Frank Lloyd Wright:

Exploring the Limits of Architecture

Julia Votava

Junior Division

Historical Paper

2,415 words

Labeled “the greatest American architect of all time” by the American Institute of

Architects, Frank Lloyd Wright (1867­1959) has become an icon of American culture,

revolutionizing the world of architecture with his more than 1,000 structural designs. However, 1

despite his success in advancing the field of architecture, Wright encountered difficulty with

clients and the architectural world of his day because of what many viewed as radical designs.

Wright was a man ahead of his time, and despite encountering resistance to his progressive ideas,

he succeeded in exploring the limits of architecture by exchanging the elements of natural

surroundings and man­made structures.

Wright’s extraordinary career was largely a result of his incredible innovation compared

to the existing buildings of the time. The prevailing architecture of Wright’s childhood was

copied from European Victorian style, with box­like designs and heavy decor. Wright found 2

these houses to be unimaginative, confining, and oppressive, blocking family members from

interacting with each other rather than creating unity. Wright preferred designs that were more 3

in line with the natural surroundings of the buildings, a preference that would form the

foundation of his career.

Not everyone was convinced that architecture needed a revolution. In fact, Wright

encountered much resistance. After the completion of one of his first residential structures in

1894, the William Winslow House in River Forest, Illinois––a house that would later be added to

the National Register of Historic Places––many in the neighborhood joked that Mr. Winslow

1 “Frank Lloyd Wright: Biography,” Margo Stipe, accessed January 9, 2016, http://www.savewright.org/index.php?page=3. 2 Susan Goldman Rubin, Frank Lloyd Wright, (New York: Abrams, 1994), 34. 3 Melanie Birk, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Prairie (New York: Universe, 1998), 65.

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“had to sneak out of the back in the morning to avoid people.” (See Appendix I) Many people 4

did not want one of Wright’s modern designs––they just wanted one of the plain, box­like

buildings. When one of Wright’s aunts asked him to design a home for her, she said to him, “I

don’t want one of your experiments. Just build me a house!” Wright also lost clients because of 5

his notoriously difficult and egotistical personality, often dictating exactly what the house would

look like, including the furnishings, lighting, carpeting, decorations, landscaping, and even what

types of clothing would be best worn in the house. In a letter to Mr. Frank Rentz, a potential 6

client in Madison, Wisconsin, dated March 12, 1940, Wright exhibited his combative style,

writing, “We can build a $5,000 house for you only if you are satisfied with a $5,000 house. We

dislike to give up the ship but if you like to have your apple and eat it too, I suppose we must.” 7

Despite the resistance to his designs, Wright was determined to revolutionize

architecture. The larger­than­life persona that allowed Wright to break from the traditions of his

time was built in his childhood. Born Frank Lincoln Wright in 1867, in rural Richland Center,

Wisconsin, the young Wright made the decision to change his name after his parents’ bitter split,

adopting his mother’s family name, Lloyd, becoming Frank Lloyd Wright. Even before Wright 8

was born, Anna Lloyd Jones, his mother, claimed to know that she would have a baby boy and

that he would become a famous architect, subsequently hanging engravings of famous English

cathedrals in the nursery to influence her child from the beginning. 9

4 Alexander O. Boulton, Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect: An Illustrated Biography (New York: Rizzoli, 1993), 42. 5 Highlights Tour of Taliesin, Spring Green, Wisconsin, October 11, 2015. 6 Ada Louise Huxtable, Frank Lloyd Wright: A Life (New York: Penguin, 2008). 7 Frank Lloyd Wright, “Letter to Frank A. Rentz,” March 12, 1940. 8 Jan Adkins, Up Close: Frank Lloyd Wright, a Twentieth­Century Life (New York: Viking, 2007), 20. 9 Rubin, Frank Lloyd Wright,16.

