food resources 2015

FOOD RESOURCESIs technology a panacea for Food Shortage?

FOOD RESOURCESVariations in global food consumption patterns between DCs and LDCs

BY THE END OF THE LESSON

Let’s be able to• Describe the indicators of food

consumption.• Describe variations in global food

consumption patterns between developed countries (DCs) and less developed countries (LDCs).

• Describe changing food preferences in DCs and LDCs.

INDICATORS OF FOOD CONSUMPTION

1. Food consumption per capita2. Daily calorie intake3. Starchy staples as a percentage of all

calories

FOOD CONSUMPTION PER CAPITA

• Refers to the average amount of food a person consumes per year.

DAILY CALORIES INTAKE• Refers to energy obtained from food

consumed per person each day.• The average amount of food a person

requires each day is around 2586 kilocalories.

STARCHY STAPLES AS A PERCENTAGE OF ALL CALORIES

• Refers to the percentage of starchy staples of all calories consumed.

KILOCALORIES PER PERSON PER DAY

1964-1966 1974-1976 1984-1986 1997-1999 20150

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

3065 29473206 3380 3440

2152 20542450

2681 2850

DCs LDCs

Kilo

calo

ries p

er p

erso

n pe

r day

SUGGESTED ANSWER• Both DCs and LDCs increased in the amount of

kilocalories (kcals) consumed over the years.• LDCs increased by 698 kcals.• DCs increased by 375 kcals.• LDCs increased more than DCs by 323 kcals.• LDCs increased by 32.4%.• DCs increased by 12.2%.• LDCs increased faster than DCs by 20.2%.• DCs consumed more than LDCs for every

reported year.

QUESTION• Describe the distribution of daily

calorie intake per capita around the world. [4]

SUGGESTED ANSWER• Countries such as ______ and ______ , that are highly

developed, consume very high level of calories per capita of above 3481 kcals.

• Developed countries such as ______ , ______ and ______ also consume high level of calories per capita that is between ______ kcals.

• Developing countries such as ______ and ______ are consuming relatively low level of calories per person of between ______ kcals.

• Less developed countries such as ______ and Madagascar consume very low levels of calories per person of between ______ kcals.

SUGGESTED ANSWER• Countries such as USA and France, that are highly developed,

consume very high level of calories per capita of above 3481 kcals.

• Developed countries such as Australia, Russia and Brazil also consume high level of calories per capita that is between 3051 – 3270 kcals.

• Developing countries such as Indonesia and Mali are consuming relatively low level of calories per person of between 2391 – 2620 kcals.

• Less developed countries such as Angola and Madagascar consume very low levels of calories per person of between 1890 – 2170 kcals.

CHANGING FOOD PREFERENCES

• Refers to the choice of one food type over another.

• Food consumption patterns have changed for different groups of food such as,– Cereals– Meat– Vegetables


United States of America China India

1970

1990

2010

1970

1990

2010

1970

1990

2010

Meats, eggs, fish 14.0 14.3 15.1 3.8 11.1 14.3 3.4 3.3 3.8

Cereals19.3 22.2 22.4 65.8 62.3 51.3 61.4 60 58.3

Fruits and vegetables

62.8 59.2 58.5 26.9 25.0 27.4 31.0 31.7 35.9

Others4.0 4.3 4.0 3.4 1.6 7 4.1 5.0 2.0

QUESTION• Describe the trends in food

preferences in USA, China and India LDCs between 1970 to 2010. [4]

SUGGESTED ANSWER• The calories per person per day for all three

countries has increased steadily over the years.• The consumption of meats, eggs and fish

increased for all countries, with China increasing the most by around 10.5 calories per person per day.

• The consumption of cereals increased in the USA but decreased in China and India.

• The consumption of fruits and vegetables decreased in the USA but increased in China and India.

