Fisherfolk safeguarding

Aquatic Diversity through their

Fishing Techniques

Dynamic Diversity

Тhis series of Dynamic Diversity booklets has Ьееп produced Ьу Intermediate Technology's Food Secl1 rity programme team in the UK - Simon Croxton, Viv Lewis, Patrick Mulvany,

Lynn Pridmore, Brian O'Riordan and Helen Wedgwood - supported Ьу coHeagues in Intermediate Technology's other offices , based оп initial research Ьу Janet ВеН.

Series editor: Patrick Mulvany

© Intermediate Technology 1996

Fisherjolk sajeguarding aquatic biodiversity through their fishing techniques

Initial research Ьу: ]anet ВеН Compiled Ьу: Brian O'Riordan

Design and setting Ьу Му Word!, Rugby Printing Ьу Neil Terry Printing, Rugby

Many people and шgапisаtiопs have contributed ideas and material to this booklet, and we are very grateflll to them. Also, we are grateful to those who provided advice and

comments оп early drafts of tlle text. While we have drawn оп this wide range of material and experiences, we remain, however, responsible for any errors of fact ог interpretation.

This publication has Ьееп produced w ith financial support from the World Wide Fund For Nature СWWF-UЮ, for w hich we аге very grateful.

Front соуег photo of а Sri Lanka fisherman by ]eremy Hartley/ IT Back соуег photos Ьу Patrick Мlllvапу/П and ]егету Нагtlеу/П

Intermediate Technology Development Group, Myson HOllse, Railway Terrace , Rllgby, СУ21 3НТ, UK

Tel: +441788 560631 Fax: +44 1788 540270 Етаil : enqlliries@itdg.org.llk ИRL: http://www.oneworld.org/itdg

Inlroduclion

Farmers, herders and fisherfolk safeguarding biodiversity for food security

Introduction Taday . .. ше а/'е called ираn ta Ьеф ргеsегuе the

dive1"Sity handed dawn ta us. .. Тhe mаnnе1' in шЫсЬ

ше meet this challenge willla/'gely dеtегminе Ьаш-

01' whetheI' - /utuге genemtians iиill live оп this planet.

Th is inlгoduction 10 the series 01 th ree Dynamic Diversity booklets pгovides ап oveгview of the соттоп issues concerning the mainlenance 01 the biodiversily 01 all food species. The impoгtanl гole of fisheгfolk in safeguarding biodiversity through their lishing techniques is deseгibed alter this i nlгoduction ,

and lhe companion Dynamic Diversity booklets describe the гoles 01 l armers and livestock keepers in safeguard ing biodiversity lor lood secuгily.

Importance of biodiversity for food security

The biodiversi ty 01 food species, sometimes relerred to as agricu/tura/ biodiversity, agгobiodiversity ог the genetic resources {ог food and agricu/ture, is ап important sub-set 01 general biodiversity: it is the basis 01 lood secuгity. It has Ьееп developed Ьу smallholder larmers, herders and aгtisana l lisherlolk, in а wide range 01 ecosystems over lhousands 01 years, in order to produce lood 01 desired qua lities and taste, lor local nutritiona l, social and economic needs.

То achieve this, l ood pгoducers developed locally diverse pгoduclion systems, ineгeas i ng the rel iability of pгoduction and minimizing risk. Within these production systems the biodiversity 01 their crops and livestock was developed for varied enviгon ments. For example, сгор varieties and domestic animal breeds were developed that could withstand drought ог I loods, thrive оп роог ог rich soils, resist pests and diseases. Likewise, а rich aquatic biodiversity, nuгtuгed Ьу lisherlolk, has suslained local lish populations.

Сагу Fowler and Pat Моопеу

This conservation and development 01 biodiversity continues today оп the larms and rangelands, and in the coastal waters, used Ьу these lood p гoducers . It is called in situ conseгvation ; it is dynamic and the genetic resouгces develop through ulilizat ion and selection. The production systems which support th is biodiversity slill ensuгe lood and livelihood securit y. They provide lood lor around опе th ird 01 the world's population as well as pгovi di ng livelihoods lor most 01 the world 's рощ including the majoril y 01 farmers and herders and all those dependenl оп artisanal lisheries.

Erosion of biodiversity

These locally diverse lood production systems аге under th reat and, w ith them, the accompanying local know ledge and skills 01 the lood pгoducers. With this decl ine, the biodiversity 01 all l ood species is disappearing and the scale 01 loss is extensive. Моге than 75 рег сеп! 01 егор varielies have disappeared; hall 01 the breeds of тапу domestic animals have Ьееп lost. In lisheries, all the world's 17 main lishing grounds аге now being lished аl ог above their sustainabIe limits, w ith тапу l ish populations effectively becoming extincl.

The genetic eгosion 01 the biodiversity 01 lood species is also exacerbated Ьу the loss 01 lorest cover, coastal wetlands and other 'wild' uncu ltivated areas, and the destruclion 01 the aquatic environment. Th is leads to losses of 'wild' relatives, important for the development 01 biodiversity, and losses 01 'wild' loods essential lor l ood provision, paгticu la r ly in times 01 crisis.

Page i

Dynamic Diversity

Causes of genetic erosion

There аге тапу causes of this decline, which has Ьееп accelerating throughout the 20th century in parallel with the demands of ап increasing population and greater competition for natural resources. The principal underlying causes include:

• The rapid expansion of industrial and Green Revolution agriculture, intensive livestock production, industrial fisheries and aquaculture (some using genetically engineered varieties and breeds) that cultivate relatively few сroр varieties in monocultures, геаг а limited питЬег of domestic animal breeds, ог fish for, ог cultivate, few aquatic species.

• The globalization of the food system and the extension of industrial patenting and other intellectual property systems to living organisms, which has led to the widespread cultivation and rearing of fewer varieties and breeds for а тоге uniform, less diverse Ьи! тоге competitive global market.

As а consequence there has Ьееп:

• Marginalization of' small-scale, diverse, food production systems that conserve farmers' varieties of crops and breeds of domestic animals, which form the genetic роо l for food and agriculture in the future.

• Reduced integration of livestock in агаЫе production, which reduces the diversity of uses for wh ich livestock аге needed.

• Reduced use of 'nurture' fisheries techniques, that conserve and develop aquatic biodiversity.

Reversing the trends

The loss of th is biodiversity could Ье reversed if t here were тоге support for policies and programmes, including agricultural research and extension and fisheries pol icies, which strengthen the production systems developed Ьу smallholder farmers, herders and artisanal fisherfolk. It is also important to develop systems to reward these producers for their innovation and their contribution to global food security, so that they have ап incentive to conti nue conserving and developing this biodiversity. This could Ье achieved through the development and implementation of Farmers' ог Соттипаl Rights.

Farmers' Rights, as proposed Ьу the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), wil l епаЫе farmers, and their commun ities, to: ' ... participate fully in the benefits derived, а! present and in the future, from the improved use of [their] plant genetic resources, through

Page ii

plant breeding and other scientific methods.' The agreed resolution (FAO 5/89) also calls for ' ... the continued support to farmers and farming communities in the protection and conservation of their plant genetic resources.' There is а need, however, not only to implement Farmers' Rights but also to extend these Rights to include all food providers -those who grow, nurture and collect the food we eat.

Conservation approaches

The response of communities, states and international institutions has Ьееп slow Ьи! is now gathering расе. The global conservation movement has started to recognize this important сотропеп! of biodiversity and the value of local food production systems in conserving it.

/n situ conservation As noted above, this is achieved through maintaining and developing biodiversity in farmers' fields and gardens, оп rangelands and in coastal waters. The genetic resources develop through utilization and selection. А few exciting partnerships have Ьееп set ир between the formal scientific community and local food producers to develop in situ conservation programmes, but these cases аге still the exception rather than the rule. Despite growing recognition for the success of community-based in situ biodiversity conservation and development, it is still peripheral to institutional strategies, rather than being centre stage.

Ех situ conservation Ех situ conservation of genetic resources, in genebanks ог in living collections located away from the production systems that developed the resources, has received most of the funding in гесеп! decades. Ву definition, this strategy сап only preserve material taken from farms and the local environment: it саппо! develop diversity. While valuabIe, it should Ье seen principally as providing support to in situ conservation and development rather than vice versa. А good example of this is the use of ех situ genebanks kept within communities to support local production systems.

Conservation in genetic 'reserves' Another strategy that is sometimes promoted is the formation of Genetic Reserves, usually in remote environments, in which communities аге discouraged from developing their сгор varieties and animal breeds. This denies the

possib ility of diversity being maintained, for it is the interaction 01 old w ith new practices and new demands that has developed the diversity of varieties and breeds. Similarly, in Marine Genetic Reserves from which artisanal fisherfolk аге excluded, their expeгt management of the ecosystem, which has developed aquatic biodiversity for human use, is removed .

Institutional context

The main global institutions concerned w ith the conseгvation and utilization of the biodiversity of all food species аге the Food and Agricultuгe Organization (FAO), the Convention оп Biological Diversity (СВО), and the Consultative Group оп International Agricultuгal Research (CGIAR). The World Trade Organisation (WТO) is also а major influence оп the inteгnational lood system and hence, indirectly, оп biodiversity. Between them, and their governing bodies, these insti tutions аге the major influence for developing global systems that affect the biodiversity of food species . There аге other important institutions which focus оп specific aspects, lог example the International Convention lог the Pгotection 01 New Varieties of Plants (UPOV), and these аге referred to in the subject-specific booklet.

Food and Agriculture Organization The FAO is the principa l intergovernmental institution concerned with agricultural biodiversity. 11 achieved Ihe agreement of 148 countries in June 199610 а Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and SustainabIe Utiliza tion of Plant Genetic Resouгces for Food and Agriculture (GPA), wh ich contains activities оп in situ conseгvation, among others. Th is will Ье taken forward in FAO's World Food Summit (WFS) and at subsequent negotiations in the FAO Commission оп Genetic Resouгces lог Food and Agriculture (CGRFA). This Commission is extending its brief from covering only plant genetic resouгces 10 include domestic animal diversity (for w hich FAO already has ап international programme), fish genetic resouгces and lorest genetic resouгces.

The Commission is also the lогит in which the International Undeгtaking оп Plant Genelic Resouгces (IU), w hich includes а commilment to Farmers' Rights, wi ll Ье negotiated.

The FAO is also а key proponent 01 SustainabIe Agricultuгe and Ruгa l

Development through various of its pгogrammes and is implementing а Code 01 Conduct for ResponsibIe Fisheries, among other relevant programmes.

Intгod uction

Convention оп Вiological Diversity The СВО was negoliated in Rio аl the Earth Summil in 1992. The CBD's controlling body, the Conference of the Parties to the Biodiversity Convention (COPs), meets annually and reviews progress in the development and implementation of Ihe Convention. Опе aspect of ils mandate is 10 consider Agricu lluгa l Biodiversity and it receives reporls lгот the FAO оп currenl negotialions. 11 is hoped Ihal Ihe revised IU from FAO, including Farmers' Rights, will Ье included as а Prolocol 10 the Convention. However, t he influence of the World Bank, the Group of 7 (Ы) and the World Trade Organisalion (WТO) оп Ihe Convention is increasing, wilh the possibility that larmers will gel little recognilion for Iheir contribulion 10 biodiversity conseгvation.

The United Nations General AssembIy is reviewing pгogress of the Earlh Summil's Action Plan (Agenda 21), in 1997, 5 years аНег Rio. This тау affect how agricu ltuгal biodiversily is governed in lи1uге.

Consultative Group оп International Agricultural Research The CGIAR comprises 16 International Agriculluгal Research Centres. 11s overall purpose is 10 pгomote inleгnalional research оп sustainabIe improvemenls in the pгoductivily of agricultuгe, forestгy and lisheries in counlries 01 the Soulh, in ways Ihal enhance nutrition and well-being, especially of low-income people . It has а 5yslem-wide Genetic Resources Pгogramme managed Ьу опе 01 the Centres, the Internalional Planl Genetic Resouгces Inslilule. The CGIAR, collectively through all its Cenlres, has the largest ех situ genebank collection, wh ich is now held in trusl Ьу the FAO. The CGIAR is Ihe major influence оп agricu lluгal research internationally Ьи1 il uгgently needs 10 develop ils pгogrammes in ways thal аге тоге responsive to the majority of роог farmers, herders and fisherlolk.

World Trade Organisation The WТO incorporates the General Agreement оп Tarifls and Trade (GАП), which, since Ihe Uruguay Round of negotialions, now includes the markeling 01 agricultuгal products . It is promoting Irade libera lizalion and Ihe removal of subsidies and pгotection lог local food production. Anolher part 01 ils mandale is 10 pгomote а Trade Relaled Inlellectual Property RighlS system (TRIPs), which favouгs the developmenl 01 palenls, ог olher effeclive syslems of intellectual ргорегlу protection, for living organisms. А review 01 this is due in 1999.

