franklin d. roosevelt and the shadow of war,...

Chapter33

FranklinD.RooseveltandtheShadowofWar,1933–1941

I.TheLondonConference

• LondonEconomicConference1933:– Roosevelt'searlyforeignpolicysubordinatedtohisstrategyfordomesticeconomicrecovery:• Delegateshopedtocoordinateinternationalattackonglobaldepression– Bystabilizingvaluesofcurrenciesandrateofexchange– Exchange-ratestabilizationessentialtorevivalofworldtrade

I.TheLondonConference(cont.)

– Rooseveltandconference:• Firstthoughtofsendingadelegation,includingSecretaryofStateCordellHullbutthenhadconcernsaboutconference'sagenda– WantedtopursueinflationarypoliciesathometostimulateAmericanrecovery

– Internationalagreementtomaintainvalueofdollarmighttiehishands

• FDRunwillingtosacrificepossibilityofdomesticrecoveryforsakeofinternationalcooperation


• FDRscoldedconferenceforattemptingtostabilizecurrency– EssentiallydeclaredAmerica'swithdrawalfromnegotiations

• Delegatesadjournedempty-handed,amidcriesofAmericanbadfaith• Roosevelt'sattitudeofevery-man-for-himselfplungedplanetevendeeperintoeconomiccrisis


• Conferencecollapsestrengthenedglobaltrendtowardextremenationalism• Madeinternationalcooperationevenmoredifficult• ReflectedpowerfulpersistenceofAmericanisolationism• Playedintohandsofdictatorsdeterminedtoshatterworldpeace• Americawouldpayhighpricefortryingtogoitaloneinmodernworld

II.Freedomfor(from?)theFilipinosandRecognitionfortheRussians

– RooseveltmatchedisolationfromEuropewithwithdrawalfromAsia• GreatDepressionburstMcKinley'simperialisticdreaminFarEast• AmericanstaxpayerseagertorejectexpensiveliabilityofPhilippineIslands• Organizedlabordemandedexclusionoflow-wageFilipinoworkers• AmericansugarproducersclamoredforeliminationofPhilippinecompetition


– CongresspassedTydings-McDuffieAct1934:• ProvidedforindependenceofPhilippinesafter12-yearperiodofeconomicandpoliticaltutelage(1946)• UnitedStatesagreedtorelinquisharmybases• Navalbasesreservedforfuturediscussion—andretention• AmericansnotsomuchgivingfreedomtoPhilippinesasfreeingthemselvesfromthem• AmericansproposedtoleaveFilipinostotheirownfate• WhileimposinguponFilipinoseconomictermssoungenerousastothreatentheirfutureeconomy


• OnceagainAmericanisolationistsrejoiced• Rooseveltmadeoneinternationalistgesturewhen:

– HeformallyrecognizedSovietUnionin1933– Heextendeddiplomaticrecognitiondespite:

» Noisyprotestsofanti-communistconservatives» RomanCatholicsoffendedbyKremlin'santireligiouspolicies

– FDRmotivatedbytradewithSovietRussia– AndhopedtobolsterSovietRussiaascounterweighttoGermanyinEuropeandJapaninAsia

III.BecomingaGoodNeighbor• RooseveltinauguratedrefreshingnewerainrelationswithLatinAmerica:– Proclaimedininauguraladdress“policyoftheGoodNeighbor”• SuggestedU.S.A.givingupambitiontobeworldpower• Wouldcontentitselfwithbeingregionalpower• InterestsandactivitiesconfinedtoWesternHemisphere• FDReagertolineupLatinAmericanstohelpdefendWesternHemisphere

III.BecomingaGoodNeighbor(cont.)