QUESTION• Describe the trends in eggs, meat,

milk and cereal consumption from 1960 to 2005. [4]

SUGGESTED ANSWER• The amount of cereal consumption has

remained largely constant.• The amount of eggs has increased the

most by around five-fold.• The amount of meat consumption has

grown around three-fold.• The amount of milk increased slightly

by about 50%.

QUESTION• Describe the relationship between the

percentage of change in meat consumption and GDP. [3]

SUGGESTED ANSWER• There is a direct relationship between

the percentage of change in meat consumption and GDP.

• When the percentage of change in GDP decreased in 1982, percentage of change in meat also decreased.

• When the percentage of change in GDP increased in 1987, percentage of change in meat also increased.

FOOD RESOURCESReasons for the growth and variations in food consumption


Let’s be able to• Account for the growth and variations

in food consumption.

REASONS• Economic– Disposable income, pricing

• Socio-cultural– Food preferences, migration

• Political– Stability of food supply, food safety

DISPOSABLE INCOME• As economic conditions improved around

the world, disposable income has increased hence enabling people to spend on more and better food, thereby leading to an increase in food consumption.

• For example, the kilocalories per person per day for both DCs such as USA and LDCs such as Cambodia has increased over the years as the result of increased disposable income.

FOOD PRICING• People in LDCs may consume

significantly less food with sudden changes in food pricing as they have less disposable income than people in DCs.

• For example, people in Senegal were suddenly not able to purchase staple foods when food prices increased significantly during the food crisis from 2006 to 2008.

FOOD PRICING• Sudden changes in food pricing

generally have a negligible impact on food consumption for people in DCs, as they enjoy high disposable income.

• For example, the sudden increase in eggs in Singapore in 2012 and 2014 did not impede the ability of Singaporeans to purchase eggs and its related products.

FOOD PREFERENCES• Changing food preferences brought

about by globalisation has led to people in LDCs consuming more fast food.

• For example, people in India are increasingly consuming more fast foods as improvements in transportation and communications made it possible for fast food chains such as McDonald’s and Pizza Hut to open food outlets in India.

FOOD PREFERENCES• Changing food preferences brought

about by increased health awareness has led to people in DCs preferring certain kinds of food associated with health benefits

• For example, a 2011 survey conducted in the USA revealed that 58 percent of the population would prefer to consume organic food than non-organic food due to its perceived health benefits.

MIGRATION• As migrants relocate, they may adopt

the food of the locals or introduce new cuisines to the local population of their new country, leading to new food consumption patterns.

• For example, curry has become a popular dish in the United Kingdom, due to its large population of Indian migrants.

STABILITY OF FOOD SUPPLY

• The stability of food supply in LDCs is lower as food supply are more prone to disruptions in production and supply due to lower political stability.

• For example, Libya’s food stocks suffered rapid depletion after the Libyan civil war in 2011, and the country was not able to replenish it due to a severe lack of resources, leading to widespread food shortages and high food prices.

STABILITY OF FOOD SUPPLY

• The stability of food supply in LDCs is lower as LDCs are less able to to recover normal food production capabilities after a natural disaster.

• For example, the severe drought in Zimbabwe in 2008 destroyed most of the country’s corn harvest, leading to widespread food shortages.

FOOD SAFETY• Changes in food safety due to

outbreaks of foodborne diseases can lead to sudden fluctuations in the consumption of a particular kind of food.

• For example the consumption of beef decreased significantly due to the outbreak of the ‘mad cow disease’ in the late 1990s and 2005.

FOOD RESOURCESImpact of inadequate food consumption


Let’s be able to• Describe the impact of inadequate

food consumption.

IMPACT OF INADEQUATE FOOD CONSUMPTION

• Health– Malnutrition, ill health, starvation

• Economic– Lower productivity, higher public

health expenditure, long term debt• Political– Social unrest

• Social– Scavenging

MALNUTRITION• Inadequate food consumption can lead to

malnutrition which refers to a condition in which the body does not get sufficient nutrients to maintain healthy tissues and organ functions, and can lead to impaired physical development and death.