Page ii i

"

1/

11

,

Dynamic Diversity

Кеу роису issues

In order (о achieve improved conservation 01 agricultural biodiversity, policies and programmes, а! alllevels, need (о :

• Promote the conservation, development and legal use of а wide range of biodiversity of food species in ways which encourage the local impгovement 01 the genetic resources contained in егор varieties, domestic an imal breeds, lish species and 'wild' loods.

• Increase consumption of locally produced foods and generate awareness among consumers 01 the importance 01 maintaining agricultural biodiversity.

• Emphasize in situ conservation and utilization, maintaining dynamic diversity rather than Ireezing (and losing) diversity in genebanks. These ех situ genebanks should only Ье used as а back­up (о the living, dynamic and evolving collections used and nurtured Ьу lood providers.

• Accord special priority to local development of genetic resources for food and agriculture lог loca l ecologica l niches and specilic market and social needs. This сап Ье achieved thгough support lог local егор breeding and local seed marketing schemes. It тау require the removal 01 some legal and commercial constraints, lо г example (о the use 01 semi­l inished егор varieties and varieties that аге по! оп official lists. Similarly, there needs (о Ье encouragement lог schemes (о develop local domestic animal breeds and ed ibIe aquatic species.

• Increase recognition and reward to women who have Ьееп the principal nurturers and developers of the biodiversity of food species. Any programme ог initiative should use gender sensitive techniques in planning and implementation. It is important (о ensure that апу reward systems benelit women in particular. '

• Safeguard the ownership of, and rights of access to, this biodiversity Ьу local communities - especially through the implementation 01 farmers' ог communal rights . These should Ье based оп the recognition that genetic resources lог lood

Page iv

and agricu lture аге а heritage 01 larming, pastoral, lish ing and lorest commun ities. Alternal ive righls regimes musl Ье pursued which recognize and reward indigenous innovation. These contrast w ith patents and plant breeders' rights which тау exclude lood providers Iгот receiving апу benelils ог even Iгот being аЫе 10 access Ireely the genetic resources Ihey developed,

• Support locally determined priorities for agricultural, livestock, fisheries and forestry research and extension. These should Ьесоте тоге responsive (о the diverse needs 01 Ihe majority, рощ Southern lood providers, ralher Ihan а Norlhern-dominated research agenda.

• Increase recognition and support for appropriate technologies, wh ich respecl and nurture the environmenl, i neгease

biod iversity, and sustain and support livel ihoods, especially those technologies embodied in the local knowledge and skills 01 lood providers. А much тоге carelu l assessment is needed 01 the impacts 01 new technologies, including biotechnology, оп the enviгonment, peoples' livelihoods and biodiversity.

• Improve formal and informal sector linkages and increase co-operation between lогтаl researchers and NGOs and l ood pгoviders in order (о achieve the goal 01 improved conservation and uti lizalion 01 genetic resources lог lood and agricullure. The lогта l sector needs (о understand and value the slrengths 01 the inlormal seclor, particularly in Ihe areas 01 conservation and utilizalion, tra ining, advocacy and research. This will require increased support and Ihe removal 01 leg islative and institutional barriers.

Саи for action

Concern about securing а diversity 01 affordabIe, sale, nutrilious loods is being voiced Ьу commun ities Ihгoughout the world. Belore it is 100 late, policy and practice needs 10 turn aгound in l avour 01 smaller-scale people-centred, biodiverse lood prOVis io~, The aim 01 Ihis booklet is t'o provide inlormalion lог the debate and (о stimulate action (о reverse Ihe decline in the biodiversity 01 lood species,

Safeguaгd i ng Aquatic Biod iveгsity

Fisherfolk safeguarding aquatic biodiversity through their fishing techniques

Ul1de1'lying the capability ... to асЫеие the sustainable

cont17bution 01 fish to .. .food secunty are tшо cntical

policy requireтents. Тhese are: the тaintenance and

enhanceтent, шhеrе possible, 01 the resource base and 01

biodive1'"Sity; and the equitable allocation 01 resources and

the benefits denved 1roт their ше.

Food and Agricu/ture Огgапizаtiоп '

Livelihoods and food security

Fisheries have provided livelihoods and food supplies to communities of fisherfolk for millennia. ' Fish рюviсlе the world 's only mаjш food source llarvested [rom

Fish pгovide the fifth laгgest food гesouгce

the 'wild'. They are thllS dependent оп [Ье naturally renewable aquatic biodiversity found in tl1e world's oceans and inland waters. As fisl1illg and fish ptOdl,ctio n techniqlles Ьесоте то,·е intensive , tllis biodiversity is being ,·apidly eroded throllgh habitat destl·uction , overfishing and the introdllction of exotic species , tl1reatening food security.

Capture vs nurture {"tsheries Capture fisheries Сар/иге jishel]' strategies consider fislling аБ а

hUlltil1g activity, targeting se!ected species [ог mass markets, where [Ье range is ореп aceess and the fish stocks аге common propelty. Tllis strategy !eads го а

'free for а l1 '. Responsibiliry for mal1aging fisheries is iJl defined, and rlJ.is !eads to the so-called 'tragedy 01· the соmnюпs' whe,·e what is left Ьу опе use .. is taken Ьу anotller.' As а resu!t, аП the wor!d's main fislling grounds аге being fished а! or аЬоуе their sustainabIe linlits. Some 70 рег cent of globa! fish stocks are now rеgю·dеd аБ ful1y exp!oited, over-exploited, depleted or recovering. 10

Nurture fisheries NU11ure jishe,J' strategies, Ьу contrast, recognize t11e time needed Еог stocks to rep!enish r1lemselves, and the need to conserve species diversity. ТНе nurturejishery strategies of coasta! fishing communities the wo,·!d over Ьауе evo!ved пumеюus гu!es - often unwritten - [о

regulate their fisheries. Some govern who тау fish in

WhiC!l season and lwhere; or1lers stipu!ate the $01t of [iБЬ that тау Ье caug!lt; others ,"elate to [l1е kind of fishing gear tl1at тау Ье used; and stШ otl1ers govern onsl1ore activities sucl1 as processing, net-making, and marketing." Sustainable nurlure jisheries techniques developed and used Ьу artisanal f1sherfolk, especially in rropical V\raters, are ЛQW having [о compete with the industrial fishing fleet.

Likewise, rearjng fish thгough traditional aquacu!ture, especial!y iп inland waters, 11as in а sinJ.ilar way evolved methods which ensure sustainable production. But [ЬеБе nш1uring methods аге

increasing!y under threal fгош nlOdem intensive aquacu!ture pгoduction . Intensive systems are providing an increasing proportion of tota! ftsh ауаНаЫе for соnsшnрtiоп, increasingly thгough

pгoduction of exotic species which сап disp!ace loca! species. Their deve!opment often destгoys aqllatk habltats and their production systems cause роl1utiоп: intensive aquacu!ture сопУепБ rich blodiverse aqllatic en\'iron:ments into polluted wastelands.

Page 1

Dynamic Diveгsity

fТllаn MacWhinnie

Сштепt!у, fish provide the fifth !argest food resouгce, and аге the primalY souгce of anima! protein - 65 million оllt of 253 million toппео 01' animal protein eaten Ьу реор!е . They рюvidе

тше than 50 рег сеп! of the animal рюtеiп intake fш оуег опе billion people in Asia, as weH as millions of people in coastal African and Latin American countries and in smaH island developing states.3.'1

In [l1еое cOlmtries in the Sollth there аге ап

estimated 10 milliol1 fuH-timе and 10 million part­time , аlпюst аН male, fisherfolk.' Togethel' with wives and depenclants, аl1 estimated total of betweel1 150 and 200 milliol1 people worldwide а1'е

dependent [ог а11 01" рай of theiI" live1ihoocls оп artisanal fisheries. These fisheries рюdllсе аЬоllt 25 рег сеl1! of the total wшld maril1e fish catch, al1d contribute аЬОll! 40 рег cent of the fi sh destined fш direct hllman cOl1sumptiol1. Tl1eir сопtгiЬutiоп to 'осаl food security is iтршtапt, particularly iп

iso!ated coastal соттuпitiеs . "

These artisanal fisheries, which Пllftllfе fish stocks, аге uпdег threat. Оуег the рая five decades, there has been an iпdllstгiаl and technological геvоlutiоп in the wшld 's marine and freshwater fisheries, leading to а dгатаtiс five-fold increase iп fisl1 catches, fют some 20 million tonnes ре1' аППШll in 1950 to about 100 million tоппеs рег annum today. In recent years пюst of t11is increa5e in productio n has соте fют

aqllacultllfe as yields from marine fisheries have leve11ed off апd in 50те cases declined. СЫпа and India аге tl1e two main aquacll!tuгe producers in ше world. Веtwееп [l1ет шеу produce ovel' 65 pel' Se!!ing lish in

Кега ! а : а d iveгsity

01 lish is ensuгed Ьу nurture

fisheries

cent of the world aquacultuгe рюduсtiоп. '! is а150 important to note that in 1993, оуег 80 рег cent of the world's aquacultuгe рюduсtiоп са те from the developing countries, iпсludiпg тше thап 85 рег сепt of аН farmed fiп fish .' These iпсгеаsеs il1 fisl1 production have been achieved throllgh using еуег тоге iпtепsivе capture Jishing techniques and industria! aqllacu!tllfe рюduсtiоп systems, !eading [о the destruction of the aqllatic environment and bioc\iversity, and ше 10ss of marine fish stocks.

Gender and loca1 knowledge

B 0th теп and women make valuable ЬиI different contributions of their lоса! knowledge and skills

аЬои! fishirJg, aquaculrure, ftsh markeling and processirJg апd com111unity шапаgешепt. While mOSI of Ihe people who actually fish аге шаlе, wошеп рlау а

key, though oflen hidden and tl11fecognized, comp!ementary гole iп fishing соштuпitiеs.

Often а! the ftrst point of sale, wошеп шаkе · ап i.tnportant contribution 10 decentralized syslems for pгocessirJg and marketing fish . Тhey шау al50 ье

involved irJ тапу otller aspects of the flShing proces5, such as net-making. Through this гоlе they make а

Page 2

significant cOl1tribution to household income and food security, and in the wider distribution of fish in the coasta! cornmllnity. Their wisdom and 'осаl know!edge is integral to the шапаgешеqt sуstешs drawn ир Ьу their сошmunitiеs. lп шапу instances it is the work undertaken ьу wошеп tl1at 'underwrites ог pгovides the risk fund necessary [о sustain fisЫng activities'. It is iшроrtапt [о use [Ыs type of information when planning iпitiаlivеs with fishirJg соrnmuпitiеs. Hitherto there has Ьееп little cllange in sectoral planniJ1g or project fогmulаliоп despite awareness Ihat gender issues should Ье cOJ1sidered.'

Safeguaгding Aquatic Biodiveгsity

Aquat ic biodiversity

There аге 20,000-30,000 species of fish in а multitude of diverse marine aquatic ecosystems worldwide, and in freshwater environments many new fish species continl1e !О Ье 'discovered' Ьу science," Yet, 40 рег cent of the world's fish catch comprises only 20 species, of which the Peruvian anchovy accounted, in 1993/94, [ог nearly 10 рег cent. While this тау demonstrate the potential that other types of fish could рlау in providing food [ог human kind, it conceals the fact that there аге сотрlех and far-reaching interdependencies between fish species and their environment that аге essential !О sustaining global fisheries production. Мorе than 90 рег cent of the marine fish catch comes [roт the 9.9 рег сеп! of the

осеап that lies оуег the continental shelf, especially in key habitats in the пеагshоге

watel'S, in the iпtег-tidа l zone, and in the land areas immediately adjacent !О the coast - coastal rivers, bays, wetlands, estuaries, mangroves, saltmarsl1es, mudf1ats, sea grass and seaweed beds, and сorаl reefs. About two thirds of аll commercially valuable fish species spend the first - and most vulnerable - stages of their life in these waters." In the 0.1 рег cent of the oceans where underwater сштеnts rise to the surface - tl1e upwelling zones - significant catches аге also made," [l1е

remaining 90 рег сеп! of [l1е ореп oceans, while yielding relatively few fisl1, is essential [ог providing resources needed !О maintain fish populations in the prodl1ctive 10 рег сеп! of the seas."