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As a child, Wright enjoyed playing with an educational toy his mother bought him called

“Froebel Gifts for Art Building,” consisting of yarn balls and wooden blocks of all shapes. Every

night after supper, Wright would play with the blocks for hours, dreaming up all sorts of

different buildings. Wright received a different kind of gift from his father: the gift of music. 10

Wright’s father taught him how a symphony, much like a house, needed structure and form. As

he grew older, Wright was sent to work on his uncle’s farm. The experience on the farm taught

Wright much about hard work, but as he spent many long days on the farm surrounded by nature,

he gained an appreciation for the Midwestern landscape, which would become the cornerstone

of his philosophy of architecture. Commenting in the March, 1908 issue of Architectural 11

Record, Wright wrote, “We of the Middle West are living on the prairie. The prairie has a beauty

of its own and we should recognize and accentuate this natural beauty, its quiet level.” 12

This creative childhood surrounded by nature led Wright to create designs that were in

harmony with American landscapes and the newly emerging suburban and informal way of life.

It was essential to Wright that his buildings were in balance with their surroundings, contrary to

the prevailing feeling that man should dominate nature. As Wright wrote in his autobiography,

“No house should ever be on a hill or on anything. It should be of the hill. Belonging to it. Hill

and house should live together each the happier for the other.” He elaborated further in an 13

address in 1957, saying, “the good building is not one that hurts the landscape, but is one that

makes the landscape more beautiful than it was before that building was built.” Wright 14

10 Robert McCarter, Frank Lloyd Wright, (London: Reaktion, 2006), 19­21. 11 Highlights Tour of Taliesin. 12 Frank Lloyd Wright, as quoted in Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer, Frank Lloyd Wright (Cologne: Benedikt Taschen, 2000), 18. 13 Frank Lloyd Wright, An Autobiography (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1932), 168. 14 Rubin, Frank Lloyd Wright,10.

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fashioned homes that were designed to blend in with the flat prairie landscape, with low,

sweeping horizontal lines, careful craftsmanship, and minimal adornments that could be a

peaceful escape from an increasingly stressful world. By removing interior walls, thereby

creating an open floor plan, and adding vast windows, Wright explored the idea of flowing

interiors that were able to blend with nature. This style of architecture became known as the

prairie style. 15

Wright’s designs also showed a respect and a love for materials in their natural state.

Primary architectural materials such as stone, brick, and wood had long been painted, plastered,

and covered. In his work, Wright preferred to use locally sourced materials and would let masses

of stone be the main feature of a home, or let the natural earth­tones of the brick be the dominant

focus of an entire building. Wood was his most loved of all materials. He remarked, “Wood is 16

universally beautiful to man. Man loves his association with it; likes to feel it under his hand,

sympathetic to his touch and to the eye.” Wright’s first studio in Oak Park, Illinois, was its own 17

advertisement for his ideas. With an octagonal library, a two­story drafting room with 18

suspended balcony, and a walkway built around a willow tree, the studio attracted clients who

were willing to take a chance on unorthodox styles, materials, and technology. (See Appendix II)

Commonly referred to as a masterpiece of architecture and one of the best­known private

residences in the world, Frank Lloyd Wright’s Fallingwater, built in 1937 in Mill Run,

Pennsylvania, is a prime example of Wright’s innovative exchange between man­made

15 Birk, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Prairie,10. 16 Pfeiffer, Frank Lloyd Wright, 24. 17 Frank Lloyd Wright, as quoted in Pfeiffer, Frank Lloyd Wright, 24. 18 Birk, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Prairie,15.

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architecture and nature. Perched above a 30­foot waterfall, the house doesn’t appear to stand on 19

solid ground. (See Appendix III) When the owners expressed their hesitation about Wright’s

choice of building site, he replied that he wanted them to live with the waterfall, to make it a part

of their everyday life, and not just to look at it now and then. Showing his preference for 20

materials found locally, the living room fireplace uses rocks found on site, with a large boulder

protruding through the floor that doubles as a hearth. The stone floors are waxed, while the 21

fireplace is left plain to give the impression of dry rocks rising up from a stream. Glass is also 22

liberally used throughout Fallingwater; there is no wall facing the waterfall, only glass, stone

columns, and the central support of the stone hearth. The result is unending vistas of water and 23

woods.