• For example, it is estimated that malnutrition caused the deaths of 5 million children under the age of 5 in LDCs each year.

MALNUTRITION

ILL HEALTH• Inadequate food consumption can lead

to ill health which includes visual impairment and weak bones, leading to the loss of educational opportunities and productivity.

• For example, children suffering from ill health are more prone to miss educational opportunities which result in lower earning power in the future.

STARVATION• Inadequate food consumption can lead

to starvation which refers to the state of extreme hunger from a severe lack of food, resulting in permanently damaged organs and death.

• For example, in Mali in 2012, a poor harvest and a civil rebellion threatened 5 million people with starvation and caused many deaths.

LOWER PRODUCTIVITY• Inadequate food consumption can lead

to lower productivity as workers fall sick more often as a result of consuming imbalanced amounts of nutrients, thereby leading to lower income.

• For example, low levels of nutrition have been attributed as the reason for the low productivity in LDCs such as Sierra Leone and India.

HIGHER PUBLIC HEALTH EXPENDITURES

• Inadequate food consumption can lead to more people falling sick hence the need to dedicate more resources for higher public health expenditures, resources that could have been diverted to other areas such as education and housing.

• For example, the need to provide healthcare services for people living in rural India has led to less funds for building infrastructure such as roads and schools.

SOCIAL UNREST• Inadequate food consumption can lead to

social unrest as the lack of food may cause people to protest and behave violently to communicate their unhappiness over the situation.

• For example, the shortage of food in Mozambique in 2010 caused violent protests which resulted in high number of causalities among protesters and enforcement officers.

FOOD SCAVENGING• Inadequate food consumption can lead to

food scavenging, which refers to searching of food among discarded wastes hence creating health risks, as scavenged food contain high levels of bacteria and chemicals.

• For example, in the poorest area of Manila, Philippines, people sift through rubbish for meals that have been thrown out in order to survive, creating a serious health problem for the authorities.

FOOD RESOURCESImpact of excess food consumption


Let’s be able to• Describe the impact of excess food

consumption.

IMPACT OF EXCESS FOOD CONSUMPTION

• Health– Obesity and related illnesses

• Economic– Lower productivity

• Social– Food wastage, dieting

OBESITY• Excess food consumption can lead to

obesity, which refers to the excessive consumption of nutrients that are eventually stored as fats, leading to health problems such as high blood pressure and heart diseases.

• For example, DCs such as USA has a high percentage of adult population with obesity due to high levels of food consumption, thereby creating pressures on the healthcare system.

LOWER PRODUCTIVITY• Excess food consumption leading to

obesity can lead to workers being absent from work and students missing school due to obesity-related health issues, thereby leading to lower productivity.

• For example, studies in the USA have shown that obese employees are twice as likely to fall sick, leading to lower work productivity.

FOOD WASTAGE• Excess food consumption can lead to

food wastage as countries with excess food tends to be less careful in handling food, leading to large amounts of food being wasted.

• For example, it has been estimated that 220 million tonnes of food are wasted in DCs every year, which could have met the consumption needs of the entire Sub-Saharan Africa.

DIETING• Excess food consumption can lead to

dieting, which refers to the practice of regulating the amount of food consumed in order to maintain an ideal body weight.

• For example, the weight loss industry in the USA is valued at around US$20 billion but inappropriate dieting has also caused health-related problems such as iron-deficiency and depression.

FOOD RESOURCESTrends in production of food crops


Let’s be able to• Describe the trends in production of

food crops since 1960s.

FOOD SUPPLY CHAIN• Refers to a network of interdependent

parties through which food products move from production to consumption and consists of producers, distributors and consumers.

FOOD PRODUCTION• Measured by– Labour per unit area: the number of

people working on an unit area of land– Crop yield: amount of crops produced

on a unit area of farmland.

QUESTION• Describe the trends in worldwide

wheat production from 1960 to 2010. [4]

SUGGESTED ANSWER• The crop yield and production of wheat

has increased from 1960 to 2010 even though the amount of farmland for crop cultivation has remained largely the same.