Fisheries ultimately depend оп the quality and integrity of the whole есоsуstеш,

and the biodiversity within it. То threaten the hea!th of the есоsуstеш

апеl its biodiversity is !О threaten the health of the fisheries that геlу оп

it. RеПlOviпg key species froш this епviroшnепt

сап dгашаtiсаllу effect the stгuсtше of есо­

sуstеш, сап destabi1ize fisheries, and l1asten theil" соllаРБе. ", Iп

general, the шоге

biodivel'se [ l1е есо-

sуs tеш, the ПlОге stable and sllstainable. The шаiпtепапсе of aqllatic biodiversity апd а

ргесашiопагу approach [о the use of aquatic есоsуstешs is therefore of fundamenta! iшрor­

!апсе !О conserving fisheries. Опсе severe 10ss ог degradation of biodiversity l1as оссuпеd within ап aquatic есоsуstеш, irreversible сhапgеs are 1ikely !О occur. '

It is essential, tl1erefore , !О сопsеrvе l1abitats апd withiп-hаЫtаt diversity , providing varied епviгопшепtа l niches [о which particular species are genetically sl1iteel. Tl1ese сап provide shelter froш predators аБ well as а variety of fееdiпg, spawning and nursery grounds [ог а wide range of potentially сошреtiпg species. This diversity of habitats allows otl1erwise iпсошраtiblе, ы1t often interclependent, species to coexist. 17

АБ well аБ ап important end in its own right, а healthy aquatic biodivel'sity is also ап important indica!O!' of sustainability. А l1igh lеуеl of аqllЭtiс diversity resu lts in diversity and security in peoples' live1ihoods , and indicates the use of sustainable fishing practices. Fol' шапу fisherfolk, 10sing [ЫБ biodiversity goes 11and in hand with

Page 3

/ ТfJan Нdmmond

F isheгfo l k in India: healthy fisheгfolk гef l ect а healthy aquatic biodiveгsity

"

Dynamic Diversity

10sing livelihoods and food security. А Chilean fishworker has descl'ilJed fisherfolk as the 'lighthouses of the sea' (los.faros del mar), lJecause they sound the wamings when the blodiversity of the fishery is in danger: healthy fisherfolk [еПес! а healthy aquatic blodiversity."

The probIem: aquatic biodiver5ity cOn5ervation - а low priority?

АН the world's 17 main fishing grounds аге lJeing fished а! ог аЬоуе their sustainalJle limits.

This crisis in the world's fi5heries is having а devastating impact оп fish production and livelihoods. When considering this crisis, tlle importance of aquatic blocliversity to fisheries has по! Ьееп sufficiently recognizecl Ьу fisheries policy makers and managers. А quotation [roт the 19th century naturalist and would-lJе evolutionist, Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, encapsulates the still widely prevailing view оп fisheries: 'Animals living in ... the sea waters ... are protectecl [roт the destruction of their species Ьу тап. Tlleir пшltiрliсаtiоп is 50 rapid, апсl their means of evading pursuit or traps аге so great, that there is по likelihood of his lJeing аЫе to destroy entire species of these animals.'" Мапу реорlе, inclucling fishel'ies experts, have continuec! to commit the same егroг of thinking. Their mistakes Ьауе reduced marine fisheries populations to extremely low levels, destabllized marine ecosystems and impoverished coastal communitieS.20 ТЬе environmental prolJlems, and impact оп 10са! aquatic blodiversity, caused Ьу

aquaculture (the cultivation of fish and other aquatic foods) production сап аlБО Ье devastating оп aquatic blodiversity. It is по! sufficiently taken into ассоип! when planning aquaculture developments. With тапу planners seeing the cultivation of 'domesticated' and geneticaHy improved varieties of fish as lJeing the main new source of fisll, the expansion of this form of production, witllOut adequate safeguards, could further erode aquatic blodiversity, threatening the wider fishelY and livelihoods.

Extent of 1055 of aquatic biodiver5ity

Precise measurement of fish blodiversity is difficult and the measurement of 10ss tends to Ье more in terms of species that are по 10nger caught in significant numlJel'S than precision аЬои! species that аге 'extinct'.

• In India, lJecause of llabltat destruction mainly tllrough trawling, local fishing сошшuпitiеs по 10nger catch 150 species that were соттопlу caught 20 years ago.

• In Canada, the Grand Banks fishery produced 810,000 tonnes of cod in 1968 and lJecause of overfishing опlу 150,000 tonnes in 1977. Iп 1992, а total Ьап оп сосl fishing was imposed wllen it was realized that there were few, if апу, cod left in the rest of the fishery that were old enough to spawn. Iп 1995, in the northem раг! of the fishelY по cod were found а! аН."

• Iп Africa, ир to 75 рег сеnt of endemic species have Ьееп lost in Lake Victoria, replaced . Ьу introduced Nile РегсЬ which make ир 8Q рег сеп! of the catch. In other African lakes introduced species now make ир 60-90 рег сеп! of the total catcll: in Lake Кivu and Lake KarilJa introduced species comprise 85 рег сеп! 01' the catcll, and in Lakes СоЬоЬа and Rweru 60 рег cent."

Cau5e5 of the 1055 of aquatic biodiver5ity

ТЬе аЬоуе аге examples 01' the I'ош main, and interrelated, causes of the 10ss of aquatic blodiversity:

Page 4

Safeguarding Aqualic Biodiver5ily

• Habitat destruction, which makes the aquatie environment uninhabitable, redueing the nитЬег of speeies of аН aquatie organisms.

• Overfishing, which affeets whole eeosystems beeause of the disruptions (о the food web eaused Ьу the 10ss of the targeted speeies that is overfished.

• Wasting of fish, the 10sses of untargeted speeies that are eaught unintentionaHy, and аге discarded.

• ТЬе introduction of exotic species, deliberately or aeeidentaHy, which has а deeisive impaet Ьу direetly affeeting the ecological Ьаlаnее between aquatie species.

When aquatie biodiversity is 1оз! it сап inerease vulnerability: the depletion of pivotal speeies сап eompletely ehange the eeosystem from а rieh, diverse and relatively stable system (о а poor, rapidly ehanging and highly vulnerable system."

Сом reefs under threat: Ше forests of Ше deep

Сога! reefs have Ьееп deseribed аБ tl1e rainforests of Ihe sea, due to their high species diversity: they аге

among the тОБ! tiologicaHy diverse eeosyslems оп earth. Covering оnlу 0.17 per cent of фе Осеаn floor, согаl reefs аге home to аn estimated 950,000 speeies, 25 per ееп! of аН marine speeies. Healthy reefs аге among tl1t'O тозС producrive fisheries in the оееаns. Produeing а fIsh eatch of Боте 4-8 million ton11es а1111иаНу, еогаl reefs асеоип! for 20"25 per ее11! of tl1e fish eateh in тапу deve!oping eountries - maki11g а vita! conlribution 10 local food a11d livelihood security.

Ан estimated 4 milIion smaH-sеаlе fisherfo!k СаЬоиг зо per ce11t of аll subsiste11ee fisherfolk worldwide) depend оп еога! reef, for t!1ei!" livelihoods. '"

Сога! reefs Ьауе proved 10 Ье fragile i11 the [асе of attacks [roт eoasta! pollu!ion, cora! miners, and rufu!ess commercial fisht'Ormen using heavy nets and dуnашitе, causing direct!y or i11direct!y Фе destructio11 of 5-10 ре!" ce11t оЕ the wor!d's reefs. Given the сшrеnt гаТе of destruetio11, a110ther 60 рег сеп! could Ье lost in Фе next 20-40 years and sоше 175,000 species will have gone with thеш.

Habitat destruction: destroying the forests of thf' ieep Some fishing practiees also destroy habitats. TI1e lIse of fishing equipment whieh rakes а11С[ churns lIР the seabed Csuch as heavy trawli11g 11ets which аге dragged a!ong the seabed) сап have а major impact 011 the fishery habltat especiaHy in tropical waters, maki11g it inhospitable [or fish and modifying it in ways which changes its nature. " Trawli11g also removes fisl1 and other species indiscriminately. The increasing изе of dynamite and cyanide is also destroying not оn!у fis!1 poplI!ations ыlt a!so 11abitats sucl1 as сorа! reefs which Sllpport them and а whole аг!"ау of other marine life."

• 111 the fishing eommllnities of Kerala, soutl1 I11сНа, fis!1ermen have documented that тапу nаtшаl reefs have Ьее11 destroyed Ьу trawling, and tl1at 150 оnее-еоттоn speeies are по !onger caugl1t Ьу Зl·tisаnа! fishermen due [о the impaet of trawling. During the 1970з, оуегаll fish catches in Kerala declinec1 and, within this, the artisana! sector's catehes fell (о Ьеtwееn 40 and 60 per ееn! of рге- 1970 !eve!s.26 '

• In Senegal it is reported (l1а! тапу species that previollsly formec1 part of the artisana! catch have Ьееоте Бсаке, and some species have disappeared a!together. For ехатр!е, La DiЗl'аgnе bream has completely disappea!"ed since foreign traw!ers ]}egan (о fish in Senegalese coastal wate1"s."

Intensive aqllaru!ture production is also а саше 01" extensive environmental degradation in coastal areas. Its impact оп biodiversity is га1"е!у positive, sometimes nешга!, ыlt llsuaHy negative [о some deg!"ee. Aqllaculture is being widely promotec!

Page 5

60 рег сепl of сагаl reef5 and

175,000 specie5 could Ье 1051

•

! .'

Dynamic Diveгsity

Lost mangroves -lost biodiversity

M angrove forests аге eco!ogicaUy rich habitats. у еаг round !еаЕ and litter [аН provide а continuous

supp!y of nlltrients 10 ап есоsуstеш that contains within it а richness of aquatic biodiversity. Alongside the регшапеnt brackish water residents, тапу kinds of YOllng fish апд shrimps find shelter among the mangroves roots and seek out [оод оп the rise and [аll of the tide.

Mangroves tllerefore play а crucia! role in coastal ecosystems. They ас! as filters between land апд water, anchoring nlltrients апд trapping pollutants; they prevent erosion апд provide Бtoгт protection; they create important nurseries and provide [ог sllbsistence fishing activities. А study Ьу the Asian Development Bank estimated that 1 hectare (ha) of mangroves produces ап аnnиа! yield of 100 kilograms (kg) of fin fish, 25 kg of shrimps, 15 kg of егаЬ meat, 200 kg of molluscs, апд 40 kg of sea сиситЬег in а фгес! harvest and ап indirect harvest of ор 10 400 kg of fin fish and 75 kg of shrimps that тащге elsewhere"

Впt mangroves аге being cleared in тапу countries (о make way for commercia! Sllrimp farms 10 meet the

ever-increasing demand, mainly in the North. 1n the Pllilippines, the mangrove area declined [roт 450,000 (о . 145,ОООЬа between 1920 and 1988. MllCh ofthis decline is the result of the introduction of shrimp farming, the . environmental inlpact of WhiC!l has Ьееll inl1llense.

Тhe shrimp farms that are developed [асе the same problems а, intensive mопоcultше production in agriculture, оn1у worse. Higll !evels of chemicals аге needed to асЫеуе high yields, апд to сопггоl

predators, competitol's and disease. Нigh

coneentrations of shrimps in the ponc!s ргодисе large amollnts of faeces and игеа. Together, these саllБе

significal1t pollution downstream. Тhe a!gae and other organisms multiply rapidly, creating апо,,!а апд

toxicity, eventually causing а collapse of the system, if disease has not already got the better of the shrimps. ТЫБ so-cal1ed 'environmental backlash' resulted in Taiwanese shrimp production slipping [гот 100,000 toппеБ in 198710 only 20,000 in 1989, and а 60 per cent reduction in СЫпа'Б harvest between 1992 and 1993."

ТЬе impact of this develop1l1ent оп 'оса! aquatic biodiversity is negative and pern1anent.

Ьу the Consultative Gюuр оп Iпtешаtiопаl Agl'icllltural Research (CGIAR) and other international agencies: 'Оп the land we have learned (о рюdllсе food Ьу cllltivation.

/Т/Раи/ Calveгt

Capture fisheries destroyaquatic

biod iveгsity

Bllt in the sea we still ас! аБ hunters and gathel·el·s. The пех! great lеар in рюсlllсiпg food will соте fют "domesticated" and genetically iтрюvесl

varieties of fish and other seafoocl'. 29 Tl,e lеа р is already in mid-air. In Ecuador, тО1'е than 120,000 hectares of тапgюvеs had Ьееп сll! down to make way for prawn ponds Ьу 1987, and Thailand has transf01'med 100,000 hectal·es." However, the аqllаСllltше Ьоот is l)eing fllellecl Ьу 'ргоЛ! and export earnings, not hunger'. '\1

Althollgh the potential benefits fюш shrimp fагшiпg аге lucrative, there аге heavy associated costs. The аquашltше ponds аге по! viable f01' ШО1'е than 10 уеаГБ, and аге of'ten useless af'ter two ог three. The land is often dашаgеd i1Теvегsiblу, leaving fашiliеs witll по герlасешепt options f01' their livelihoods. In addition, high capital costs шеап that sllГimp farming is the exclllsive dошаiп of wealthy landowners апс! corporate investors. " The lше of exp01't markets increases the ргеББll1'е оп farmers to convert agricultllral апсl COn1ffiOn

lands into shгiшр fагшs."55 As the shri1llp t'arms die, the corp01'ations 1ll0уе оА, but the c01ll1ll11nities cannot.