One of Wright’s most ingenious works, the Larkin Company Administration Building

built in Buffalo, New York, in 1906, exemplifies both Wright’s exploration and use of

cutting­edge designs and applications of new technology. (See Appendix IV) Situated next to a 24

train yard, the Larkin building was subject to intolerable noise and air pollution. After trying to 25

convince the owners to move the building, Wright eventually designed an office that was a

monument to the modern workforce, creating a sense of family rather than isolation. The Larkin

building gave Wright the opportunity to showcase advances in technology as well as his own

19“Frank Lloyd Wright’s Most Beautiful Work,” Eric Jaffe, accessed January 5, 2015, www.smithsonianmag.com/lifelists/frank­lloyd­wrights­most­beautiful­work­12103484/?no­ist. 20 “What is Fallingwater?,” accessed December 23, 2015, http://www.fallingwater.org/37/what­is­fallingwater.html. 21 “Frank Lloyd Wright’s Most Beautiful Work,” Eric Jaffe. 22 “Frank Lloyd Wright ­ Fallingwater,” USA Home and Garden, accessed January 9, 2016, http://usahomeandgarden.com/architecture/fallingwater/fallingwater.html. 23 “Frank Lloyd Wright: Fallingwater,” Charles Wiebe, accessed December 6, 2015, https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art­1010/architecture­20c/a/frank­lloyd­wright­fallingwater. 24 “Larkin Building,” accessed January 2, 2016, http://www.docomomo­us.org/node/286. 25 “Frank Lloyd Wright (1867­1959),” David Jameson, accessed January 16, 2016, ArchiTech Gallery. http://www.architechgallery.com/arch_info/ artists_pages/frank_lloyd_wright.html.

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engineered innovations. The Larkin building is an impressive list of “firsts.” The Larkin building

was the first office building to ever utilize air conditioning, the first to be fireproof, using bricks

and a steel frame, the first to use steel office furniture (that Wright himself designed) for ease in

cleaning, and the first to use wall­hung toilets and ceiling­hung partitions to make mopping

easier. (See Appendix IV) 26

Wright proved himself adapt by his innovations and ability to overcome obstacles. The

Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan, built in 1923, posed enormous challenges to Wright when he

was commissioned to design it. Because Japan is prone to many violent earthquakes, Wright 27

had to create a structure which could withstand the force of an earthquake. To do this, he

invented a revolutionary system in which the foundation of the building was built in floating

sections to allow the building to rise and fall with the earthquake rather than fighting it. (See 28

Appendix V) When a devastating earthquake struck Tokyo shortly after the completion of the

building, the Imperial Hotel was one of the only buildings left standing and was a place for many

of the people left homeless to take shelter.

Wright finished work on the new Johnson Wax Administration Building, completed in

1939, and the Research Tower, completed in 1950, in Racine, Wisconsin, which were also prime

examples of how he continually pushed the boundaries of architecture while incorporating the

exchange of natural and manmade elements. Wright coined the word “taproot” to explain his 29

innovative design for the tower’s foundation, borrowing an idea from nature in which a tree is

26 Pfeiffer, Frank Lloyd Wright, 56. 27 “Imperial Hotel: 1912­1923,” accessed January 22, 2016, https://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/imperial/imperial.html. 28 William Allin Storrer, The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), 192. 29 Jonathan Lipman, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Johnson Wax Buildings, (New York: Rizzoli, 1986), 93.

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able to support the weight of its branches through its trunk. In further recognition of the 30

profound influence of nature, in the main work room of the Johnson Administration building,

Wright utilized support columns with extraordinarily thin bases at the floor and wide, round

circles at the top, which he called dendriforms, meaning tree­shaped; others called them lily

pads. (See Appendix VI). Glass tubing at the top of the columns allowed for diffuse light to 31

pour in on the office workers below, creating an ideal environment for work. The columns were

also hollow, concealing storm water drains within. In the May 8, 1939, issue of LIFE magazine, 32

it was written, a “glimpse of the shape of things to come was given last week by a single

structure built strictly for business, which opened in a drab section of Racine, Wisconsin.” 33

