing, modeling, andteacher speech adjustment

Interaction •Lessons are interactive and give studentsfrequent opportunities to converse with theteacher and one another to discuss and clarifycontent

SDAIE



8.) An ESL teacher is working with her beginning students on the pronunciation of words containing r-controlled vowels. Which of the following lists of words would be appropriate for this lesson?

a) baker, worm, shirtb) germ, room, ramc) rat, radio, raked) read, lead, peak

9.) The picture and accompanying text above appear in a book a beginning ESL student is asked to read aloud. The student reads the text as "I saw a sheep." Based on the student's mistake, the teacher can surmise that the student used which cueing system(s) to read the final word?"

I. SemanticII. SyntacticIII. Graphophonic

a) II onlyb) I and II onlyc) I and III onlyd) II and III only



18.) The register of a language refers to

a) the form of a language used in a specific cultural orgeographical group.

b) the form of a language used within a specific context.c) a nonstandard form of a language.d) the way language is pronounced.

19.) The sentences above, written by an ELL, are indicative of which stage of spelling development?

a) Pre-phoneticb) Phoneticc) Transitionald) Conventional

20.) The ability to group words into units of meaning at the sentence level is part of which type of linguistic process?

a) Microprocessb) Macroprocessc) Integrative processd) Elaborative process

21.) Which function of language is focused on getting needs met?

a) Heuristicb) Informativec) Regulatoryd) Instrumental



44.) An ESL teacher seeks to plan lessons that address the various types of intelligence shown in the chart above. This approach most closely relates to the work of

a) B.F. Skinner.b) Abraham Maslow.c) Howard Gardner.d) Jerome Bruner.

45.) A speaker’s idiolect is typically influenced by

a) region.b) social class.c) both (a) and (b).d) neither (a) nor (b).

46.) The element of language most concerned with the connotations and denotations of words is

a) phonology.b) morphology.c) semantics.d) syntax.



Type of Clothing Upper Body Lower Body Hands Feet Head Pants X Shirt X Hat X Jacket X Gloves X Shoes X Socks X

55.) A teacher is working with ESL students on learning the English words for articles of clothing. Students are directed to use the graphic organizer above to help them keep categorize the clothing. If a type of clothing listed has one of the characteristics, students are to mark the appropriate box. This type of tool is known as a(n)

a) SQ3R.b) concept map.c) sequencing chart.d) semantic feature analysis.

56.) Cloze reading helps to build comprehension skills by requiring students to

a) answer comprehension questions following a readingpassage.

b) suggest replacements for words omitted in a passage.c) preview a text before reading.d) summarize text using a graphic organizer.



73.) Flexible grouping places ESL students into learning groups based on

a) their overall level of academic achievement.b) their levels of English proficiency.c) optimal personality combinations of different students.d) their strengths and deficiencies within a particular skill.

74.) Students are asked to complete the above oddity task by selecting the word that begins with a different sound from the rest based on the picture. A student who can successfully complete this task demonstrates the ability to

a) blend phonemes.b) recognize sight words.c) isolate phonemes.d) utilize decoding.



91.) Dual immersion programs

I. are intended only for ELLs.II. elevate the status of ELLs’ native language.III. encourage students of different linguistic backgrounds to

support each others’ development.

a) I onlyb) I and II onlyc) II and III onlyd) I , II, and III

92.) Research has shown that which of the following is the LEAST accurate predictor of whether schools will graduate academically successful language minority students?

a) The presence of grade level content instruction in bothEnglish and L1

b) The use of current teaching approaches such as discoverylearning and cooperative learning

c) The speed at which students transition from ESL programsto mainstream English classrooms

d) Sociocultural support for language learning

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday English Spanish English Spanish English

93.) The table above shows the schedule for instructional language use in a bilingual classroom. This model is known as

a) divided day.b) integrated use.c) alternate use.d) structured use.



121.) A school district finds that a cultural minority group within its population is overrepresented in special education. In order to address this issue, the school should FIRST

a) make changes to the curriculum to make it more culturallyinclusive.

b) provide special educators with training specificallydesigned to reach this minority population.

c) consult with these students’ parents and teachers to workon a plan to better meet their instructional needs.

d) analyze the special education evaluation process for bias.

122.) As shown in the image above, the “salad bowl” model of cultural interaction is most clearly associated with

a) assimilation.b) pluralism.c) acculturation.d) accommodation.

123.) Which of the following is illegal according to federal law?

a) De facto racial segregationb) De jure racial segregationc) Both (a) and (b)d) Neither (a) nor (b)



143.) Which statement about the traditional American classroom is most accurate?

a) The traditional American classroom reflects a collectivistvalue system that emphasizes interdependence, whichgoes against the individualist value system of manyminority cultures.

b) The traditional American classroom reflects an individualistvalue system that emphasizes competition, which goesagainst the collectivist value system of many minoritycultures.

c) The traditional American classroom combines aspects ofindividualist and collectivist value systems, which studentsfrom majority and minority cultures find confusing tonavigate.

d) The traditional American classroom combines aspects ofindividualist and collectivist value systems, which sets upstudents from majority and minority cultures for success.

144.) Which of these is considered a pull factor in migration?

a) Political persecution in the home countryb) Religious freedom in the home countryc) Job opportunities in the destination countryd) Overcrowding in the destination country



8.) Answer A R-controlled vowels are vowels preceding an "r" that arepronounced atypically—neither long nor short. All of thewords in choice (A) contain r-controlled vowels. In answer (B),only "germ" contains an r-controlled vowel. In answer (C), allof the words begin with "r" but none of them contain r-controlled vowels. In answer (D), none of the vowels are r-controlled.