OverfIshing: fishing out the gene рооI The spread of capture jisheries has led to опе of the 1ll0st seriOllS global threats to mal'ille

biodiversity: overfishing. Between the late 1940$ and 1989, 1llarine fish lalldings illcreased аlшоst fivefold [гот 18 to 89 шШiоп toппеsЛ 1990 saw tl,e first decline ill 25 years, а drop of 3 per eent," and glol)al fish catches see1ll to have l'eached а

Page б

plateau. Per capita catches have started to decline."

It is по! simp!y the size of the globa! fishing Пеес

(which grew а! twice the [асе of fish landings between 1970 апеl 1989) that has taken its toН оп fish stocks. The intensive llse of new techno!ogies [ог fish detection and the сарtше of large shoals, cOllpled w ith the аЫliсу to рюсеss and preserve оп board, has tшпеd fishing vessels into efficient hllnting machines. These technologies, along with !arge gоvегшпепt Sllbsidies, аге allowing fishing fleets to remain competitive whi!e fish Ьесоте

П10rе and П101'е scarce.

In particl1!ar, the emphasis оп mono-species fishing (the practice of targeting single ог relatively few species) reslllts in тапу llneconomic and поп­target species, оvег-qlюtа fish and smaH fish being discarded and wasted. Рог ехатрlе , in the North Sea at least 40 рег сеnt of the total biomass of commercial species is гепюvеd each уеаг." Tl1is figше does not take into aCCOl1nt disсагds which аге often [аг greater than the landed catch. Рог

ехатрlе, when llsing Веат Trawls in the North Sea [ог catching sole, for еуегу kilоgгат of sole landed, as ffillch as 1 О kg of marine biomass is discarded" and nearly 3 kg of bottom-living organisms аге

killed Ьу the Веат Trawls!' The таjогity of the world's coastal waters whet·e

trawling сап Ье сапiеd Ollt (trawlable continenta l shelves) have now Ьееп impacted Ьу fisl1ing, !eaving few sanctllaries where biomasses and

Safeguarding Aquatie Biodiversity

'1ILLNe:r.s ( • "Т ""'" '" "-'-'

О!'- PC>Yr~) -

biodiversity remain high." Sllch intense ргеssше оп aqllatic popl1!ations depletes the gene рооl and redllces the potential [ог species to adapt to the cl1anging aql1atic ecosystem.

The fisheries crisis which is deve!oping in the North is plltting рt·essше оп fisheries геsошсеs in the South. For ехатрlе , 49 Ol1t of 55 trawlers of а Canadian сотрапу were solcl to developing cOllntries after the onset of [l1е 1992 Atlantic cod crisis." The sheer scale of these technologies, developed for large schools of fish in the [етрега се waters, сап have catastrophic cOl1seqLtenCes [ог fisheries al1d aqllatic biodiversity iп the tюрiсs , becal1se of iпtгiпsiс clifferel1ces Ьеtwееп tеmрегаtе апd

tюрiса l ecosystems. The impact of this iпdllstгiаlizаtiоп is that fisl1iпg commllnities in both Nогth апd SOllth at·e 10siпg their livеlilюоds as fast as the fish are disарреагiпg [roт the sea .

• Between 30,000 al1d 40,000 fishеппеl1 and рlапt workers were Pllt Ollt of work when the Сапаdiап Govern111ent closed the cod fishery оп tl1e Grand Banks in 1992.45

• Iп [l1е Philippines it is esti111ated that the collapse of 111ajor fishing grollпds is l1рюоtiпg tens of thollsands of fisl1iпg families each year."

Тl1е ргеssше to overfish соте, not опlу fют the пееd for profits Ьу iпdllstгiаl fishiпg сотрапiеs bllt also [1"От the пееd for l1ard Сl1пепсу iп SОllthеrп cOllntries. For ехатрlе, the Ешореап Uпiоп (EU) paid Sепеgаl 18т Есв [о get iпсгеаsеd access [ог the EU fishiпg fleet [о Sепеgаlеsе fishery геsошсеs dшiпg 1994/96. The ЕU-fllпdеd Oceanographic Research Cel1tre l1ad already wаrпеd in 1992, hoviever, that fish stocks off Senegal were so seriollsly depleted that tllere shollld Ье EU qllota reductiom~ fish stocks were al1"eady being fisl1ecl at their mахiП1Uт SllstаiпаЫе lеуеl , Ьу [l1е 10саl fishiпg fleet."

Page 7

ГТlPaиl Calvert

Nurture flsheries conserve aquatie biodiversity

/Tl8rian O'Riordan

Selling off fish in Senegal: the

European Union could overexploit the West African

fishery

Dynamic Diversity

Wasting fish: by-catch, Ыgh-gradшg and discards These three terms describe sоше of the шоst

wasteful fisheries practices in шоdеrn сошшегсiаl

fisheries:

• By-catch: fish caught unintentionaHy along with targetecl fish species, and often discarded • Нigh-gradшg: шаkiпg гоош for fish of сЬе

highest value Ьу discarding lower vaJue fish • Discards: over-quota , lower vaJue ог dашаgеd fish [Ьа! аге duшреd а! sea.

ТЬеу аге а direct 1·esult of quota шапаgетепt ,

where qlюtаs аге set [ог catching particular species in specified fishing gгounds. These quotas are based оп the 'mахiшшn sustainable yield' concept of fisheries production, which quantifies the шаxiтuт са ссЬ levels (Ьа! сап Ье taken [гот any fish stock, taking into account reproductive and gгowth rates of [Ье fish , and the levels of intensity of fi shing. ТЬе latte1·, or 'fisl1ing effort ', is still measuгed accoгding to the size of Ьоа! and the hoгsepower of its engine, rather than [Ье impact of аН fishing technology used in particuJar fishing grounds.

TI,e use of 'ca tch-аН' tесlшiquеs, which lite1·aHy catcl1 everything in (Ье path of (Ье nets, 1·esults in а significant pгoportion of [Ье fish catch consisting of fish which are ove1·-qLюtа , undesired species О.е. of little ог по commercial value), fish tl1at аге

dашаgеd, ог which аге below а шагkеtаblе size. ТтБ 'by-catch' шау Ье discarded. Accoгding to (Ье

Foocl and Аgгiсultше Organization (FAO) this апюuпts [о at least 25 per cent of tl1e total marine fish catch.47

Опе response of сотшегсiаl fishing to quota тапаgеmепt is t11e practice of 'hig11-g1·ading', keeping only the fi sh [Ьа! will fetch [Ье highest value, and cliscarding [Ье rest. In many trawl fisheries huge пеts аге in use, which have а catching capacity far in excess of the quotas allocated. Sшрlus, but perfectly edible, fish are simply dU111ped back in the sea , dead. As they are not lапdеd t11ey do по! count against (Ье boat's quota - but (Ьеу should.

Fishery шапаgетепt in [Ье Ешореап Union is based оп quota шапаgе111епt and has done шоге to clestroy fis11 stocks than апу otller fislle1Y regime. Single species quotas in the Ш111ti-sресiеs North Sea fis11ery ЬаБ reslr1ted in [Ье

Signalling disaster

ТЬе introduetion of tlle Атепсап Signal Crayfish [о the uк (fгom its native USA via Sweden) III 1976

has had а devastatmg effect оп freshwater eeology. Тhe incentive \vas IЬе Ameriean Signal Crayfish's large size of al11lOs1 lobster ргорогtiоns - and its luerative aquaeulture market.

Introduetion of а faral fung,\l infeerion, Crayfish Plague, сапiеd Ьу [Ье Лшегicап Signal Crayfish Ьа, deeirnared indigel10us erayfisll pop111ations. Тhe Ameriean Signal Crayfish a1so eats аlшоst everythiIlg m sigllt, [гот fish eggs to weed, destгoying the food сЬаm and пуег eeology. Aeeording [о goverrunel1t оШеiаls, 'there is 110 шеапs of eradicaring the erayfish shon of draining а water [ог а! least а year - a11d with rivers rhat is 110t а praeticabIe pгopositiol1'.

ТЬе rapid and uпеопtrоllеd spread of Ameriean Sigl1al Crayfish farmmg mevitabIy led to eseapes, and in 50те rivel"s they are now the щоst common anirnals.

Page 8

Safeguarding Aquatic Biodiversity

Depleted biodiversity сап destabiJize the f"tshery

111 Lake Victoria а сотЫl1аНОI1 of hllman [трас! al1d enviroнmental chal1ges Ьа, tral1sformed fishery

biodiversity beyond аН recognitiol1, destabilisil1g the fishery and degrading the aquatic ecosystem. ТЫ, llas grave implications for miШОI1S of реорlе in the three coul1tries which bordel' the lake CUganda, Tanzania and Кенуа) who depend оп the lake's fishery." А fishery that Оl1се drew оп hundreds of species 110W rests оп three: (Ье el1demic Rastrineobo/a argentea, the introdllced Nile Perch (Lates ni!oticus), and (Ье intfoduced NHe tHapia (O,'eoch,'omis ni!oficus).

Up 10 (Ье 1970, the Lake Victoria fishery was dominated Ьу тоге than 400 va1'ieties of indigenous haplochromine fish, estimated to comp1'ise оуег 80 ре! сеп! of (Ье !ake's total frsh biomass." Тhe combil1ed [ПйСlепсеБ of environmenta! changes and human impact Ьауе resulted in (Ье disappearance and possible extinction of 200-300 of tIlese endemic ПБЬ varieties. The disappearance of this huge and varied biomass is (Ье like!y callse of cascading changes [п the ecosystem." For ехатр!е, (Ье remova! of (Ье

unnecessary destructiol1 оУ thousands оУ tOnl1es оУ edible fish as discarded 'by-catch'.

Introduction of exotic species Negative iшрасts of il1trodllCil1g exotic species шау Ье clirect throllgh the introduction of exotic species to the епviroпшепt, or indirect throllgh (Ье 10ss of habitat" ТЬе dеvеl0ршепt of aqLlacLlltll1'e is one callse of the spread of exotic species (о шапу parts of the world, and а (ыls а potential t11reat to 10саl

aqllatic diversity. The introdllction of new species in aqLlacultll1'e

production, while providing (Ье possibility for faster growth rates, greater profitability, greater food value, etc., also carries certain risks. These include:

• The disрlасешепt of lезз сошреt1t1vе 10саl species which share siшilаг ecological niches or оп which the il1troduced species feed Ce.g. Nile Perch in Lake Victoria).

• ТЬе il1trocluctiol1 of exotic diseases to which (Ье 10саl fish poplllations have 110 l'esistance Ce.g. (Ье introclllction (о (Ье UK of Crayfish Plaglle - а

n'шgаl infection fatal to indigenous crayfish -through the introdllction of Ашегiсап Signal Сшуfish).

• Епviroпшеl1tаl degradation caused Ьу the esca ре into (Ье wild of potel1tially destrllctive species Ce.g. clearance of aqllatic vegetation Ьу

herbivorolls fish).

indigenous haplochromine fish, which formerly turned over the bottom deposits, Ьауе contributed (о

eutropWcation and the deoxygenation of the bottom waters. Likewise, the disappearance of phytoplankton­eating fish Ьа" contributed (о increasing algal bIooms, and the 'algal mats' which sink to the bottom where their decomposition further adds (о deoxygenation."

Overfishing of endemic species [п the 1950, stimulated the introduction of exotic tHapias and Nile Perch, the latter despite scientific advice against <исЬ асНоп. ТЬе introduced tHapias Ьауе now effectively j'eplaced the lake's two endemic tHapia species. ТЫ, Ьа, grave implications for (Ье sustainability of the lake's fishery. Nile Perch now тзkе, ир тоге than 90 per сеп! of (Ье fish that live [п the bottom of the Iake, and 60 рег cent of the catch."

Тhe rehabilitation оЕ (Ье Iake's biodiversity and the institution of а management and regulatory framework must now Ьесоте the main priorities for (Ье

developmel1t of Lake Victoria and t11e survival of (Ье lake shore communities.