– FDRrenouncedarmedintervention—especiallyRooseveltCorollarytoMonroeDoctrine

– In1933,at7thPan-AmericanConference,U.S.delegationformallyendorsednonintervention

– MarinesleftHaitiin1934– AfterFulgencioBatistacametopowerinCuba,CubansreleasedfromPlattAmendment—

– UnderwhichAmericahadbeenfreetointervene– U.S.A.retainedGuantanamonavalbase(seeChap.27)


– Panamareceivedsimilarupliftin1936:• WhenU.S.A.relaxedgriponisthmusnation

– GoodNeighborpolicy:• Accentonconsultationandnonintervention• ReceivedacidtestinMexico:

– MexicangovernmentseizedYankeeoilpropertiesin1934– Americaninvestorsdemandedarmedinterventiontorepossessconfiscatedbusinesses

– Rooseveltresistedbadgeringandsettlementmadein1941


• SuccessofRoosevelt'sGoodNeighborpolicy:– PaiddividendsingoodwillamongLatinAmericans– NootherU.S.citizenhasbeenheldinsuchhighregardasFDRinLatinAmerica

– ColossusofNorthnowseemedlessavultureandmoreaneagle

IV.SecretaryHull'sReciprocalTradeAgreements

– ChiefarchitectSecretaryofStateHullbelieved:• Tradeatwo-waystreet• Anationcanonlysellabroadasitbuysabroad• Tariffbarrierschokeoffforeigntrade• Tradewarsbegetshootingwars

– ReciprocalTradeAgreementAct1934:• DesignedtoliftU.S.exporttradehurtbydepression• Aimedatbothreliefandrecovery• Activatedlow-tariffpoliciesofNewDealers(seetariffchartinAppendix)

IV.SecretaryHull'sReciprocalTradeAgreements(cont.)

– Avoideddangersofwholesaletariffrevision:• WhittleddownmostobjectionableschedulesofHawley-Smootlawbyamendingthem:– Empoweredpresidenttolowerexistingratebyasmuchas50%inagreementswithothercountrieswillingtorespondwithsimilarreductions

– AgreementseffectivewithoutformalapprovalofSenate– Ensuredspeedieractionandsidesteppedtwinevilsofhigh-stakeslogrollingandhigh-pressurelobbyinginCongress

• Hullsuccessfullynegotiatedpactswith21countriesbyendof1939• U.S.foreigntradeincreasedappreciably

IV.SecretaryHull'sReciprocalTradeAgreements(cont.)

– TradeagreementsimprovedeconomicandpoliticalrelationswithLatinAmerica

– Provedtobeinfluenceforpeaceinwar-bentworld

– ReciprocalTradeAgreementsAct:• Landmarkpieceoflegislation• Reversedhigh-protective-tariffpolicythathadexistedunbrokensinceCivilWar– HadsodamagedAmericanandinternationaleconomiesfollowingWorldWarI

• PavedwayforAmerican-ledfree-tradeinternationaleconomicsystemthattookshapeafterWWII

V.Storm-CellarIsolationism

• Spreadoftotalitarianism:– Individualisnothing;stateiseverything– CommunistUSSRledway:• RuthlessJosephStalinemergedasdictator• In1936hebegantopurgeUSSRofallsuspecteddissidents:– Executedhundredsofthousands– BanishedmillionstoremoteSiberianforced-laborcamps

– BenitoMussolini,aFascist,seizedpowerinItalyin1922

V.Storm-CellarIsolationism(cont.)

– AdolfHitler,afanaticwhoplottedandharanguedhiswaytocontrolofGermanyin1933• Mostdangerousdictatorbecausehecombinedtremendouspowerwithimpulsiveness• SecuredcontrolofNazipartybymakingpoliticalcapitalofTreatyofVersaillesandGermany'sdepression-spawnedunemployment• WithdrewGermanyfromLeagueofNationsin1933• Beganclandestinely(andillegally)rearming• 1936:HitlerandMussolinialliedthemselvesinRome-BerlinAxis


• InternationalgangsterismalsospreadinFarEast:– ImperialJapan,likeGermanyandItaly

» Aso-calledhave-notpower» ResentedungenerousTreatyofVersailles» Demandedadditionalspaceforitsteemingmillions,cooped-upincrowdedislandnation

– Japanesenavalistsnottobedenied:» Gavenoticein1934ofterminationof12-year-oldWashingtonNavalTreaty


– In1935inLondon,Japantorpedoedallhopeofeffectivenavaldisarmament• Whendeniedcompleteparity,theywalkedoutofmultipowerconference• Andacceleratedconstructionofgiantbattleships• 1935:JapanquitLeagueofNations• FiveyearslaterjoinedarmswithGermanyandItalyinTripartitePact