• Crop yield increased by 2.1 tonnes/hectare.

• Production of wheat increased by around 420 million tonnes.

• The area of farmland used remained relatively constant.

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS

• Refer to crops with genes that have been altered to make them more resistant to diseases and to make them grow faster.

INCREASED PRODUCTION OF

GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPSCultivated area of GM crops by country (million hectares)

USA Argentina Brazil Canada China2000 30.3 10.0 3.6 3.0 0.52001 35.7 11.8 5.7 3.2 1.52002 39.0 13.5 6.3 3.5 2.12003 42.8 13.9 3.0 4.4 2.82004 47.6 16.2 5.0 5.4 3.72005 49.8 17.1 9.0 5.8 3.32006 54.6 18.0 11.5 6.1 3.5

FOOD RESOURCESFactors affecting the intensity of food production and supply


Let’s be able to• Describe the factors affecting the

intensity of food production and supply.

FACTORS• Physical– Climate, soils and drainage, relief

• Social– Land tenure, land fragmentation

• Economic– Purpose of farming, agribusinesses

• Political– Government policy, ASEAN, CAP of the EU

• Technological advances– Green revolution

QUESTION• Describe the factors that influence the

intensity of food production and supply.

• Describe how factor influences the intensity of food production and supply.

CLIMATE• Climate affects the intensity of food

production as climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall affect the growth of plants.

• Generally, high temperatures and high rainfall are more conducive for plant growth, but the conditions required for growth varies among crops.

• For example, crops such as pea and strawberry require cooler temperatures while soya bean and rice requires higher temperatures.

SOILS AND DRAINAGE• The quality of soils affects the

intensity of food production as the amount and type of nutrients found in soil varies across locations.

• For example, soils found in floodplains such as the Mekong Delta are rich in minerals such as nitrogen and potassium, leading to high food production.

SOILS AND DRAINAGE• Soil drainage affects the intensity of

food production as different crops require different amounts of water to be retained in soils.

• For example, oats require well-drained soils whereas rice require soils that retain large amounts of water.

RELIEF• Relief affects the intensity of food production

as it affects the drainage, amount of topsoil, and temperature which affects plant growth.

• Soils on steep slopes are more well drained but tends to lose fertile topsoil to erosion by rain. In addition, temperatures is lower as altitude increases along a steep slope.

• For example, steep slopes are more suitable for growing tea and grapes which require well-drained slopes, but not unsuitable for rice unless terracing is done to create flat land.

LAND TENURE• Land tenure refers to the system by which

agricultural land is occupied and affects the intensity of food production as different land tenure systems have different impact on farming practices.

• For example, most farmers in LDCs do not invest heavily in sustainable farming practices or technology as they do not own their farmland but rent from landowners or the government. As a result, they tend to exploit the land for short-term profits which lead to land degradation.

LAND FRAGMENTATION

• Land fragmentation is the division of land into many smaller plots over many successive generations of farmers and affects the intensity of food production as over many generations, the resultant pieces of land may become too small for cultivation.

• For example, although Tivland, Nigeria has large amounts of arable land, large scale cultivation cannot be carried out as the land owned by farmers through inheritance is too small.

PURPOSE OF FARMING

• The purpose of farming affects the intensity of food production as when food is grown for subsistence, less inputs are invested which naturally lead to lower food production.

• This is unlike commercial farming which invests more inputs such as labour and technology, leading to high food production.

• For example, commercial farming is widely practiced in Europe and North America which produce large amounts of food every year for the sale.

PURPOSE OF FARMING

• The purpose of farming affects the intensity of food production as when food is grown for trade, large food producing companies may produce food that gives higher profits for export, resulting in less staple food being grown for the domestic market.

• For example, in Sudan, land is increasingly being farmed for the production of animal feed, replacing staple grain crops such as sorghum.