Wright told the magazine that the building “was designed to be an inspiring place to work in as

any cathedral was designed to worship in.” 34

Nowhere was it more evident that Wright was a man ahead of his time than when issues

arose with his buildings. Wright included new, but practical, design elements in his homes, such

as radiant heating, in which hot water pipes hidden in the floors heat the entire room, and lower

ceilings, which made homes easier to heat, cool, and light. But when Wright utilized new

materials, technology, and unusual construction methods, they often created problems. Many of 35

his buildings leaked––particularly the ones with flat roofs––prompting the liberal use of buckets

and pails to catch the rain during storms. As she dashed around with buckets and pans in her

30 “Prairie Skyscraper,” accessed January 18, 2015, http://www.pricetower.org/prairie­skyscraper. 31 “AD Classics: S. C. Johnson and Son Administration Building / Frank Lloyd Wright,” Kelly Minner, accessed December 22, 2015, http://www.archdaily.com/90519/ad­classics­s­c­johnson­and­son­administration­building­frank­lloyd­wright. 32Ibid. 33 Lipman, Frank Lloyd Wright and the Johnson Wax Buildings, 93. 34 Ibid. 35 Rubin, Frank Lloyd Wright, 50.

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Tulsa, Oklahoma, Wright­designed home during a storm, Mrs. Richard Lloyd Jones exclaimed,

“Well, this is what we get for leaving a work of art out in the rain!” 36

Insulated glass was not introduced until 1930, resulting in very cold and drafty homes

and buildings due to Wright’s liberal use of windows. Wright’s home and studio, Taliesin East, 37

built in 1911 and located in Spring Green, Wisconsin, included a new feat of engineering: the

corner window. Corner windows consisted of two windows pushed together without use of 38

concrete, wood, glazing putty, or any other material. Because a proper sealant was not yet

available, it wasn’t possible to have the corner windows pressed together without a bit of a gap,

letting the wind, rain, and snow enter the house. Even Wright’s masterpiece, Fallingwater, was 39

not immune, with mold problems from the constant humidity and structural support of the

second floor becoming issues early on. 40

Wright’s innovations attracted curious architectural students. In 1932, Wright established

the Taliesin Fellowship, an idealistic architectural school set at his Spring Green home and

studio. Wright provided architectural training with a “learn by doing” approach to groups of 41

young apprentices that had been accepted into his program. The holistic course allowed students

to learn, design, and work alongside Wright. Today the Taliesin Fellowship has evolved into the

36“Tulsa’s 25 Most Notable Homes,” accessed January 6, 2016, http://www.tulsapeople.com/Tulsa­People/March­2011/Tulsa­rsquos­25­most­notable­Homes/?cp=24&mode=popup&play=1&si=23&view=slideshow. 37“1930: Insulated Glass,” Gregory Brooks, accessed January 2, 2016, https://aehistory.wordpress.com/1930/10/07/1930­insulated­glass. 38 Highlights Tour of Taliesin. 39 Ibid. 40 “Frank Lloyd Wright ­ Fallingwater,” USA Home and Garden. 41 “Frank Lloyd Wright,” Taliesin Preservation, accessed January 5, 2016, http://www.taliesinpreservation.org/frank­lloyd­wright.

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Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture, continuing to draw students who want to learn in the

landscape that inspired Wright to produce his masterpieces. 42

More than 100 years after Frank Lloyd Wright first began designing buildings, his ideas

continue to have a profound influence on architecture, as evidenced by a drive down many

streets in the United States. Some of his most cutting­edge ideas, such as carports and open floor

plans, are so common today that most people don’t realize that Wright was the man that

introduced them to the world. Generations of architects have been shaped by Wright’s vision of

architecture, by his insistence that man should live and work in harmony with nature, exchanging

natural elements and man­made structures, and by his ability to overcome the resistance he

encountered to his modern way of thinking from both society and fellow architects unwilling to

break from traditions. Wright explored and pushed the limits of architecture, believing in the

power that good design has to make people more aware and respectful of their surroundings and

of nature. Wright believed that well­designed, tasteful dwellings would produce a happier, 43

more peaceful and enlightened society. 44

More than one­third of the nearly 500 buildings that Wright oversaw to completion are

today on the National Register of Historic Places and 24 are listed as National Historic

Landmarks, the highest honor the United States government can bestow on any architecture. In 45

2015, the United States took the rare step of nominating ten of Wright’s buildings to be included

as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, a unique privilege that acknowledges and celebrates the

42 “Historic Legacy," Taliesin Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture, accessed January 4, 2016, http://www.taliesin.edu/history.html. 43 “Architect Frank Lloyd Wright," Library of Congress, accessed December 23, 2015, http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/wright/aa_wright_subj.html. 44 “Usonian House 1939," PBS, accessed February 2, 2016, http://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/usonia/usonia.html. 45 “Frank Lloyd Wright,” Taliesin Preservation.