– MussolinibrutallyattackedEthiopiain1935• Bravedefendersspeedilycrushed• LeaguecouldhavecrushedMussoliniwithoilembargobutrefusedtodoso

– IsolationisminAmericaboostedbyalarmsfromabroad:• Americabelievedencirclingseagaveherimmunity• ContinuedtosufferdisillusionmentfromparticipationinWWI• Nursedbittermemoriesaboutdebtors


• CongresspassedJohnsonDebtDefaultAct(1934):– Preventeddebt-dodgingnationsfromborrowingfurtherinUnitedStates• Ifattacked,delinquentscould“stewintheirownjuices”

• MireddownbyGreatDepression,Americanshadnorealappreciationofrevolutionaryforcesbeingharnessedbydictators


• Have-notpowersouttobecome“have”powers• Americansfearedbeingdrawnintototalitarianaggression• CalledforconstitutionamendmenttoforbiddeclarationofwarbyCongress—exceptincaseofinvasion—unlesstherewasfavorablepopularreferendum• PrincetonUniversitystudentsagitatedin1936forbonustobepaidtoVeteransofFutureWars(VFW)whileprospectivefrontlinersstillalive

VI.CongressLegislatesNeutrality

– SenatorGeraldNyeofNorthDakotaappointedin1934toinvestigate“bloodbusiness”• SenatorialproberstendedtoshiftblameawayfromGermansubmarinesontoAmericanbankersandarmsmanufactures– Becausetheymademoney,illogicalconclusionwasthattheyhadcausedwartomakemoney

– Congressmadehastetolegislatenationoutofwar:

VI.CongressLegislatesNeutrality(cont.)

• NeutralityActsof1935,1936,and1937:– Stipulatedthatwhenthepresidentproclaimedexistenceofforeignwar• Certainrestrictionsautomaticallygointoeffect• NoAmericancouldlegallysailonabelligerentship• Sellortransportmunitionstoabelligerent• Ormakeloanstoabelligerent

– Legislationabandonedtraditionalpolicyoffreedomofseas


• SpecificallytailoredtokeepUnitedStatesoutofconflictlikeWorldWarI• Storm-cellarneutralityprovedtobetragicallyshortsighted:– FalselyassumeddecisionforpeaceorwarlayinU.S.hands– Prisonersofitsownfears,U.S.A.failedtorecognizeitmighthaveuseditsenormouspowertoshapeinternationalevents

– Instead,itremainedatmercyofeventscontrolledbydictators• Statutoryneutralityofdubiousmorality

– Americawouldmakenodistinctionsbetweenbrutalaggressorsorinnocentvictims


– Americaactuallyhelpedencourageaggressorsalongtheirblood-spatteredpathofconquest• Bydecliningtouseindustrialstrengthto

– Aiddemocraticfriends– Anddefeattotalitarianfoes

VII.AmericaDoomsLoyalistSpain

• SpanishCivilWarof1936-1939– Painfullessoninfollyofneutrality-by-legislation– GeneralFranciscoFranco:• FascistaidedbyfellowconspiratorsHitlerandMussolini• FrancosoughttotopplerepublicanLoyalistregime• LoyalistsgotsomeassistancefromSovietUnion• AmericanRomanCatholicsopposedLoyalistregime

VII.AmericaDoomsLoyalistSpain (cont.)

• AbrahamLincolnBrigade:– 3,000headedtoSpaintofightasvolunteers–WashingtoncontinuedofficialrelationswithLoyalistgovernment

– ExistingneutralitylegislationchangedtoapplyarmsembargotobothLoyalistsandrebels

– RooseveltdidnothingwhileFrancoabundantlysuppliedbyfellowdictators


– Democraciessodeterminedtostayoutofwartheyhelpedcondemnfellowdemocracytodeath• Insodoing,theyencourageddictatorstowardfurtheraggression• Suchpeace-at-any-price-ismcursedwithillogic• Americadeclinedtobuildarmedforcestowhereitcoulddeteraggressors• Allowednavytodeclineinrelativestrength• WhenRooseveltrepeatedlycalledforpreparedness,hewasbrandedawarmonger