AGRIBUSINESSES• The activities of large agribusinesses

affect the intensity of food production as these businesses invest heavily in research and development, and applies agricultural technologies in their huge farms to maximize food productivity.

• For example, Monsanto Company is a leading agricultural company that utilizes technology heavily to achieve maximized crop yield and production.

GOVERNMENT POLICY

• Government food policies affect how food is produced, processed and made available.

• To illustrate, a government that practices stockpiling, which refers to the setting aside and storage of food for emergencies, ensures that food will still be available during emergencies such as food shortages or sudden price increase.

• For example, the Singapore government maintains a healthy stockpile of food to prepare the countries for food emergencies.

ASEAN• The policies of regional political

organisations can affect the supply of food through agreements on food production and supply.

• For example, ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea has an agreement to ensure food security for all the signee countries such that food will be made available to any of the countries when faced with food crises.

CAP OF THE EU• The policies of regional political

organisations can affect the intensity of food production through collective planning and implementation.

• For example, the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union has implemented a series of plans such as training and subsidies that helped millions of farmers in the EU increase food productivity.

GREEN REVOLUTION• The Green Revolution refers to the

rapid increase in the productivity of agriculture through the use of science and technology and is characterised by – High-yielding varieties (HYVs)– Fertilizers and pesticides– Irrigation– Mechanisation

GREEN REVOLUTION• High-yielding varieties (HYVs) are

improved strains of crops such as rice, wheat and other cereals that have an increased growth rate.

• They are developed through cross-breeding of selected varieties which are found to exhibit favorable characteristics such as increased resistance to diseases and fast growth.

• For example, the ‘Wonder Rice’ has a much shorter growing season than common rice varieties.

GREEN REVOLUTION• Fertilisers and pesticides are substances

added to the soil to provide nutrients and kill pests respectively.

• The application of these substances have increased the intensity of food production by bringing nutrients back to soil and reducing wastage by pests.

• For example, the pesticide Malathion was used widely in the 1980s in California, USA to combat fruit flies that were laying wastes to fruit orchards.

GREEN REVOLUTION• Irrigation refers to the method of supplying

water to the land other than by natural means, hence increasing the amount of arable land worldwide by supplying water to areas that used to be too dry for farming, leading to increased food production.

• For example, the Great Man-made River has made it possible to grow crops in the Sahara Desert by drawing water from underground aquifers deep to the surface.

GREEN REVOLUTION• Mechanisation refers to the use of advanced

machinery to perform tasks which would otherwise have to be done manually.

• Mechanisation has sped up farming processes such as preparing the land, tending to crops and harvesting, leading to increased food production.

• For example, the use of the combine harvester, a machine that harvests and grain crops, has increased food productivity in the USA significantly.

FOOD RESOURCESEffects of continuing intensification of food production

EFFECTS OF INTENSIFICATION

• Salinisation• Eutrophication• Consequences of development of

genetically modified crops

SALINISATION• Occurs when water added to the soil

during irrigation evaporates directly from the moist soil, causing salt to be left behind.

• Can also occur when there is no proper drainage of irrigation water such that groundwater may reach the upper soil layers, bringing up dissolved salt from the ground.

• For example...

EUTROPHICATION• The presence of excess nutrients in water,

leading to algae bloom, which depletes oxygen in the water and block sunlight from reaching aquatic plants.

• This then causes the death of aquatic plants and other organisms that depends on the aquatic plants for oxygen such as fish.

• The decomposition of the dead aquatic plants and organisms further depletes oxygen in the water.

CONSEQUENCES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD

Benefits1. Increased

income for farmers

2. Nutritional benefits for consumers

3. Decreased environmental pollution

Threats1. Dominance of

agribusinesses2. Potential health

risks3. Genetic pollution

resulting in loss of biodiversity

QUESTION• Genetically modified food crops is the

solution to the world’s food problems. How far do you agree? [8]

SUGGESTED STRUCTURE

Agree• 2 agree

explanations• 1 disagree

explanation• Conclusion

Disagree• 2 disagree

explanations• 1 agree

explanation• Conclusion

LEVELS• L1: No examples. Out of point. Weak

description.• L2/4: One agreement or disagreement with

example.• L2/5: Two agreements or two disagreements

with examples. / One agreement and one disagreement with example.