18.) Answer B The register of a language is the form of a language that is used in a particular context. For example, many people use a casual social register that is different than the more formal register they might use in an academic or workplace setting.

9.) Answer B There are three types of cueing systems—semantic (meaning), syntactic (structure), and graphophonic (visual). The student read the word "sheep" instead of "lamb." The teacher can assume that the student got a hint from the picture and was able to form a word whose meaning made sense in context (semantic) and that sounded right structurally (syntactic). Since the words themselves ("sheep" and "lamb") share no similarities (they have no letters in common), however, the student was not using graphophonic cues.

19.) Answer C The writing sample has meaning that is decipherable and basically follows conventions of structure, but some of the spelling is invented. These characteristics place this writing in the transitional stage of spelling development.

Answer Explanations:

20.) Answer A Sentence-level understanding is considered a microprocess—a basic building block of language comprehension.

21.) Answer D There are seven basic functions of language. Instrumental language is focused on getting needs met. The other six functions are heuristic (investigative), informative (communicating information), regulatory (controlling behavior), interactional (social), and personal (expressing individuality).



45.) Answer C An idiolect is an individual’s personal version of a language, usually influenced by both the regional and class dialects to which the person is accustomed.

46.) Answer C Semantics is the study of the meaning of words. Denotations are the dictionary definitions of words, and connotations are the implied feelings or judgments that are associated with words.

44.) Answer C

Howard Gardner is credited with the theory that there is not one single type of intelligence. Gardner argues that there are eight different intelligences—logical-mathematical, visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, naturalist, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Attending to the multiple intelligences helps teachers to draw on the strengths of a diverse group of learners.



55.) Answer D This type of tool is known as a semantic feature analysis. The chart helps students to keep track of information and to draw comparisons between the features of several subjects. SQ3R (A) is a reading comprehension strategy: Survey, Question,Read, Recite, Review. A concept map (B) is a web ofinterrelated ideas. A sequencing chart (C) is used to show theorder of events.

56.) Answer B In a cloze reading passage, words are omitted from the text. It is the student's responsibility to use context clues to figure out an appropriate word to fill in each blank.

73.) Answer D Flexible grouping allows groupings to change for different lessons or skills. Students are grouped together based on their strengths or deficiencies within the particular targeted skill. They can then receive instruction appropriate to their level within their groups. These groups change because students who are deficient in one area and need more support may be strong in another area and able to work more independently.

74.) Answer C In this task, students must identify the pictured objects and select the one whose initial sound is not the same as the rest. “Cat,” “car,” and “corn” all begin with “c.” “Apple” is the oddity because it begins with a short “a” sound. This activity requires students to be able to isolate phonemes, identifying a single sound out of a word.

91.) Answer C Dual immersion programs involves both native English speakers and ELLs. In this setting, English and another language are developed concurrently. The status of the ELLs native language is elevated as native English speakers are expected to learn it. ELLs and native English speakers can help each other learn one another’s languages.

92.) Answer C (A), (B), and (D) are shown to be the three greatest predictors of schools that will graduate academically successful ELLs. A speedy transition to mainstream classrooms (C) is often detrimental to academic success.



93.) Answer C

An every-other-day model of language switching is known as alternate use.

121.) Answer D Addressing the issue of overrepresentation must start at the beginning—how students are first evaluated for special needs before entering special education programming. The school should analyze the initial evaluation process, including the assessment instruments used, to detect any possible cultural bias that may lead to inappropriate recommendations into a special education program. Choices A, B, and C all deal with students who are already in special education. They do not address the issue of overrepresentation, which assumes that at least some students are misclassified.

122.) Answer B The “salad bowl” is a common metaphor for pluralism, wherein different cultures coexist but maintain their own identities. Traditionally, the United States was thought of as a “melting pot” of assimilation, wherein different groups of immigrants blended in to a common American culture, but since the 1960s, the pluralism model has become increasingly popular as it provides more respect to diverse cultures.

123.) Answer B De jure segregation is segregation by law. This has been made illegal by several federal laws (e.g. the Civil Rights Act of 1964) and Supreme Court decisions (e.g. Brown v. Board of Education). De facto segregation is segregation that occurs freely based on economic or social patterns rather than by law. The law does not protect against this type of segregation, although there are measures such as affirmative action that seek to create more balance. An example of de facto segregation is the fact that many urban schools tend to have higher racial minority populations than their suburban counterparts. This is due to economic and social conditions rather than any law.



143.) Answer B Traditional American classrooms reflect European-American, middle-class values, which are highly individualist and encourage students to compete with each other for rewards. Conversely, 70 percent of the world’s population, and many minority cultures in America, live in collectivist cultures that discourage competition and encourage interdependence and cooperation. Thus, teachers should strive to create a balance of cooperative and competitive values in the classroom that benefit learners from all cultural backgrounds.

144.) Answer C A pull factor is a characteristic of a place that makes someone want to move there. Job opportunities in a country could motivate someone to want to migrate to that country. (A) and (B) relate to the home country rather than the destinationcountry. A characteristic of a home country that makessomeone want to leave it is called a push factor. (D) doesdescribe the destination country but as it is a negative factor,it does not show a reason why someone would want tomigrate to that location.



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