• Nottill1938wouldCongresspassbillion-dollarnavalconstructionact– Calamitousstoryrepeated:toolittle,toolate

VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany

• 1937Japanesemilitariststouchedoffexplosionthatledtoall-outinvasionofChina

• RooseveltdeclinedtoinvokeneutralitylawsbyrefusingtocallChinaincidentanofficiallydeclaredwar– DidnotwanttocutofftrickleofmunitionsonwhichChinesedepended

– WhileJapanesecouldcontinuetobuywarsuppliesinUnitedStates

VIII.AppeasingJapanandGermany(cont.)

• QuarantineSpeechbyRooseveltinChicago,autumnof1937:– Calledfor“positiveendeavors”to“quarantine”aggressors—presumablybyeconomicembargoes

– Isolationistsfearedamoralquarantinewouldleadtoashootingquarantine

– Rooseveltretreatedandsoughtlessdirectmeanstocurbdictators


• America'sisolationistmoodintensified:– December1937JapanesebombedandsankAmericangunboatPanay:• Twokilledandthirtywounded• Tokyomadenecessaryapologiesandpaidproperindemnity—Americansbreathedsighofrelief

– HitlergrewlouderandbolderinEurope:• OpenlyfloutedTreatyofVersaillesbyintroducingcompulsorymilitaryserviceinGermany• 1935hesenttroopsintodemilitarizedGermanRhineland


• March1938,HitlerbloodlesslyoccupiedGerman-speakingAustria• ThendemandedGerman-inhabitedSudetenlandofneighboringCzechoslovakia• Roosevelt'smessagestobothHitlerandMussoliniurgedpeacefulsettlement• ConferenceheldinMunich,Germany(Sept.1938)

– WesternEuropeandemocracies,badlyunpreparedforwar,betrayedCzechoslovakiatoGermanybyshearingoffSudetenland


• Appeasementofdictators:– SymbolizedbyuglywordMunich– Surrenderoninstallmentplan– InMarch1939,scarcelysixmonthslater:• HitlererasedrestofCzechoslovakiafrommap• Contrarytohissolemnvows

– Democraticworldstunned

IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality

• Stalin,sphinxofKremlin,keytopeacepuzzle:– OnAugust23,1939,astoundedworldbysigningnonaggressiontreatywithGermandictator

– NotoriousHitler-Stalinpact:• GaveHitlergreenlighttomakewarwithPolandandWesterndemocracies• StalinplottedtoturnGermanaccompliceagainstWesterndemocracies

IX.Hitler'sBelligerencyandU.S.Neutrality(cont.)

• Withsigningofpact,WorldWarIIonlyhoursaway• HitlerdemandedPolandreturnlandshegainedfromGermanyafterWWI– HitlerattackedPolandonSept.1,1939

• BritainandFrance,honoringcommitmentstoPoland,declaredwar– AtlonglasttheyperceivedfollyofcontinuedappeasementbuttheywerepowerlesstoaidPoland

• WorldWarIInowfullylaunched,andlongtruceof1919-1939atend


• Rooseveltissuedroutineproclamationofneutrality• Americansoverwhelminglyanti-Naziandanti-Hitler

– Ferventlyhopeddemocracieswouldwin– Fondlybelievedforcesofrighteousnesswouldtriumph,asin1918

– Determinedtostayout;notgoingtobe“suckers”again– NeutralitypromptlybecameheatedissueinU.S.– BritainandFranceurgentlyneededAmericanplanesandweapons

– NeutralityActof1937raisedforbiddinghand


• NeutralityActof1939:– EuropeandemocraciesmightbuyU.S.warmaterialsbutonlyon“cash-and-carrybasis”• Wouldhavetotransportmunitionsintheirownships,afterpayingforthemincash• Americawouldavoidloans,wardebts,andtorpedoingofAmericanarms-carriers• RooseveltauthorizedtoproclaimdangerzonesintowhichU.S.merchantshipsforbiddentoenter


– UnneutralneutralitylawhurtChina,whichwaseffectivelyblockadedbyImperialJapaneseNavy