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world’s most culturally or physically significant places or structures. Such honors highlight the 46

continuing importance of Frank Lloyd Wright’s work and vision. While he encountered much

resistance during his life, in hindsight we can see that Frank Lloyd Wright was truly a man ahead

of his time.

46“Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Status,” Natasha Geiling, accessed December 20, 2015, http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/frank­lloyd­wright­buildings­nominated­unesco­world­heritage­status­180954155.

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Appendix I

The William Winslow house, built in 1894, in River Forest, Illinois, was a shocking departure from the

Victorian architecture that was popular at the time. The house shows Wright’s modern style––a style that

many people did not appreciate.

“Frank Lloyd Wright’s William Winslow House.” Sotheby’s International Realty News. Web. 6 Jan. 2016

http://www.gibsonsothebysrealty.com/blog/wp­content/uploads/2014/01/imagereader.jpg.

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Appendix II

Frank Lloyd Wright’s first studio in Oak Park, Illinois, was its own advertisement for his vision of

contemporary design. The suspended balcony attracted clients wanting to take a chance on his innovative

architectural style.

Drafting_Room1." Get Away with Fran. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2016.

http://getawaywithfran.com/wp­content/uploads/2009/10/ Drafting_room1_HB.JPG.

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Appendix III

Fallingwater is a quintessential example of Frank Lloyd Wright’s belief that nature and architecture

should be harmonious. Instead of providing its occupants with a view of the falls, Fallingwater is poised

over the falls, making the waterfall a part of everyday life for the Kaufmann family.

Highsmith, Carol M. “Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann House), 1935­38, Bear Run,

Pennsylvania.” Khan Academy. Web. 14 Jan. 2016.

https://ka­perseus­images.s3.amazonaws.com/aa98fb22d93b8cff9720d12f1798ea1f2bd27ef1.jpg.

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Appendix IV

In designing the Larkin Administration Building, built in 1906, in Buffalo, New York, Frank Lloyd

Wright was able to showcase many new innovations, including the first air conditioning system designed

for an office building. The building was demolished in 1950.

“Larkin Building.” Do_co,mo.mo_us: International Committee for the Documentation and Conservation of

Buildings, Sights, and Neighborhoods of the Modern Movement. N.p., n.d. Web. 9 Jan. 2016.

http://docomomo­us.org/files/imagecache/fiche_img_700_w/fiche/Larkin%20Building_1.jpg.

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Appendix V

The Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan completed in 1923, withstood the force of earthquakes due to Frank

Lloyd Wright’s resourceful design and use of a sectional foundation.

“Imperial Hotel Tokyo.” Coote and Co. Web. 17 Jan. 2016.

http://cooteandco.com.au/wp­content/uploads/2014/04/imperial­hotel.jpg.

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Appendix VI

Johnson Wax Administration Building, completed in 1939, in Racine, Wisconsin, was built as a cathedral

for the modern workforce. The extraordinary dendriform columns, which many describe as lily pads, are

able to hold the weight of the entire roof.

The light­dappled Workroom at the SC Johnson Administrative Building. Why is Frank Lloyd Wright Forgiven All?

James S. Russell. Web. 30 Dec. 2016. http://jamessrussell.net/wp­content/uploads/2014/08/IMG_0895.jpg.

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Annotated Bibliography

Primary Sources

“The Fir Tree.” Allegretti Architects, Santa Fe, New Mexico. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Dec. 2015.

http://www.gregallegretti.com/fir­tree­house.

This image helped to explain a few of my questions and deepen my understanding about Wright’s taproot foundation.