BGfstadlPANOS Pictures

• ТЬе introduction of fish stocks which develop recessive genetic characteristics that сап affect the wider fish population Ce.g. in-breeding in hatchery-reared sаlшоп).

Fishing out Lake Victoria: Nile Perch now comprise 60 рег cent of the total catch

Page 9

-/ТIPau/ CaIver1

AR module

" ~-Loaded kattumarams wait to enter the гig and unload their AR

modules

Dynamic Diveгsity

Kattumaram Anchor

The rig

,=,_...,,,1 / Empty kattumarams pгoceed to beach

(ог next load

"Q-

Sketches showing plan and elevation о( AR module placement

Ways of conserving aquatic biodiversity: static or dynamic diversity?

Dynamic conservation Ъу fisherfolk The conservation of aqlJatic biodiversity in situ has always Ьееп сепсга! ео the strategies of nurture jisheries. These s trategies adopted Ьу

artisanal fishing сотпшпitiеs оуег millennia differ markedly [гот the modern indlJstrial аррroасЬ to

fishing, lJsing capture jishery stl'ategies" NU11ure jishery technologies аге necessarily selective, passive, low-energy and ecologically efficient. ТЬеу тау пос bring in tl1e bigges t сассЬ in сЬе

shoft (егт, Ьu! they ensure (Ье sustainability of the fishery through their harmoniolJs interaction with (Ье dynamics of (Ье ecosystem, оп which depenc\s сЬе aquatic bioc\iversity, These tесlшоlоgiеs аге socia lly and culturally embec\dec\, апd people's invo lvement iп their creation, I11аiпtепапсе апd тапаgеI11епt draws (Ье wider community iпtо сЬе fishelY, sharing сЬе !·esponsibilities.

Tl1is community-based conservation lbls Ьу

dеfiпitiоп taken place in situ, although it w ould rarely Ье recogrtized as а c\iscrete activity. lnstead , it is ап iпtеgгаl, bllt inseparable, сотропеп! of the

Artificial reefs: community-led in situ conservation

111 111dia, а, in таl1У other parts of the world, c011cer11S аЬои! deforesration and land degradatiol1 Ьауе

resulted in numerous ,сЬете, to protect and rehabilitate (Ье environmenr. МиеЬ less Ьа, been done (о find solutions to the degradation of the aquatk environment. It goes unnoticed, because (Ье

degI",dation is taking place оп (Ье seabed. 'Ои! of sight is ои! of mind'!

For tl1e millions of smaH-sсаlе fisherfolk whose livelil100ds depend оп harvesting (Ье fishery resourees

, in the eoasral zone, such ап adage is ап anathema. Тhe forests of tl1e deep - tl1e natural reefs and other seabed structures which provide habirats, shelter, food and breeding si!es [ог the mШ'iпе fauna and Нога WblCl1 (Ьеу harvest - аге as inlportant as fertile land is (о

[агтег, ashore, ог а, forests аге (о (Ье forest dwelling corrununities.60

In south India, the inlрас! of capture jishery poHeies and praetices оп natural reefs, marine biodiversity and eatehes Ьу artisanal fisherfolk has been раrticulЗl'lу

pronouneed. 50, ;n order to attraet fish into the l1earshore waters, (о provide shelters [ог depleted fish stock.s, and (о гершсе tl1e natural reefs destroyed Ьу (Ье actions of trawlers, south IпdiШ1 f •• herfolk Ьауе been ехрегiшепtiпg with a11ificia! fish habitats, соштопlу in the fогш of artifieial reefs (ARs).

These аге made of concrete rings, used veblcle ГУI'е,

Page 1 О

ог, traditionaUy, froш weighted down сосопи! fronds. ТЬеу forш а social апd technological геsропsе to а fisl1ery crisis, and аге based 011 the fisherfolk's age,old kпоwlеdgе and . understanding of tl1eir marine envirol1ment.61 .62

5ys!el11a!ic studies of сЬе effectiveness of these ARS Ьауе Ьееl1 undertaken." They show iliз! there has Ьееп rapid соlоnizз!iоп of (Ье ARS Ьу resident fish varieties. In еасЬ саБе it has Ьееп confumed that these reefs аге attracting fish [rom а wide агеа , leading (о significantly enhancec\ catches. This сап il1crease pressure, however, оп already overexploited fisi1 stocks, exacerbating (11е effecrs of оvегfishiпg. Indeed the Il1tеrпаtiопаl Сещге for Livil1g Aquatic Resources Мапаgеl11епt (ICLARМ) has wаrпеd that ARs SllOUld not Ье used as fishil1g groul1ds for this reason. ,

Longer-term strategies tl1erefore пееd to Ье worked ои! Wit11 artisonal fisherfolk [or how ARs are to Ье used in tl1e future. These sho111d rec~gnize that not оnlу do ARS help (о !'estOre blodiverse habitats, and attract fish, (Ьеу also have other bel1efits . ТЬеу сап de!er t!'awling, because they сап dашаgе fishing пеts , and tl1ey сап also l)e l!sed (о demarcate fisl1il1g gгоuпds.

Fиrthегшоге, the c011Struction of ARs сап ас! os а [оси, for community action and awareness raising about the state of the fishery al1d the l1eed (о геБ!оге local aqua!ic blodiversiry"

complex web of гulеs

and relationships drawn ир to promote the long­[егт health of the fishery and security of the fishing community.

Nurtu re jisheries har­уеБ! а тоге d iverse range of species than capture jisheries. In the UK, [ог example , 65 рег сеп! of the catch in 1994 сате [гот five species, with consideгable \vaste in the 'by-catcll ' and disca l'ded flsh -'" Whегеаs

artisanal fishermen in south India hапrеst Боте

200 species (and virtually nothing goes to waste) ." This difference сап only partly Ье

explained Ьу the richer cliversity of WЮ'm,

Safeguarding Aquatic 8iodiversity

tюрiсаl wаtегs compal'ed with the colder water пеШ'ег []1е poles. If species аге lIseflll , the incentive to епsше their survival is dгamatica]]y incl'easect. Since so many species аге used and valued Ьу local communities, aquatic ecosystems thrive. Еуеп if species have по dil'ect market value, their importance in tlle ecosystem is usually respectec!.

P]anne l's ancl policy makers often considel' in situ consel'vation t]lюugh

commllnity-basecl stl'ategies as inadeqllate given the increased ргеssше оп

геsошсеs, and fаvош establishing marine рюtесtеd areas, and othe I" forms of fish 'Бе! asicle' .'" Tllese resel'ves serve as герlепishmепt Ш'еаs [ог aqllatic геsошсеs,

mainta inillg the gelletic cliversity of key species'9 Ноwеvег, Ьу

kee pi11g fi sllerme11 Ollt they flIll the risk of е11сошаgillg iJlegal fish­illg activities. If such mагinе reserves аге

illitiated i11 consll ltatio11 with fishillg соmmllпi­

ties and рагtiсiраtivе

managen1ent гegimes

established , their effec­tiveaess cOll]d Ье

greatly ellhallced.

Traditional aquaculture А significallt ргорortiОll

of а qlIaСllltше рю­

duction comes [гот tl'aditional methods which conserve fish stocks in situ. Aqlla­Сllltше contriblltes [о genetic divel'sity Ьу the develo pment of domestic bl'eeds , ancl shat'es with аgгiсulrше []1е neecl to conserve this man-made diversity а lопg

with wild aqllatic divel·sity." Ву combining dive t'se fish species of differellt food

Page 11

ГТ/РаU! Calvert

Artifical Reefs (ARs) provide habitats for inshore fi sh as well as а focus for debate оп the issues which affect f ishing communities

Small-scale aquacu lture [ п

8angladesh: conserving fish stocks in situ

I i

Dynamic Diversity

1Т18riдn O'RioIdan

habits aod ecologica! oiches, it facili tates optimum иБе of availabIe food in the fish pond. Multi­species aquacu!ture ог 'POlYCLI lture' is based оп the harmonio us stocking of different varieties of fish speeies а с d ifferent levels o f po pulatio n, using ао unders taoc!iog of the pгodLIction cycle and energy fJow thгough the pond. There аге

planktonie feedel·s Са ! the pond surfaee and in mid-wate r) w l1ieh feed diгесtIу off the 'phyto plankton' and 'zooplankton ' ргоduсеd Ьу фе natural pгoductiviry of the po nd . 1Ъе faeees they pгoduce fuгilier enhance the pгoduetiviry of the pond, as does pond manuring CWitl1 agl·ieLIltura l and hоusеlюld residues). Fis l1 speeies w hieh feed оп larger organisms in mid-w ater CsmaH fish , ioseets, e tc.) and the pond bottom Csnails, wопns , e tc.) аге also stoeked . Tl,e resLI!t is that enel·gy fJow алd tгапsfОШ1аtiоп а ге extl·emely effi cie nt. If this method of cOI1servation in silu is to Ье s LIsta ined Ьу tгаditiопа l аqLIасultше , tllen attentio I1 needs (о Ье focl1sed оп deeentralized productio n, using d iverse, еI1viroшnеоtаllу

sensitive techI1iqLIes. PгotectioI1 [гот iпtюduееd

speeies and diseases is also reqliired.

Ех situ conservation Ех silu eonservatio l1 of aquatic [esources has reeeived little attention [о date, ехеер! in the еаБе of а few imp ol1ant food speeies. !{еееп! interest in the pharmaceutical applieations o f mагiпе

геsошееs l1аБ led to а sharp inerease in Gaining prefeгen­tia! access (о the

sea: aгtisana ! fisheг­

fo!k in Chi!e have а б-m i! е exc!usive

fish ing zone

biopгospeeting, Ьщ as уе! has по! Ьееп translated into coneerted еffогts towards ех silu conservatio n. New teehnologies [ог ех silu conservatio n inc!ude cryopreservatio n аоеl genebanks.

Indigenous fisheries management in Indonesia

T he Indonesian gоvеrnшепt l1as Ьееп 100k.ing (о its f1Shing сошmuпitiеs for S01l1e new ideas оп

шапаgешепt. Тhe approaeh used in tl1e Maluku islands is опе of те fovoured nlOdels, os tгаditiолоl practices 11ауе ргеvелtеd оvегехрlоitоtiол of tl1e fishery, рroшоtеd village growth, алd guaranteed eqtIitable ea1el1 distriЬutiол .

The praetiee of sasi iлvоlvеs еstаblishiлg а elosed . sеаsол aI1d elosed агеаБ. 1п опе village, !he sas; [ог

meir adjaeent estuary lasts аН уеаг, ехеер! for опе day, when villagel"S аге aHowed to cateh аБ шалу fish as теу want. Тhis yields enough fisl1 10 шее! те I1eeds of аН ше village housellOlds for Беуегаl шоптs .

Peluanang governs who шау fish in ееrtзin а геаБ.

Ou!siders аге l-al·ely allowed (о fish iI1 the рещапаng, bиt if they аге регшitlеd ео fish Ihey must use tl1e Бате fishiлg taekle аБ те locals. Тhey тау also have ео рау

а [ее 10 те village head, whieh is used [ог cornmuniry developrnenl. Rules and regulation аге dynamie. Рог

Page 12

instanee, Бinее 1980, elams and sea-еuеuшЬегs have been proleeted Ьу speeial рrovisiолs agaiost overexploitaliOI1.

1ndividuals' social obligatioI1s hold the syslern togemer. Тhe formal leaders manage tl1e system, while deeision таkiлg and $tIpervision аге те eoneern of informal leaders. Each vШаgе clan has its own task. In те ease of sasi, опе elan providFs messengers,anomer poHees the event, while anotl1er is responsible for the opening aI1d еlоsiлg rites. АI те sarne tin1e everyone has personal responsibilities r~lated !о the eveot.

However, despite StIppcrt from the gcveI11ment, the sуstеш is still dying out. Тhis is partly beeallse of tl1e in­migгаtiол cf people who do not undel"Sland the systern. It is also partly beeause cf goveI11ment efforts to pronlOte exports, whieh has led (о а shorteniI1g of the sasi period aI1d renting out pelua"ang lights to enu:epreneurs.7:0

•

Genetic engineering

А new technology now threatens the fishery: genetic Research focused

engineering. is being

оп а few species and characteris­tics SllCh а, fast growth rates, and resistance to stress and disease. ТЬе release of genetically manipulated fish raises biosafety issues, as the поуеl genes mау spread into w ild populations апсl ecosystems with unpredictable results." In the case of the native Californian СоЬо

salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), there is evi­dence to show that due

Safeguarding Aquatic Biodiversity

to cross-breeding with genetically homogenized hatchery fish , native populations Ьауе plummeted Ьу 94 per сеп! since 1949.67 Biosafety threats are of nlOst сопсеrn to people who share the ecosystem with the fish and whose livelihoods depend оп it.