– ClearlyfavoredEuropeandemocraciesagainstdictators• UnitedStatesnotonlyimproveditsmoralpositionbutalsohelpeditseconomicposition• Overseasdemandforwargoodsbroughtsharpupswingfromrecessionof1937-1938• Ultimatelysolveddecade-longunemploymentcrisis(seeFigure32.4)

X.TheFallofFrance• “Phonywar”—periodfollowingcollapseofPoland

• SilencefellonEurope• HitlershifteddivisionsfromPolandforknockoutblowatFrance• SovietspreparedtoattackFinland• Finlandgranted$30millionbyisolationistCongressfornonmilitarysupplies• FinlandflattenedbySovietsteamroller• Abruptendto“phonywar”inApril1940whenHitleroverranDenmarkandNorway

X.TheFallofFrance(cont.)

• HitlerthantookNetherlandsandBelgium,followedbyparalyzingblowatFrance• BylateJune,Franceforcedtosurrender• CrisisbroughtforthinspiredleaderinPrimeMinisterWinstonChurchill– Nervedhispeopletofightofffearfulairbombingsoftheircities

• France'ssuddencollapseshockedAmericansoutofdaydreams• PossibledeathofBritain,aconstitutionalgovernment,steeledAmericanpeopletotremendouseffort


• Roosevelt'smoves:– Calleduponalreadydebt-burdenednationtobuildhugeairfleetsandtwo-oceannavy,whichcouldcheckJapan

– Congressappropriated$37billion:• FiguremorethantotalcostofWorldWarI• AboutfivetimeslargerthananyNewDealannualbudget


• CongresspassedconscriptionlawonSept.6,1940– America'sfirstpeacetimedraft:

» Providedfortrainingeachyear1.2milliontroopsand800,000reserves

– Actlateradaptedtorequirementsofglobalwar• HavanaConferenceof1940:

– UnitedStatesagreedtosharewithtwentyNewWorldneighborsresponsibilityofupholdingMonroeDoctrine

– Nowmultilateral,itwouldtobewieldedbytwenty-onepairsofhands—atleastintheory

XI.RefugeesfromtheHolocaust• JewishcommunitiesinEasternEurope:

• Frequentvictimsofpogroms,mobattacksapprovedorcondonedbylocalauthorities• November9,1938,instigatedbyspeechfromNaziJosephGoebbels:– MobsransackedmorethanseventhousandJewishshopsandalmostallsynagoguesinGermany

– Ninety-oneJewskilled– About30,000senttoconcentrationcampsinwakeofKristallnacht,“nightofbrokenglass”

– St.LouisleftGermanyin1939with937passengers,almostallJewishrefugees,wenttoCuba,Miami,Canada» HadtoreturntoEurope,wheremanykilledbyNazis

XI.RefugeesfromtheHolocaust(cont.)

• WarRefugeeBoard:– CreatedbyRooseveltin1942– SavedthousandsofHungarianJewsfromdeportationtodeathcampatAuschwitz

– Only150,000Jews,mostlyGermansandAustrians,foundrefugeinUnitedStates

– Byendofwar,6millionJewshadbeenmurderedinHolocaust

XII.BolsteringBritain• Britaininwar:– August1940,HitlerlaunchedairattacksonBritain,toprepareforSeptemberinvasion

– BattleofBritainragedformonthsinair– RoyalAirForce'stenaciousdefenseeventuallyledHitlertopostponeplannedinvasionindefinitely

• DebateintensifiedinUnitedStatesoverwhatforeignpolicytoembrace

XII.BolsteringBritain (cont.)