• L2/6: Two agreements and one disagreement with examples. / One agreement and two disagreements with examples.

FEEDBACK• Dominance of agribusinesses– E.g. Monsanto, Aventis

• Negative L3 paragraph– Overall, I agree that genetically

modified food crops is the solution to the world’s food problems as its advantages outweighs the disadvantages.

FEEDBACK• Positive L3 paragraph– Overall, I agree that GM food crops is the

solution to the world’s food problems. Even though the production of GM food crops has resulted in problems for the environment and possibly human health, it is a fact that the production of GM food crops play a significant role in feeding the world’s burgeoning production, hence I agree that GM food crops is the solution to the world’s food problems.

FEEDBACK• Positive L3 paragraph– Overall, I disagree that GM food crops is

the solution to the world’s food problems. Even though the production of GM food crops has increased the quantity of food produced significantly, it does not justify the accompanying problems on the environment and human health which can be detrimental in the long run, hence I disagree that GM food crops is the solution to the world’s food problems.

FOOD RESOURCESCauses of food shortages


Let’s be able to• Explain the causes of food shortages.

QUESTION• Why are there still food shortages?

Support your answer using examples. [4]

CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGES

• Physical:– Climate change, extreme weather events, pests

• Political– Civil strife, poor governance

• Economic– Demand from emerging economies, food policy,

soaring cost of fertilizers and transport, conversion of farmland

• Social– Lack of accessibility, inadequate logistics, rapid

population growth

CLIMATE CHANGE• Climate change may lead to food

shortages as changes in climate may cause existing farmland to become unsuitable for farming, while lengthening the growing season in other areas.

• For example, as global temperatures increase, countries such as Brazil and India may see their current food production drop by half by 2080.

EXTREME WEATHER EVENTS

• Extreme weather events such as droughts and heat waves can cause crop damage leading to significant food shortage. This is a significant cause of food shortage in LDCs as LDCs such as Haiti and India are less able to recover from the damages caused by such weather phenomena, hence the level of food shortage worsens with every extreme weather event.

PESTS• Pests such as wild rabbits, moles and

insects are major contributors to food shortage as they damage crops.

• For example, a state of emergency was declared in Liberia when tens of millions of caterpillars invaded the Liberian farmlands, seriously threatening food security.

CIVIL STRIFE• Civil strife such as riots and civil wars

can lead to disputes over the control of resources such as land and water, hence disrupting food production.

• For example, food production has come to a standstill in Syria since violence began in 2011 and up to 10 million Syrians face food insecurity.

POOR GOVERNANCE• Poor governance can lead to food

shortages as governments may prioritize other development needs over food production.

• For example, in 2010, 40,000 villagers in India were deprived of farmlands due to the government’s plans to development mining over the farmlands.

DEMAND FROM EMERGING ECONOMIES• Demand from emerging economies is

a cause of food shortage as rapid development has created a middle class with greater purchasing power to consume more and better food, hence resulting in the depletion of global food inventories, leading to food shortages in less developed countries.

FOOD POLICY• Food policies such a stockpiling may lead

to food shortages as although stockpiling ensues food security for the purchasing country, the excess demand inevitably pushes up prices, making it more difficult for LDCs to make food purchases.

• For example, Algeria’s decision to increased its stockpile in 2011 led to a stockpiling race among countries that caused global staple prices to rise.

SOARING COST• The price of fertilizers has increased over the

years, thereby increasing the cost of food production which led to lower consumer ability to purchase food, causing food shortages.

• The increasing cost of energy as the result of increasing oil prices, has increased the cost of transport, resulting higher cost of food production, thereby reducing consumer ability to purchase food, causing food shortages.