Fisherfolk safeguarding aquatic biodiversity

While the management systems of capture !isheries are technically based, those of nurtU1'e jL,hеГiеs are socially !)ased and still, to а varying extent, spiI"itually based.69

They are ап expression of social relationships among people, manifested as rights to exploit resources. Such community-based management is the key to sustaining the fisheJy. It is geared towards sustaining the aquatic ecosystem and the fishery J'esource base. It promotes community-based 'co-management' of the coastal comnlOns, and advocates harvesting rather than hunting approaches in the exploitation of aquatic resources. These systems only work if people are confident tl1at tl1ey or tl1eir communities will retain access to tl1e resource base in the long term. Community-based 'strategies Ю'е incr'easingly coming under pressure because tms security is being lost as the result of external intervention, affecting either their lives directly, or tl1e J'esource base оп whicl1 they ctepend.

For example, the FAO/UNDP Integrated Coastal Fisheries Management Project in Trinidad and Tobago recognizes tlle important role of fishing communities, and includes as опе of its broad strategy elements: tlle awareness creation оп the socid­economic contribution of the fisheries sector and its role as а natural monitoring unit of the environment. БЯ

Fisherfolk's Rights Over the last two decades efforts Ьауе Ьееп made to establisl1 management systems wmch recognize traditional rights. Both the Territorial User Rights in Fisheries (TURFs), which confer rights to fish in particular waters, and Customary Marine Tenure (СМТ) systems, wmch det1ne the ownership of а particular fishery, show promise if tl1ey are developed in а way that ensures that rights are conferred оп lосаl сотпшпitiеs rather than individuals." No strategy that l1ands over responsibility to

Page 13

Sri Lankan fishing beach: community·based management is the key to safeguarding aquatic biodiversity

Dynamic Diveгsity

Тhe rights of fisherfo1k: community-based rights and preferential access

Р eople-centred management сап on1y work if conununities Ьауе guaranteed access (о and rights

over сЬе resources they need. In Kerala in south India, cOll1munities traditionally kept [Ье fishery in balance Ьу controlJing hook size, banning n.igllt fislling, and restricting [Ье kind of bait used. In the 1980s, [Ьеу also added lobbying [о their lisr of contro! measures - [о get the gоvеrnшепt (о prevent trawlers fгош encroaching оп tl1eir fishing grounds. Тhey achieved some success in 1989, when а ban оп trawlers cOll1ing inshore during tl1e monsoon (tl1e spawn.ing season) was enforced - ас

least partial1y." Community-based systems of rights асе highly

сошрlех. One апетр! (о тар fislling rights in Fiji took severa! decades (о complete." In tl,e Pacific region, а hierarci1y of rights often еюsts, сошрrisiпg minority groups of primary rights 11O!ders wi10 'own' and determine wi10 тау use tl,e resource, and secondary, larger groups of users who Ьауе less, if апу, ,ау in its management, 7~ As pressure ОП resot1rces increases, tl1ese secondary rigllts are often sacrilked. Such hierarchical systешs аге vulnerable (о exploitation from external interests, а, tl1e lше of power and money сап easily tешрt tl1e primary rigi1ts holders. А trend observed in Рариа New Guinea, So!olllon Islands and Vanuatu is tl1e 'сарtше' of traditiona! !eadership Ьу

urban elites which use their greater access to information and political and legal power. In тапу cases this is achieved through alliances with foreign commercial inrerests, [Ье most nOtoriOl's being those associated with logging of tropical rainforesrs. Once subverted ir is difficult to reconstitute effective traditionalleadership."

Despite the limirations of internationallaws, in ,оте areas fisherfolk Ьауе managed to establish their rights (о their own exclusive fishing areas. In а number of countries, ,исЬ as Chile, Senegal and Malaysia, governments now recognize the rights of artisanal fisherfolk (о preferential access in delimited coa5ta! areas." The extent of this zone varies widely. In тапу countries по such zone is recogn.ized, in Madagascar the government al10cated an exclusive artisanal zone of on1y rwo naurical miles, in Chile six, while in Senegal the artisanal fishworkers аге dell1anding 12 шilеs." Ви! difficulties сап arise in trying to incorporate traditional rigl1ts into internationa! blueprint шоdеl5. In Рариа New Guinea, one fisherfolk organ.ization found tl1e only way (о protecr lосаllivеШ1О0ds was to adapt their traditional rights using шodеrn law. However, а' а

result , traditional secondary rights аге threarened, which аге like!y 10 cause greater polarization berween (Ье псЬ and роог."

individuals will ever achieve !опg-tеШl security: the сотпшпity is (Ье key to ensuring susta inability and eqllity.

The big players and global instruments for conserving aquatic biodiversity

Trends in fisheries over the last Пуе decades have la,·ge ly Ьееп tоwш·ds

centralization of fisi1eries management and globaliz3tion of rеsошсе access and lI Бе.

The centralization of fisi1eries managemel1t Ьу national al1d regiol1aJ bodies has largely Ьееп at the ехреПБе of 1осаl pa'1icipation in decision making.

The gJobalization of (Ье world fishery геБошсеБ has linked the resource base more directly to c\istal1t COnSllmer demand. As а ,·esult, some 40 рег cel1t of сЬе global fisll catch 110W ente,·s iпtешаtiОl1аl trade. This ЬаБ tended to marginalize prodllcers еуеп further, and has Рll! control of the геsошсе base into the hands of those who controJ tl1e markets.

The United Nations Convention оп the Law of the Sea TJle United Nations Convention 011 tl1e Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), signed in 1982, is the most importal1t global il1strllment for regulating fisheries. Others, like Chapter 17 , of Agenda 21 al1d the UN Treaty 011 Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly MigratOlY Fish Stocks," ,"elate to directly to the provisions of UNCLOS.

Althollgll UNCLOS was agreed in 1982, and only ,·atified in November 1994, Ьу 1976 тоге than 60 count,·ies had Jaid cJaim to fisJlery геsошсеs in (Ье waters extendil1g 200 miles from theiI" shore - Exclusive Ecol1omic ZOl1es (EEZs). Today тоге tJ,311 122 l1atiol1s have established EEZs. However, оуег 50 per cel1t of (i1е total EEZ агеа О.е. some 17 рег cent of (Ье worJd's осеаns) are cOl1trolled Ьу 10 countries, and 29 per cel1t Ьу fOl1f countries: USA (10 pe r cent), France (7 рег cent), Aust,·alia (6 рег сеl1!) and New Zealal1d (6 рег cent).

Page 14

There аге serious implications of rhis new ownership regil11e оп

coastal communities, and for their rradiriona! livelihoods апс! food producrion systems. Тга­ditional rights of access ha уе Ьееп su bsuI11ed Ьу internariona! law wl1icl1 allocates owne"ship апс! responsibility to national апcl regional епtшеs .

TUl~Fs and СМТ аге not recognized Ьу this international treaty.

While UNCLOS has providec! tl1e I11eans [о

define ownership of mШ'iпе resollfces wirh greater clarity, it '1аБ also drawn rhel11 into the global market place, Coastal states аге now effectively the designat­ed owners 01' 35 рег cent

Safeguarding Aquatic Biodiversity

of the woг!d 's oceans апс! 95 рег cent of [!1е g!oba! fish stocks,'" ThГOllgh UNCLOS the interests and rig!1ts of traditiona! fishing СОnШ1llпitiеs have Ьееп sllbsumed Ьу the State,

Provisions within UNCLOS (Secrions 61 and 62) allow fish stocks and other mar'ine геsошсеs to Ье bought and sold as cOI11I11odities Ьу the coastal state (thOllgh slIbject [о certain conc!itions), Throug!1 jоint-vепtше arrangeI11ents апс! other forI11s of fisheries agreements with соаБса! states, cOI11I11ercia! interests aIe аЫе [о ыly lIР

marine геsошсеs, This has gr'ave implications [ог rrac!itiona! livelihoods and [оос! procluction systeI11s WhiC!1 аге depenclenr оп theI11,

Agenda 21 and the Ocean's Chapter !sslles of responsibility and sustainabIe deve!opI11ent were key [о the 1992 Earth SlII11I11it which !ed со the signing of the !egally binding Agenda 21, Conseqllent!y, Chapter 17, the fisheries chapter of Agenda 21 , srates t!1at fшrhег I11еаsшеs аге

r'eqllirecl to епsше the effective imp!eI11entation of UNCLOS, It a!so acknow!edges that 'rhe right to fish is conditiona! and accoI11paniecl Ьу the dllty to manage and conserve геsошсеs [ог present and futше generations' ,' 1 and links this to sllstaining livelihoods and recognizing the ,'ights of fishing comml1nities," Neverthe!ess, like а" rhe other major inSrfllI11ents, Agenda 21 allocates conrro! со rhe state rather than [о cOI11I11l1niries. A!rhough the motive foг estabIishing these instfllI11ents (estabIishing тоге sllstainabIe fisheries) is valid, rhe approach is misgllided, becallse the ргоуеп experts in l11ainraining biocliverse and sllstainabIe fisheries, the fishing соmmuпЩеs,

have Ьееп exc!uded, '

The Convention оп Biologica1 Diversity The Convenrion оп Вio!ogical Diversity is the other legally binding ag,'eeI11ent signed at rhe Earrh SlImmit in Rio de ] aneiro in 1992. Its objectives аге:

• The сопsеrvаtiоп of biologica! diversity (biodiverSity) • The sl,stainabIe lIБе of its cOI11ponents • The equitabIe sharing of Ьепеfits derived froI11 generic геsошсеs,

Page 15

Bonga f ish market, Sierra Leone: t raditional rights 01 access and local markets need protection

rт

IТ

--- - =

Small-scale fishing, Bhola

Island, Bangladesh: aquaculture

development must по! threaten

livelihoods

Dynamic Diversity

The Convention recognizes 'the importance of biological diversity [ог . .. maintaining life-sustaining systems of the biosphere '. It acknow1edges that 'conservation апс1

sustainable use of biological diversity is of cJl.lCial importance for meeting the food, health, and other neec1s of а growing wor1d population ' .

The Conference of t11e Parties to the Convention, а! its second meeting in Jakarta in 1995 (COPS II), adopted the Jakarta Mandate . This outlines а

рrogгаmmе of action [ог implementing the Convention with respect [о marine and coasta1 biodiversity.

Тhe FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries Тhe Food and Agriculture Organization's (РАО)

Code of Conduct for RеsропsiЫе Fislleries sets оL1t the pJ'incip1es and iпtеrnаtiопа1 standards 01' behaviour [ог responsible practices w itll а view to ensuring the effective cOI1servatioI1, mапаgеmепt and deve10pment of living aquatic геsошсеs. Jt follows the 1ead оу UNCLOS in assigning responsibility [ог fishery sustainability, аБ well аБ

technical and bio10gical maI1agement, to states. The Code a1so addresses the rights of сопsuшеJ·S.

It dea1s with issues of biodiversity througll ргошоtiI1g the ргесзL1tiопагу аррroас11 to fisheries mапаgешепt , Ьу proposiI1g the integration of fisheIies iI1to созstаl агеа шапаgешепt, Ьу

advocatiI1g the use of selective aI1d eI1viroI1mentally sat'e fishing gears, З I1d Ьу promoting "esponsible aquacl,lture.

There а,'е two pa,·ticllla r1y s igпifiсаI1t aspects 01' the Code [ог artisana1 fisheries:

• Рrotесtiпg tlle rights of artisaI1a1 and sша1 1 -sсзle

t'isllworkers to а secure and just livelillOod and graI1tiI1g them prefe,'eI1tial access to their tгз сlitiОI1а1

fishiI1g grollnds (Artic1e 6, (6: 18)) aI1d • Епsuriпg с11а! the livelihoods of 1 0саl fishing COl1lmUnIlIeS аге по! negative1y affected Ьу

aqllaclllture developmeI1ts (AI'ticle 6, (6:19)).

Тhe Code a1so Iecognizes the iШРОJtапt

cOI1triblltio I1 of artisaI1a1 aI1d small-scale fisheries [о еl1lр10ушепt, iI1col1le and food sесшity, aI1d caHs llрОП states to рroсесс tlle ir rights to "eSOllJ'Ce access, decent working conditio I1S and livelillOod sесшity .