• RadiobuiltsympathyforBritish,butnotenoughtopushUnitedStatesintowar• Rooseveltfacedhistoricdecision:

– HunkerdowninWesternHemisphere,assume“FortressAmerica”defensiveposture» Letrestofworldgoitalone

– OrbolsterbeleagueredBritainbyallmeansshortofwaritself– Bothpositionshadadvocates

• SupportersofaidtoBritainformedpropagandagroups:– Mostpotentone—CommitteetoDefendAmericabyAidingtheAllies


• Argumentdouble-barreled:– Tointerventionists—appealedfordirectsuccortoBritishbysuchslogansas“BritainIsFightingOurFight”

– Toisolationists—appealedforassistancetodemocraciesby“AllMethodsShortofWar,”soconflictwouldbekepttofarawayEurope

• Isolationists,bothnumerousandsincere,veryvocal– OrganizedAmericaFirstCommittee– ContendedAmericansshouldconcentratestrengthtodefendtheirownshores

– Basicphilosophy:“TheYanksAreNotComing”– MosteffectivespeechmakerwasCharlesA.Lindbergh


– Britain:• IncriticalneedofdestroyersbecauseofGermansubs• OnSeptember2,1940,RooseveltagreedtotransfertoGreatBritainfiftyWWIdestroyers• Inreturn,BritishhandedovertoU.S.A.eightvaluablebasesites,stretchingfromNetherlandtoSouthAmerica– ToremainunderStarsandStripesfor99years

• Agreementlegallyquestionablesinceitwasapresidentialagreement,notpassedbyCongress• Anun-neutralact,butpublic-opinionpollsdemonstratedmajoritysupported“allaidshortofwar”toEngland

XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-TermTradition

• Distractingpresidentialelection• Republicans:– SenatorRobertA.TaftofOhio– LawyerThomasE.DeweyofNewYork– Latecomer:WendellL.WillkieofIndiana– AtPhiladelphiaconvention,Willkiechosen– PlatformcondemnedFDR'sallegeddictatorshipandcostlyandconfusingzigzagsofNewDeal

XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-TermTradition(cont.)

• Democrats:– DemocratsinChicagodecidedthird-termerbetterthan“Third-Rater”

–WillkieagreedwithFDRonnecessitytobolsterbeleaguereddemocracies

– Inforeignpolicy:• Bothpromisedtostayoutofwar• Bothpromisedtostrengthennation'sdefenses• WillkiehithardatRooseveltian“dictatorship”andthirdterm

XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-termTradition(cont.)

– Roosevelt,busyinWhiteHouse,madefewspeeches• Promisednomenwouldbe“sentintoforeignwars;”thislatercamebacktoplaguehim

– HeandsupportersdefendedNewDealandall-outpreparationsfordefenseofAmericaandaidtoAllies

• Thecount:– Roosevelttriumphed,althoughWillkieranstrongrace

XIII.ShatteringtheTwo-termTradition(cont.)

– Populartotal27,307,819to22,321,018andelectoralcount449to82(seeMap33.1)

– Contestlessawalkawaythanin1932and1936– DemocraticmajoritiesinCongressremainedaboutsame

– Democratshailedtriumphasmandatetoabolishtwo-termtradition• Votersfeltthatshouldwarcome,experiencedleaderneededathelm

Map 33-1 p782

XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw

• Lendingandleasingpolicy:– SchemeofRoosevelttoprovidearmstodemocraciesrunningoutofmoney

– Lend-LeaseBill,patrioticallynumbered1776,entitled“AnActFurthertoPromotetheDefenseoftheUnitedStates”:• Praisedbyadministrationasdevicethatwouldkeepnationoutofwarratherthandragitin• Underlyingconceptwas“Sendguns,notsons”or“Billions,notbodies”

XIV.ALandmarkLend-LeaseLaw(cont.)

• America,Rooseveltpromised,wouldbe“arsenalofdemocracy”• Sendlimitlesssupplyofarmstovictimsofaggression:

– Whointurnwouldfinishjob– AndkeepwarontheirsideofAtlantic– AccountssettledbyreturningusedweaponsorequivalentstoUnitedStateswhenwarended

• DebatedinCongress,withoppositioncomingfromisolationistsandanti-RooseveltRepublicans:– Schemeassailedas“blank-checkbill”– NeverthelessbillapprovedinMarch1941bysweepingmajoritiesinbothhousesofCongress


• Lend-leaseoneofmostmomentouslawsevertopassCongress:

• ChallengehurleddirectlyatAxisdictators• AmericapledgedtobolsternationsindirectlydefendingU.S.A.byfightingaggression• By1945,Americanshadsentabout$50billionworthofarmsandequipmenttonationsfightingaggressors(seeMap33.2)• Passingoflend-lease,aneconomicdeclarationofwar• Ashootingdeclarationcouldnotbeveryfararoundcorner

Map 33-2 p783


• Abandonedanypretenseofneutrality• NodestroyerdealarrangedprivatelybyRoosevelt• Billuniversallydebated• MostAmericanspreparedtotakechanceratherthanseeBritaincollapseandthenfacedictatorsalone

– Resultsoflend-lease:• GearedU.S.factoriesforall-outwarproduction• EnormouslyincreasedcapacitythatsavedAmericawhenshootingwarstarted


• Hitlerrecognizedlend-leaseasunofficialdeclarationofwar– Untilthen,GermanyavoidedattackingU.S.ships– Afterlend-lease,littlepointintryingtocurryfavorwithUnitedStates

– OnMay21,1941,RobinMoor,unarmedAmericanmerchantman,torpedoedanddestroyedbyGermansubmarine

XV.ChartingaNewWorld

• TwoglobaleventsmarkedcourseofWorldWarII:– FallofFranceinJune1940– Hitler'sinvasionofSovietUnion,June1941• StalinbalkedatGermancontrolofBalkans• Hitlerdecidedtocrushcoconspirator,seizeoilandotherresourcesofSovietUnion• OnJune22,HitlerlauncheddevastatingattackonSovietneighbor

XV.ChartingaNewWorld (cont.)

– SoundAmericanstrategydictatedspeedyaidtoMoscow

– Rooseveltmadesomemilitarysuppliesavailable– Extended$1billioninlend-leasetoSovietUnion—firstinstallmentonultimatetotalof$11billion• RussianvalorandRussianwinterhaltedHitler'sinvasion

• AtlanticConference(August1941):– MeetingofChurchillandRooseveltonwarshipoffcoastofNewfoundland


– History-makingconferencetodiscusscommonproblems,includingmenaceofJapan

– AtlanticCharter;eightpointcharter:• FormerlyacceptedbyChurchillandRoosevelt,laterbySovietUnion• Outlinedaspirationsforbetterworldatwar'send• Arguedforrightsofindividualsratherthannations• Laidgroundworkforlateradvocacyonbehalfofuniversalhumanrights


• Opposedimperialisticannexations:– Noterritorialchangescontrarytowishesofthepeople(self-determination)

• Affirmedrightofpeopletochoosetheirownformofgovernment:– Inparticular,toregaingovernmentsabolishedbydictators

• Charterdeclaredfordisarmament• Andapeaceofsecurity:

– Pending“permanentsystemofgeneralsecurity,”newLeagueofNations


• Worldviews:– LiberalstookheartfromAtlanticCharter:• AstheyhadtakenheartfromWilson'sFourteenPoints• Especiallygratifyingtosubjectpopulations:

– LikePolesunderironheelofaconqueror• CondemnedinUnitedStatesbyisolationistsandothershostiletoRoosevelt– Whatrighthad“neutral”AmericatoconferwithbelligerentBritishoncommonpolicies?

– Suchcriticsmissedpoint:U.S.A.nolongerneutral

XVI.U.S.DestroyersandHitler'sU-boatsClash

• Lend-leaseshipmentsofarmstoBritain:– FreightersneededtobeescortedbyU.S.warships• Britaindidnothaveenoughdestroyers• RooseveltmadefatefuldecisioninJuly1941

– Ascommanderinchief,issuedorderstonavytoescortlend-leaseshipmentsasfarasIceland

– Britishwouldthenshepherdthemrestoftheway– September1941,U.S.destroyerGreerattackedbyGermansubithadbeentrailing,withoutdamagetoeither

– Rooseveltproclaimedshoot-on-sightpolicy

XVI.U.S.DestroyersandHitler'sU-boatsClash(cont.)