FARMLAND CONVERSION TO INDUSTRIAL CROP PRODUCTION

• Farmlands that grow crops for consumption are increasingly being converted for growing industrial crops as it is more profitable to produce the latter. This has the effect of lowering the supply of food crops, thereby increasing prices their prices and reducing consumer ability to purchase food, leading to food shortages.

LACK OF ACCESSIBILITY

• LDCs are plagued by the lack of accessibility to food as transport facilities such as road and rail links are not developed hence even when food is available in the country, it is not accessible to people who live in the more remote areas of the country, hence the lack of accessibility is a cause of food shortage.

INADEQUATE LOGISTICS

• Inadequate logistics caused by physical barriers such as mountains or events such as civil wars and natural disasters may cause food shortage as it becomes harder to move food from one place to another.

• For example, one-third of Timor-Leste experiences food shortages due to the difficulty of accessing remote communities in the country.

RAPID POPULATION GROWTH

• High birth rates and high population growth rates may lead to food shortages as food supply may not be able to meet the growing demand of the population.

• For example, it is estimated that by 2025, 75% of Sub-Saharan Africans will need to depend on food aid due to high population growth rates.

FOOD RESOURCESStrategies to alleviate the problem of food shortages


Let’s be able to• Evaluate the strategies to alleviate the

problem of food shortages.

STRATEGIES• Technology– Storage, Farming technology, biotechnology

• Agricultural– Multiple cropping, soil conservation, leasing

farmland to other countries• Social– Socially responsible consumers, support

local farmers, population control,• Political and economic– National strategies, international strategies

QUESTION• Evaluate the strategies to alleviate the

problem of food shortages. [8]

STORAGE• Storage refers to the use of refrigerated

warehouse storage, refrigerated delivery trucks or silos to keep food fresh for a longer period of time. For example, by building silos in Timor-Leste, the FAO has helped reduce the loss of crops to pests by 20% - 40%. However, these storage technologies are unaffordable to farmers who are very poor hence it’s effectiveness is limited.

FARMING TECHNOLOGY

• Farming techno11gy refers to the use of high-yielding food varieties, irrigation and agro-chemicals and machinery. For example, by the use of irrigation and high-yielding wet-rice varieties has enabled Thailand and Myanmar to increase their harvests significantly as compared to traditional methods. However, these technologies are unaffordable to farmers especially in the LDCs, who are very poor hence it’s effectiveness is limited.

BIOTECHNOLOGY• The use of biotechnology refers to the science of

modifying living organisms such as plants and animals and is also known as genetic modification. To illustrate, crops can be genetically modified to be high yielding and resistant to extreme weather conditions. For example, genetically modification has created corn that is drought-resistant which can be grown in dry areas such as the Western Great Plains of the USA. Although biotechnology has enabled higher food production, GM seeds are more expensive than non-GM seeds, hence poorer farmers such as those in the less developed countries, where food shortages is worse, cannot afford the benefits of biotechnology.

MULTIPLE CROPPING• Multiple cropping is a practice in which total crop production

from a single piece of land is achieved by growing several crops simultaneously. This strategy is useful as it reduces the dependence on one crop such that variability in prices, market, climate and pests and diseases do not have a drastic effect on the level of food production. For example, farmers in Garhwal, India practices sowing twelve or more crops on the same field to ensure that they are not affected by failure of a single crop. Although this strategy has its strengths, it also means that land resources have to be divided among different crops, leading to lower food production of each type of crop, hence there is little motivation for farmers with small plots of land to practice multiple cropping as they are not able to achieve economies of scale.

SOIL CONSERVATION• Soil conservation refers to the practice of no-till farming

which is farming without removing weeds from the soil and without creating rows in the soil for planting. This strategy has been effective in increasing soil fertility hence crop yield, as plant material from the previous growing season is kept on the surface of the soil, which then returns nutrients to the soil after decomposition. For example, poor farmers in India have been advised by non-governmental organisations to practice soil conservation to preserve the fertility of their farmland. There exists a tradeoff however, as machinery cannot be used on the farmland that practices no-till farming, thereby reducing the productivity of these farmlands.