Interview by Highlights Tour of Hillside and Taliesin East. 11 Oct. 2015.

The Highlights Tour was a tour I took to experience the interiors of two significant, yet distinctly different Wright­designed buildings, Hillside and Taliesin. The Highlights Tour includes the history and masterful design of two architectural landmarks into one two­hour tour. This tour helped me to experience Wright’s style in person and meet with someone who had studied Wright and his life.

Wright, Frank Lloyd. Letter to Frank A. Rentz. 12 Mar. 1940. TS. Letter 1845­1913 Wright

Family. Wisconsin Historical Society. M91­196 MAD 4.

Exchange between Frank Lloyd Wright and a potential client about the price of a house. This letter helped me to understand difficulties that clients had in dealing with Mr. Wright, because he felt that he always knew better than any client about every detail.

Wright, Frank Lloyd. An Autobiography. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1932.

In Wright's autobiography, he writes about his personal life and his philosophy of architecture, including his views on nature.

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Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright. Old Time Radio Downloads. Web. 10 Jan. 2016. http://www.oldtimeradiodownloads.com/drama/biography­in­sound/frank­lloyd­wright­1956­08 ­07. This audio biography of Frank Lloyd Wright covers Wright’s childhood, education, career, and his personal life. This recording helped me in my research because Wright can be heard talking about his opinions of current culture, fellow architects, and critics, which gave me an understanding of why so many people disliked him.

Wright, Frank Lloyd. Frank Lloyd Wright on His Corner Window. Interview by Hugh Downs. YouTube. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Feb. 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bAcjIjFUuTA.

Wright gives his opinion on what corner windows can do for the architecture of a house. This interview helped me understand Wright's reasoning behind using many corner windows in the homes that he designed.

Wright, Frank Lloyd. The Mike Wallace Interview. Interview by Mike Wallace. YouTube. N.p.,

n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DeKzIZAKG3E.

In this wide­ranging interview, Wright gives his opinions of subjects such as religion, war, death, critics, politics, and nature.

Wright Talks about His Buildings. YouTube. N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Feb. 2016.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RzGZ8pY9vVY.

Audio of Frank Lloyd Wright speaking about the construction of many of his more controversial buildings. The recording of Wright speaking helped me understand the ideas behind Wright’s philosophy of architecture.

Wright, Frank Lloyd, and Henry Russell Hitchcock. Self­published Manuscripts. 1887­1987.

MS. Manuscripts. Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison. MSS 842 Box 8 Folder 21.

This box includes manuscripts by Frank Lloyd Wright and Henry Russell Hitchcock’s manuscript In the Nature of Materials, 1887­1941: The Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright published in 1942. This manuscript gave me an understanding of Wright’s concern for harmony between architecture and nature.

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Wright family. “Letters, 1845­1913, Wright Family.” Letter. N.d. TS. Letters, 1845­1913, Wright family. Wisconsin Historical Society, Madison. M91­196 MAD 4.

Photocopies of letters between various members of the Wright family, including Frank Lloyd Wright’s grandfather, children, and grandchildren. The letters are full of family news and are accompanied by typed transcripts and notes by Jack Holzhueter.

Secondary Sources

Adkins, Jan. Up Close: Frank Lloyd Wright, a Twentieth­Century Life. New York: Viking, 2007.

Print.

This book gave me an overview of Frank Lloyd Wright’s life, with many details on both his professional and private life.

“Architect Frank Lloyd Wright." America's Story from America's Library. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Dec. 2015. http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/wright/aa_wright_subj.html.

This source helped me to understand how Frank Lloyd Wright was hoping to influence society with his designs and break away from the box­like and Victorian architectural style of his day.

Birk, Melanie. Frank Lloyd Wright and the Prairie. New York: Universe, 1998. Print.

This source provided information on the what Prairie houses are and what major themes are found throughout each individual house. It provided me with many pictures of all the Prairie houses Wright created.

Boulton, Alexander O. Frank Lloyd Wright, Architect: An Illustrated Biography. New York:

Rizzoli, 1993. Print.

This source helped me to see Wright’s entire life and how his personal relationships affected his work, including the divorce of his parents, Wright’s children, multiple wives, mistresses, and ensuing scandals.