• October17escortingdestroyerKearny– EngagedinbattlewithU-boats– Lost11whenitwascrippled,butnotsunk

• TwoweekslaterdestroyerReubenJames:– TorpedoedandsunkoffsouthwesternIceland– Lossofmorethanahundredofficersandenlistedmen

• Neutralitystillonbooks,butnotinAmericanhearts:– Congressvotedinmid-November1941topullteethfromnow-uselessNeutralityActof1939byallowingarmingofmerchantships

– AmericansbracedthemselvesforwholesaleattacksbyHitler'ssubmarines

XVII.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor

– Japan,sinceSeptember1940,hadbeenformalmilitaryallyofNaziGermany:

– America'sshootingfoeinNorthAtlantic– Japanmireddownincostlyandexhausting“Chinaincident”

• JapanandAmericanrelations:– Japanfatallydependentonimmenseshipmentsofsteel,scrapiron,oil,andaviationgasolinefromU.S.A.

– SuchassistancetoJapaneseaggressorhighlyunpopularinAmerica

– Washington,latein1940,imposedfirstembargoonJapan-boundsupplies

XVII.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor(cont.)

– Mid-1941,UnitedStatesfrozeJapan'sassetsinUnitedStates– Imposedcessationofallshipmentsofgasolineandothersinewsofwar

– Asoilgaugedropped,squeezeonJapangrewsteadilymorenerve-racking

• Japan'sleadersfacedtwoalternatives:– EitherknuckleundertoAmerica– OrbreakoutofembargoringbydesperateattackonoilsuppliesandotherrichesofSoutheastAsia

• TensenegotiationswithJapantookplaceinWashingtonduringNovemberandearlyDecember1941


– StateDepartmentinsistedJapanleaveChina» OfferedJapannewtraderelationsonlimitedbasis

– Japan'simperialistsunwillingtolosefacebywithdrawal– Facedwithcapitulationorcontinuedconquest,theychosesword

– WashingtonhadcrackedcodeandlearnedTokyo'sdecisionforwar

– NooneinhighauthorityinWashingtonbelievedJapaneseeitherstrongenoughorfoolhardyenoughtostrikeHawaii

• StruckPearlHarborwhileTokyodeliberatelyprolongednegotiationsinWashington


• December7,1941,“BlackSunday,”JapanesebombersattackedPearlHarborwithoutwarning• Adate“whichwillliveininfamy,”RoosevelttoldCongress• About3,000casualtiesinflictedonAmericanpersonnel• Manyaircraftdestroyed• Battleshipfleetvirtuallywipedoutwheneightweresunk• Numeroussmallvesselsdamagedordestroyed• FortunatelyforAmerica,threeaircraftcarriersnotinharbor

XVI.SurpriseAssaultonPearlHarbor(cont.)

– AngeredCongressnextdayofficiallyrecognizedwarhadbeen“thrust”onU.S.A.• SenateandHouserollcallonevoteshortofunanimity• GermanyandItaly,alliesofJapan,sparedCongressfurtherdebatebydeclaringwaronDec.11,1941• ChallengeformallyacceptedbyunanimousvoteofbothSenateandHouseonsameday• Unofficialwar,alreadyofmanymonths'duration,nowofficial

XVIII.America'sTransformationfromBystandertoBelligerent

• Japan'shara-kirigambleinHawaiipaidoffonlyinshortrun:– Toverydayofattack,strongmajorityofAmericanswantedtokeepoutofwar• BombsonPearlHarborblastedisolationistsintosilence

– PearlHarbornotfullanswertoquestionwhyUnitedStateswenttowar:• Attacklastexplosioninlongchainreaction


– FollowingfallofFrance• Americansconfrontedwithdilemma:

– Desiredabovealltostayoutofconflict,– Yet,theydidnotwantBritaintobeknockedout

• TheywishedtohaltJapan'sconquestsinFarEast:– ConquestsmenacednotonlyAmericantradeandsecuritybutinternationalpeaceaswell

• TokeepBritainfromcollapsing:– RooseveltfeltcompelledtoextendunneutralaidthatinvitedattacksfromGermansubmarines


• TokeepJapanfromexpanding:– WashingtonundertooktocutoffvitalJapanesesupplieswithembargoesthatinvitedpossibleretaliation

– Ratherthanletdemocracydieanddictatorshiprulesupreme,mostcitizensevidentlydeterminedtosupportapolicythatmightleadtowar

– Itdid

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