Тhe Internationa1 Centre for Uving Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARМ)

1CLARМ is the C0I1s11ltative Group 011 lпtеmаtiопаl АgгiСllltшаl Researcll 'S (CGIAR) ОI1lу aquatic Iesearch ceI1tre. Both FAO З I1d ICLARМ have Бе! llр databases to gather iпfОПl1аtiоп оп fish diveIsity. ICLARМ 11as also l1lacle sigпifiсапt

COI1[,·ibL1t.ioI1s to fishery scieI1ce aI1d the in silu ащl ех situ СОI1sеrvаtiоп of fish species. 111 the саБе of ех situ сопsеrvаtiОI1 , the l1laiI1 шоtivаtiОI1 wOll ld seel1l to Ье tlle q llest [Ol' 11igher yieIdiI1g species for fish faг'I11ing. Т1,е resuIts аге il1lpJ'essive (ICLARМ 's 'su per tilapia ' is 60 рег сеп! largeI thaI1 its peers), Ьш tlle iпtrodllсtiОI1

of new species саI1 have а negative impact оп the overaH cliversity of ша,'iпе or freshwater есоsуstешs.

Page 1 б

Safeguaгding Aquatic Biodiveгsity

Other players As introduced species now make а significant contribution to food production ап(1 сЬе wider есопоту, sLlch benefits need to Ье weighed caref\J lly against possible harmful effects. C6te,·ia l1eed to Ье establisl1ed aga il1st whicl1 species transfe,·s саl1 Ье j\Jdge(l. The Intemational CO\Jl1cil for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES) al1d the Енrореап Inland Fishe,·ies Adviso,y Council (EIFAC) have devised а Code of Practice and а Manual of Procedнres for the Conside,·ation of 1I1trodLICtiol1s and Tral1sfers of Marine and Fresl1water Orgal1isms. The Code of Practice is completely voluntary, аl1(' in пюst cases its рюvisiопs are пос

followe(l.

Page 17

Dynamic Diveгs i ty

Policy recommendations

• Global fisheries arrangements must seek (о promote and strengthen 1lurture .fishery strategies, managed Ьу fishing communities, which conserve aquatic biodive1'sity in situ, ,"athe1' than unde1'mining them.

• Globa1 instruments and nationa1 policies and programmes need to recognize tbe rights of fishing communities to livelihood and food security, the importance of t1'aditional knowledge and management systems, the 1'ights of fishworke1's to acceptable working conditions and the important cont1'ibution of women in fishing communities.

• Internationally agreed g1oba1 instruments need to ье implemented in а way (Ьа! is supportive оС traditiona1livelihoods tllfOUgh tl1e maintenanee of the aquatic eeosystem and aquatic biodiversity. АН aspeets of global iпstгшnеnts that focus оп state [еуеl controls, and the aHocation of benefits fют

imрюvеmепts in the fishery to states rather than to communities who nurture tlle 10са! aqtlatic biodivel'sity, shotlki Ье challenged.

о Articles 6:18 and 6: 19, concerning Artisanal Fisheries , of the РАО Code of Condllct for Responsible Fishel'ies ShOllld Ье [llНУ sllpported.

о The provisions in tlle Convention оп Вiological Diversity оп the eqLlitable sharing of benefits derived fют genetic resources, to tl1e ехСеп! tllat this сап [)е extencled to ma1'ine genetic геsошееs and benefit-sharing with 10са! t'ishe1'folk commllnities, should Ье supportecl . The people-centred аБреССБ of the Jakarta Mandate should Ье supported.

о Aspects of Agenda 21 whicll fOCllS оп state-level гаthег than community-Ievel contl'Ol shoukl Ье chaHenged.

о !пtегргеtаtiопs of Sections 61 and 62 of UNCLOS, that support [оса!

dеvеlортеш ргioritiеs concerning the management of marine геБошсеБ,

shol1!d Ье implemented.

• Fishing communities must Ье granted preCerentia1 resource access rights, based оп lоса! neecls and pl'iorities in order to conserve aqllatic blodive1'sity. ThllS сusютаlУ tепше systems ope1'ating а! [осаl levels, w ritten 01' Шlwгittеп , ml1st Ьесоте раг! of property systems in national and international law. Fishing communities ml1st Ье given fuH and affo1'dable negotiating 1'ights and displlte­solving ргосеdшеs related to апу decision that affects them .

• Тhe concept and practice оС 'co-management' must Ье developed and promoted. Tllis envisages а p1'ocess of dynamic pa1'tne1'ship between state and commllnity, whel'e comml1nity-based management is а сепtгаl element, Ьш where the complementarity of nationa! government enabling legislatiol1 al1d [оса !

commlll1ity kl10wledge al1d social controls is recognized.

• А рсесаПНОllасу аррсоасЬ (о fishery management must Ье adopted, basecl оп а rationale of optimllm rathe1' thal1 maximLlm sllstail1able yield. Fishing activities ShOllld Ье cOl1dllcted il1 а manl1"r [l1а! gives а high lеуеl of certainty that the risk of iП'еvе1's iblе ecological damage is negligible, al1d' ShOllld actively guard agail1st market forees which СОl1tintюuslу press [ог maximLlm extraction. ,

• 'Catch-all' metbods and those metbods wblch damage and degrade tbe enviro1lffient must ье phased out il1 fаvош of the development and llse 01' selective al1d еl1viюпmеl1tаНу safe fishing methods, which must Ье afforcled а

high p1'iority.

• Тhe development of artificia1 reefs, wblch rehabilitate aquatic ecosystems and restore mаrinе biodiversity, should ье used to саiБе awareness а! аН levels 011 sustainable fisheries management al1d 011 issLles of oWl1ership апд control of []1е coastal CQtnl1lOnS. They аlБО have а potentially itnportant гolc to

Page 18

Safeguarding Aquatic Biodiversity

play in demarcating exelusive community-eontrolled fishing zones, and thereby fаеШtаtiпg Sllstainable eommunity-based management of fish stoeks.

• Environmental impact statements showing neutral ос positive gains to the environment and aquatic biodiversity, especially downstream, should Ье а requirement of апу planning permission granted fOl" the development of Iш·gе-sса lе aquaculture enterprises. Tlle main priority fOl" аquасultше

development should Ье low-cost sustainable systems for local food prodllction , L1sing approaches similar (о those developed in East Asian роlуеL1ltше.

• Internationally binding regulations need to Ье developed to limit the introduction of exotic species. Only those species which satisfy stringent eriteria shoL11d Ье translocated to other ecosystems, and their impact оп local biodiversity mllst Ье strictly monitored .

• International standards must Ье developed to control the release of transgenic mutations.

Page 19

Dynamic Diveгs ity

References and Resources

1. FAO (1996) , Sajeguarding j/S/) supp/ies, key policy ;ssues al1d mеClsuгеs, In ternarional Confeгence ОП tl1e Sustainahle СопtгiЬutiоп o f Fishet"ies 10 Food Security, РАО, Rошс.

2. \Xleber, Р. (1994), Net Loss, Fis/J, jobs, and /Ье Маппе Environment. \Vorld Watch Рарег No 120, USA; 'ПJеl-е is evidence tbat fishing Ьу Ьumап kind predates Нолю sapiens, шиь Nеm1dегthаl соmmuпШеs catching flsh 40,000-50,000 уеа" ago. Ву 15, 000 /08,000 Ее, jisblng tecJJtlO/Qg)I (barbed books tlnd tmps) lVtlS ше" deve/oped ill \VeSlern Еигоре.

3. FAO (1993) , Мапne Fis/Jeries and 'Ье Larv о! t};e Sea: А Deca de 01 CI;ange, Fisl1eries CirL'Ula г No. 853, Rome.

4. Seshu, O.V. , е! а1 . (1994), in: Maclcan, R.H .) and )ones, R.W" 1995, Aqualic Biodiversity COl1se1Va tiOJl: А Revjew 0/ Cu r/'ent /ssues and hyf011s, Stra tegy [01' Inte rnatio nal Fisl1e rics Re searcl1, Canada.

5. Тlюшsоп , D, (1995), Conjlic( Ш;'ЫIl (hе

Fishing Indusl1J1: lal-ge-scale vs .. 'I1uall-sca/e. Appropriate Тесhпоlоgу jошпаl , Vol. 22, No. 2, IT Publicariol1s, Loпdоп.

6. РАО (1996), op .cit. 7. МI1ееп-S1uijег, J. уап deг and Seva1 y Sсп

(1994) , Meeling lnfonnation Needs оп Gender l .. sues in Аquасul(Щ'е, ALCOM Fit:1d DОС1..lшепt No. 33, Аl.СОМ, РО 130Х 3730, Hal'a re, Zimhab\ve.

8. ТаСО11 , A.Gj. (1995), Aquaculture f"eeds and Feeding in the 1lехl Mil/enniu.111: Major Challenges a lld lssues, РАО Aq1..lacu!tUl'c Newslette r, August 1995, No, 10, FAO, Romc,

9. Fairlie, 5., Наglег, М. and O 'Riordan, В.].

(1995), Тhe Politics о! Ove>fishing. The Eco10giS[ , Vo1. 25, Jl1 пе 1995.

10.Gагсiа , N. (1994) , СUП'е1l1 silualion, Lпmds andpгospects in l1Ю1"ld (дрtuгеflshеl·iеs . Рарег

рге~епtеd at the СопfС I'епсе оп Fisherics Management, SeaH1e , USA, JL1nt.· 1994, FAO Fi~hcries Dept., RоП1С.

1"I .Fairlie , S. et a l. (995), op.cit. 12. Page and ВL1fГ (199 '1), in ЛJ!ап алеl F!ecker,

1993, as cited in: Maclean , R,H. :шd joncs, R.\Xl., 1995, Aquatic Biodivel'Sily G'OllSe1Vation: А RеlJiеш о[ Сип-еп' Issues ul1d Effo11S, Str.Hcgy fш' Intcrnational FisI1e l'je~ Researcll, Canada.

13.\Vcbe,·, Р. (994), Net Los." Fis/J , jobs, a7ld Озе МШ11lе ЕnviГОll111еnt, \'V'ol'!d Watch Papet' No. 120, USA.

14.Rythcr, J. (1969), Р/эоtоsунt/Jеsis alld Fisll p j'oduction in (lJе Sea, Science, Уо!. 166.

15. \Xleber, Р. (994), op.cil. 16. Hagler, М. (1995), DejOl'eslalion о! I/зе Deep,

Ecolugist , Vol. 25, Nus 2/ 3. 1995. 17. Benson, 13.]. and MagI1LISOn, J.J. (1992), in

Масlеап , КН., апdJопеs, R.\V., 1995, op.cit. 18, С1ышогю Аlvш'СZ, Н. (990), Е/jiшu"о de /о.>;

pescado,.es у t,.аЬаjас/огеs pesqueI"os antonomia о sumisi6п у /о,," desafios de lа

pro/esi6n, Pap el' presen tcd at the ICSF conferencc оп С/оЬаl Fis!Jeries П'еnds a1zd ,Ье Futlll'e о/ Fish11Ю1'kеrs, Bangkok , )аШlа гу 1990,

19. Сагl Safina (1995) , 71;е \Vurld's lmpe,'illed Fish, 5cientific АПl еl'icа п, Nоvешhеl' 1995.

20.Сагl Safina (995), ihid. 21. M<icKellZie, D. (1995), 7Ье cod ,Ьа!

disappeaгed, New 5ciemist, 16 Septemhcl', 1995.

Page 20

22. Grebova1, D" 13сIJелшпs, Н., апd Fly(i , М. (994), Fis}Jeries chal"f.JCtel"istic,'i о/ (Ье shared lakes о/ Lhe Баst A/rican 17ft, CIFA Techn ical рарег 24, РАО , Rome.

23. Hagler, М. (1995) , ор. cit. 24.0 'Riordan, 13.). (1994) , Tangled шеЬs 'У сЬаos

ad1iJt, Ne\v Scicntist, 20 August, 1994 , 25. Саласlа 's lnternationa! Developlllcnt

Research Cen tre 11as set up а 'rce!- геНеГ programmc to tackle the isslle o t- cyan ide ш;е

in fishel'ies and 10 offer altc rnati\'cs to fisherfulk.

26.o'Riol'dal1, 13.). (1992), Fishi1'lg ОН' ,IJе gel1e p ool, АРРЮ!)I'iаrе Technology Jошпаl , Vol. 18, No. 4, рр , 6·9, IТ PLlblications, Lопdоп.

27.Co1ectit' Nat ional (Ies Ресhешs Artisanaux du Senegal - CNPS - comInl1nication .

28. Thu Jl1son, D. and O 'Riordan , В.]. (1995). Sus(aim'ng Lioe/ihoods in Coastal Fishel1'es, Appropriate Tcchno!ogy ]01..lша!, Vol.22, No. 2, IТ Pub! icatio ns , London.