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Brooks, Gregory. “1930: Insulated Glass.” History of Innovation. AE History, n.d. Web. 2 Jan. 2016. https://aehistory.wordpress.com/1930/10/07/1930­insulated­glass.

This very brief web page provided information on the history of insulated glass. Wright used a lot of glass in his homes before they were insulated, letting in cold drafts.

Frank Lloyd Wright. Dir. Ken Burns, Kynn Novick, and Geoffrey C. Ward. Narr. Edward

Hermann. Ken Burns, 1998. Film.

This documentary helped me to see the growing legacy of Frank Lloyd Wright. I also saw in detail how he explored a new style of architecture and how he encountered resistance to this new style. It helped me understand the many hardships Wright had getting his work accepted and built.

“Frank Lloyd Wright.” Taliesin Preservation Inc. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Jan. 2016.

http://www.taliesinpreservation.org/frank­lloyd­wright.

This site, along with providing information about the preservation of Taliesin East, provided detailed information about the childhood, adult years, and legacy of Frank Lloyd Wright.

Frank Lloyd Wright Bibliography." Save Wright: Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy.

N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Jan. 2016. http://www.savewright.org/index.php?page=3.

This bibliography of Wright provided me with a detailed yet concise summary of his life, including his lasting legacy.

“Frank Lloyd Wright ­ Fallingwater.” USA Home and Garden. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2016.

http://usahomeandgarden.com/architecture/fallingwater/fallingwater.html.

This web page gives many details about the conception and construction of Fallingwater, including background information about the design and floor plan, materials, and problems. The website also details Wright’s insistence of man living in harmony with nature.

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Geiling, Natasha. “Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Nominated for UNESCO World Heritage Status.” Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Magazine, 9 Feb. 2015. Web. 20 Dec. 2016. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/frank­lloyd­wright­buildings­nominated­unesco­world­heritage­status­180954155.

This online Smithsonian Magazine article provides information regarding the status of ten of Wright’s buildings that have been nominated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

“Historic Legacy." Taliesin Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 Jan.

2016. http://www.taliesin.edu/history.html.

This web page gives a complete history of the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture, along with an explanation of its philosophy of “learning by doing.”

Huxtable, Ada Louise. Frank Lloyd Wright: A Life. New York: Penguin, 2008. Penguin Lives.

Digital file.

This eBook gives an overview of Frank Lloyd Wright's life and most significant buildings. The author also writes about Wright's attention to detail and how he dictated all aspects of construction.

“Imperial Hotel: 1912­1923." PBS. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2016.

https://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/imperial/imperial.html.

This web page from PBS provided me with a brief history of Wright’s design of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo, Japan.

Jaffe, Eric. “Frank Lloyd Wright’s Most Beautiful Work.” Ed. Megan Gambino.

Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian Magazine, n.d. Web. 5 Jan. 2016. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/lifelists/frank­lloyd­wrights­most­beautiful­work­12103484/?no­ist.

This online article describes Fallingwater in a concise and detailed manner. It provides an opinion of why Fallingwater is the most beautiful of Wright’s works, backed up with many helpful facts.

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Jameson, David. “Frank Lloyd Wright (1867­1959).” ArchiTech Gallery. ArchiTech, n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2016. http://www.architechgallery.com/arch_info/artists_pages/frank_lloyd_wright.html.

This website discusses highlights of Wright’s career, including Fallingwater and the Larkin building.

“Larkin Building." Do_co,mo.mo_us. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Jan. 2016.

http://www.docomomo­us.org/node/286.

This web page shows maps, evaluations, histories, and descriptions of the Larkin Building. What helped me the most was the timeline of events and images, one of which is used as an appendix in my paper.

Lipman, Jonathan. Frank Lloyd Wright and the Johnson Wax Buildings. New York: Rizzoli,

1986. Print.

Frank Lloyd Wright and the Johnson Wax Buildings gave information on the Johnson Wax Administration and Research Buildings, including dates, features of the building, problems because of the engineering, and information about the building site.

McCarter, Robert. Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Reaktion, 2006. Print. Reaktion Books ­ Critical

Lives.