LEASING FARMLAND• Leasing of farmland refers to the renting of

farmland from countries who have under-utilized farmland to those who do not have sufficient farmland. This has been effective in increasing food production for the latter countries such as in the case of South Korea, which has a lease of 3.2 million acres of farmland in Madagascar. However, this strategy has the unintended impact on countries that are unable to produce sufficient food to sustain their population, yet leasing out their farmland, worsening the problem of food shortage.

SOCIALLY RESPONSIBLE CONSUMERS

• Socially responsible consumers choose to purchase food items that either benefit other people or reduce harm to others. For example, these consumers may reduce their consumption of beef knowing that a lower demand for beef may translate into more food for human consumption as a large amount of crops are used in cattle-rearing. However, social responsibility is a value and cannot be binding hence not every consumer practices thereby limiting its effectiveness.

SUPPORT LOCAL FARMERS

• Consumers can support local farmers by purchasing locally produced food. This helps to alleviate the problem of food shortages as it reduces overreliance on foreign food supply. For example, more Singaporeans are purchasing locally-farmed produce, thereby encouraging a reliable local source of food. However, locally-farmed-produce may be produced at smaller scales than established foreign food supplies thereby making it more expensive.

POPULATION CONTROL

• Population control is a viable mean to alleviate food shortages as a smaller population will reduce demand and put less stress on supply. For example, in the Philippines, community-based family planning programmes are put in place to provide people with contraceptives to slow down population growth. However, these initiatives may be shunned by rural families whose are involved in agriculture due to the need more labour in the fields, which tend to be family members.

AGRICULTURAL POLICIES

• Agricultural polices refer to food programmes or laws pertaining to domestic agriculture that works to ensure food security. For example, the Singapore government introduced high-tech farming which adopts farming technology extensively to increase food production in land scarce Singapore. This has been successful as Singapore was able to reduce its reliance on food imports. However, the high cost of food production results in higher-priced food produce that are generally not popular with consumers.

LAND REFORM• Land reform refers to the redistribution of land in

an area in order to increase agricultural productivity. This is especially effective in countries that practice land fragmentation such as India as land is consolidated for large-scale farming. For example, the Venezuelan government in 2o1o nationalized 2,500 square kilometres of land which successfully increased food supply. However, farmers are sometimes faced with other difficulties such as the lack of capital and low accessibility thereby reducing the utility of the available land.

FOOD PROGRAMMES• Food programmes are activities that may be

introduced by national governments or international organizations such as the United Nations and World Bank, and are designed to address food shortages. For example, the Global Agriculture and Food Security Programme (GAFSP) provides financing to countries that need help to increase agricultural productivity and has helped 7.5 million people in countries such as Togo and Nepal. However, food programmes relies on funds from donors hence the effectiveness is limited and often not consistent.

FAIR TRADE• Fair trade is promoted by the Fair Trade

Labeling Organization and the World Fair Trade Organization and is done by setting minimum prices for food to ensure that farm workers are paid fairly. For example, Fair trade has led to less exploitation of the coffee farmers in Rwanda thereby encouraging food production. However, Fair trade mandates sustainable practices such as the reduction in the use of chemical pesticides, thereby increasing the chances for crop failure.

QUESTION VARIATIONS

1. Evaluate the effectiveness of technological strategies such as storage, to overcome food shortage. [8]

2. Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies such as storage, to overcome food shortage. [8]

3. Evaluate the effectiveness of strategies to overcome food shortage. [8]

FOOD RESOURCESEffectiveness of technology in solving the problem of food shortage


Let’s be able to• Explain the effectiveness of

technology in solving the problem of food shortage.

DAMAGES TO THE ENVIRONMENT

• Habitat loss• Land degradation• Soil erosion• Chemical pollution

food resources 2015

Education