Frank Lloyd Wright explores the personal relationships that influenced Wright’s architecture.

Minner, Kelly. “AD Classics: S.C. Johnson and Son Administration Building / Frank Lloyd

Wright.” Arch Daily. ArchDaily, n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2015. http://www.archdaily.com/90519/ad­classics­s­c­johnson­and­son­administration­building­frank­lloyd­wright.

This web page provides information and a timeline on the S. C. Johnson Wax Administration Building as well as features of the building.

Pfeiffer, Bruce Brooks. Frank Lloyd Wright. Cologne: Benedikt Taschen, 2000. Print.

This source provides an overview of Frank Lloyd Wright’s architecture, and how his opinion and views of the world influenced his designs.

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“Prairie Skyscraper.” Frank Lloyd Wright’s Price Tower. Price Tower Arts Center, 2016. Web.

18 Jan. 2016. http://www.pricetower.org/prairie­skyscraper.

The article “Prairie Skyscraper” explains the construction of the Prairie Skyscraper, and helped me to understand Wright’s innovative taproot foundation.

Rubin, Susan Goldman. Frank Lloyd Wright. New York: Abrams, 1994. Print.

This book was extremely helpful in helping me see an overview of Wright’s life. It informed me about how Wright’s childhood affected his later career.

Sisson, Patrick. “9 Things You Didn’t Know About Frank Lloyd Wright.” Dwell. N.p., 5 June

2014. Web. 7 Dec. 2015. http://www.dwell.com/profiles/article/9­things­you­didn%E2%80%99t­know­about­frank­lloyd­wright.

This website provided information on how Wright was ahead of his time in the way he created architecture. It also gave me an overview of Wright’s style and the themes in each of his buildings.

Stipe, Margo. “Frank Lloyd Wright Biography.” Save Wright: Frank Lloyd Wright Building

Conservancy. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Jan. 2016. http://www.savewright.org/index.php?page=3.

This website provided an overview of Wright’s life, including honors and awards given to Wright after his death.

Stipe, Margo, and Frank Lloyd Wright. Frank Lloyd Wright: The Interactive Portfolio: Rare

Removable Treasures, Hand­drawn Sketches, Original Letters, and More from the Official Archives. Philadelphia: Running, 2004. Print.

This source provided many primary sources, including letters, pictures, drawings, and plans. These helped me to create a picture in my mind of Frank Lloyd Wright’s life and how his personal life affected his architecture.

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Storrer, William Allin. The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. Digital file.

This book provides a complete guide to all of Wright's work that was built, including color photographs. The book provided information of Wright's design and implementation of the Imperial Hotel foundation.

Tulsa's 25 Most Notable Homes." TulsaPeople. Langdon Publishing, Mar. 2011. Web. 6 Jan. 2016. http://www.tulsapeople.com/Tulsa­People/March­2011/ Tulsa­rsquos­25­most­notable­Homes/?cp=24&mode=popup&play=1&si=23&view=slideshow. Tulsa's Most Notable Homes provides information on flaws in Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings, which is critical information in understanding problems clients faced with Wright’s use of new materials and designs.

“Usonian House 1939." PBS. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Feb. 2016.

http://www.pbs.org/flw/buildings/usonia/usonia.html.

This website explained how Wright thought a well­designed building could create happiness in a society.

Verburg, Steven. “Secret Places: Living in the Taliesin Home.” Wisconsin State Journal

[Madison] 25 July 2010: n. pag. Print.

This article taught me about the daily life of a family currently living at Taliesin East in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The family includes a husband and wife with their five boys.

“What is Fallingwater?” Fallingwater. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Dec. 2015.

http://www.fallingwater.org/37/what­is­fallingwater.html.

This source provides detailed information about Fallingwater. It also provides many facts and important details about the clients who commissioned the house.

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Wiebe, Charles. “Frank Lloyd Wright, Fallingwater.” Khan Academy. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Dec. 2015. https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art­1010/architecture­20c/a/frank­lloyd­wright­fallingwater.

Although brief, this website was very helpful and informative on Wright’s architectural masterpiece, Fallingwater.

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