29.CGIAR (1995) , From hu nling (о farmin,g flsb , Pl'ess Release, CGIAR, 14 Мау , 1995.

30.\Vilks, А. (1995), Pmwlls, pl'OfllS a lld pгuteirt , The E<..:ologist, Vo1.25, No. 2/3, Marcll-June,

31. New, М . and \Vijksrrom, l J. (990), Peed [or thought, Worlcl АquаСLlltшс, Уо1 . 21, No, 1, March 1990.

32,Creech, S. (1 995), SUleel 'н SOl II' ргаums -shrimpi1lg in Suu(/J-(!ast Asia, Appropriatc Techno logy Jоuгпаl , Уо1. 22, No,2, IТ Pub!ications, Lолdол.

33, Rajagopa!, А. (1995), Illtens;lJe shrimp си!tuге a tld и,.; ellvironmentai impact 111 Tamil Nadll , India, ОЕЕР, Осro!:>ег 1995, FAO, Rоше ,

34.Ahmed , 1, (1994), Shгimр mu!?s рluлdег соаstаl/агmZаnd, Panoscope. Ap ri1 1994.

35.Lепоге Ро!tзл (!С la C\'LIZ (1994), VSO . Рhiliррiпеs, peгs. СОI1Шl.

з6.Сгессh , ~. (1995), up.cit . 37. Martincz, А. (1995) , Pis/)ing иllf сщuаtlС

ditJ(!/,sity, Seed1ing. JLIJy , GRAI N, 13ш'сеlопа, рр. 2-13.

.38. РАО (1992) , 'Пю State и/ Food and Аgn'сulшrе. FAO, Rоше.

39, FAO (1995) , SаfеguагdillgfUll-lrе fish supplies, Iпtеrnаtiопаl Confercncc оп thc 5usшiП<1hlе Contril)lItion of Fisheries 10 Fo ocl Sесшi1у , Куою, Jарап , Ое<..:етЬсг 4-9. 1995.

40.NOt't11 Sea QlIa!ity S1a ft!S Rep0l'1 (1993), Oslo ап({ РШ'is Сошшissiопs, LОl1dол.

41. NIOZ (1994), 1::lllJil"omnellla[ i11lpacl о[ bottom gеш'S оп ЬеПlЫС jtuma in "elation (о rmluml I"esou.rces managemenl and pгoteclion 0/ {Ье N01·th Sea, Netllel'land.. lnstill1 te for Sea Research, NЮZ-RAРРОRТ, 1994 - 11.

42,С!оуес, С. (1995), Fis/J Slu dy {о Ситl; NOl1h Sea PIl-l lldег, Dail y Te!egrapI1 , 31 Мау, '1 99'5.

4.3.Pauly, D. and Cll ristcnsen, У. ( 1995), PI"imar), p roductioll l"equ ired (о sustain glohal/is/Jeries. Nаtше. УО!. 374.

44 .Mathew. S. (1996), Ргesепtаtiоп 10 EUHOSTEP IntcrnationaJ Fisl1el'ies Cont'eI'ence in Nor\\ray , June 19%.

45. McClellan, S. (1993), 'lbe Pishing Decayel/;, Cel'es - The FAO Review, No. 142, VoJ. 26, No. 4, 1993. FAO, Ro me.

46. Empty Nets: 1Ьо MatlY j:ishenllen, 1Ьо Реш Pish, 1994. Ne\"\'s\\'cek, Apri! 25, 199·1

47.A1verson, O.L. ес аl . (1994), А в/оЬа/ assessment о/ fishe.ies by-catch and discards, FAO Fisheries Technical Рарег No. 339, FAO, Rome.

48.CFFA (1996), pers. еотт. 49. Беvеridgе, М.С.М . , Ross, L.G. and Kelly, L.A.

( 994), Aquaculture a1ld Biodive,.sity. AmЫо, Vol.33, No. 8, рр. 497-502.

50.РЛNО5 (1994), Regional Informarion Workshop оп Pollution of lake Vicror:ia Баsiп, It ts estimated 'Ьа! some 30 mi/lio12 people depend directly /0,. their livelihoods оп Lake Не/оn'а, that оиеу 75,000 !isJJermen patticipale directly ;11 (Ье fishery, and (Ьа! 'Ье food security, income arld empZoyment 01 about 1 тillion реор/е depends dtrect/y оп the /ishery (1994 соmmLlпicаtiоп [гот the Еиroреап Union's Directorate General for Fisheries),

Sl .Gophen, М., ОсЬитЬа, Р.Б.О. and КЗllfmап, L.5. (1995), Some Aspects о/ Pertnrbation in 'Ье Structure and Bjooivel-sity 0/ (Ье Ecosysteт 0/ lake Vic101';a (East А/пса), АquЗ[iС Living Resources, Vol. 8, No. 1, рр . 27-41 .

52. Lo,ve-МсСоппеll , R.H. (1992), 7Ье Changing Ecosystem 0/ Lake Viclon'a, East Afiica, Article based оп talk given ю the Freshwater Bio logical As5ociarion's Scientific Meeting оп 'FresIJwatel' Biodiversity alld Water Quality', 5eprember 1992.

53. Lowe-МсСоnпеll , R.H. (1992), ibid. 54. Wirre ес al. (1992) and Goldschmidr et аl. (1993),

citecl in Lowe-МсСоппеll , R.H., 1992, op.cit. 55.0'Riordan, Б.]. (1994), Don't Ье fIunl€l~,

5AMUORA, Nos. 10 & 11 , Deeember 1994. 56.5eafish 1ndusrry Authority (1994), united

Ki1lgdom Landings 0/ Sea Fish Ьу ик Vessels -1994, 5FIA, uк.

57.Nalini Nayak, pers. сошт. 58.lCLARМ (1994), Biodiversity rеsеше" and

/CLAJIМ, NAGA, rhe ICLARМ qtlarte rly, january.

59.IUCN ( 991), Ст-ing /оr (Ье earth - а stralegy /or sustainabIe !iving, Eartllscan, London.

60. Кшiеn , ). (1995), Greening ,"е В/uе Sea, Btlsiness Line, 9 Marcll , 1995, India.

61.FernandezJ. (1994), Artificia/ Fish fIabitats- А Соmmипиу Progl'Cl11l111e for Biodiversity C01zservatiOJ1, Pragramme far СОПU11uпitу Огgапisаtiол, India.

62. Каdарршаm, ). (1990), Artifieial Fishing Ree/s and Ба'О Techn%gies Ьу Artisanal FiS!Jегmеп i1Z Soul/J Wesl /ndia, lл: Tinker, ТШеУ, Technica! Change, Gamser, М., Appleton Н . and Carter, N. , eds., рр. 150 - 176, IТ Publications, London.

63.0'Riordan, Б .). ес аl. (1995), Greening the В/ие Sea, Appropriate Technalogy Journal , Val. 22, No. 2, IТ PubIications, London.

Safeguaгding Aquatic Biodiveгsity

64 . Mulvany, Р. М., O'Riordan, Б . ). and Wedgwood, Н . В. (1995), Taking root ... gaining g1'ound: diversity in / ood produ ction /or tmiveп;аl / ood sесuгitу, рарег а! the Development Srudies Association Conference, OubIin, 1TOG, Rugby, UК.

65. РАО (1995), Review о/ the State о/ 'Ье Wor/d Fishery Resources: Aquacu/ture, РАО Fisheries Circular No. 886, РАО , Rome.

66. Zilinskas, R. and Lundin, С. (993)' Мапnе blotechllo!ogy and developing countries, World Bank Discussion Рарег No. 201, The Worlcl Bank, Washington, DC.

67.Бюwп ес аl. (994), cited in Маеlеап, R.н., and j ones, R.W. (1995), op.eir.

68. FAO and UDNP (1994), /neeption Report, Project objectives, strategies and aclivities, FAO/ UNDP Project - Integrateci Coastal Fisheries Management, Trinidad and Tobago, Project Report No. 3, Govt. of rhe ReptlbIic of Trinidad and Tobago, FAO and UNOP, Port of Spain, Trinidad.

69. Баiпеs, G. (1995), Lessons /or modem таnавеmеn! [1'0111 (Ье South Paciftc. Appropriate Technology, VoL.22, No.2, IТ PubIications, London.

70.Nikij111uw, V. (1994), /ndigenous /blJelies resource тanageтellt in Йе Maluku tslands, Indigenous Кnowledge and Dеvеlоршепt Monitor, Vol. 2, No.2.

71.Fairlie, 5. ес аl . (1995), op.eir. 72. Кuriел, J. (1993), Ruining the comm01ZS:

coastal ouerfisbing andfzsbworker.s ' actions 1n South /ndia, ТПе Ecologist, Vol. 23, No. 1, j an/Feb.

73. Баiпеs, G. (1995), ор. cir. 74. Баiпеs, G. (995), ibid. 75.Баinеs, G. (1995), ibid. 76.Thomson, D. and O'Riordan, БJ . (1995),

Sustaining liveliboods 1п coastal jis/Jen'es, Appropriare Technology Journal , vol.22, No.2, р. 3, IT Рubliсзtiопs, London.

77. 0ао Gaye, Secretaty General CNPS, pers. соmш .

78.Баiпеs, G. (1995), ор. eit. 79.Тhe fuH tirle is: Agreement /01' the

lmplementing о/ the P"ovisions о/ IЬе United NaNons C01Zvention оп t/Je Law ofthe Sea 0/ 10 December 1982 reJati1lg 10 the C01lselVation and Managemenl 0/ Straddling Fish SlOcks and НiBb/y Migratory Fish Stocks.

80.СРРА (1 996), Squaril1g the Circ/e, (1n Press). 81.Cllaprer 17 of Agenda 21 , as cited in ICSF,

(1995) , А пеш wor/d order in /isJmies, ОЕЕР, ОсюЬег 1995, РАО, Rome.

82. ibid.

FURТНЕR 50URCES ОР INFORМAТION available from Intermediate Technology (see inside fюпt c'over) and GRAIN, Genetic ReS()urces Inrernarional, Girona 25 pral., Е-8010, Баrсеlопа, Spain. Рах, +343301 1627. ЕО1аil, grain@gn.apc.org

Quarterly news1etter: Seed1ing \ ICSF, Inrernational CoHeeti"e in Support of Fishworkers, 27 Со1lеве Road, Madras 600 006, In.dia . Рах, +91 44 825 4457.

Email, madras.fishnet@axeess.ner.in URL, http';/www.echo.orglICSF Triannual Report of ICS'P, SAМUDRA РАО, Viale delle Tenne di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, I<aly. Fax, +396 5225 5188. URL, httpJ/www.fao.org/waicent/fishery.htm

http,//www.fao.org WWF-UK, World Wide P"nd Por Nature, Panda House, Weyside Park, GodaIrning, 5urrey, GU7 1XR, UK Рах, +44 1483426409.

URL, hrtp '; / www.panda.org ICLARМ, Interna[ional Centre for Living Aquatic Resources Management httpJ/"www.cgiar.orgliclarm/index.hrm 50lagral, French hrtp'; /www.echo.org/chantier/biodlv/index. htтJ

Prograrrune for Тгаditiолаl Resource Rights httр://usегs .ох .ас.ukI-wgtгг

Page 21

Dynaтic Diversity The three booklets in this Dynamic Diversity series describe the work of farmers, livestock keepers and fisherfolk throughout the world in safeguarding agricultural biodiversity, domestic animal diversity and aquatic blodiversity. The booklets provide а context, describe ;п situ conservation activities and propose policy changes that аге needed to reverse the alarming decline in this biodiversity of food species - the basis of food security.

Safeguarding Aquatic Diversity Overfishing, habitat destruction and the introduction of exotic species is having а devastating impact оп aquatic biodiversity and thus оп fish populations. These impacts аге exacerbated Ьу capture fisheries and industrial aquaculture and have led to аll the world's 17 main fishing grounds being fished at ог above their sustainable limits. In contrast, nигtиre fisheries used Ьу artisanal fisherfolk and small-scale fish farmers, maintain and develop aquatic biodiversity. This booklet explains how, through supporting artisanal fisherfolk, the decline in the diversity of fish species сап Ье reversed.

Founded in 1961, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) is the largest and most effective conservation organization in the world . Active in nearly 100 countries, WWF lobbies governments, researches, informs, raises funds and sets ир it5 own projects worldwide. It is respected Ьу scientists, biologists and other expert, and has а track record ,econd to попе. WWF aim, to build а future in which people live in harmony with nature. It i, а goal upon which the future well-being of humanity rests.

\ The Intermediate Technology Development Group was founded Ьу the late Dr Е. F. Schumacher. Intermediate Technology enables роог people in the 50uth to develop and use skills and technologie, which give them тоге control over their lives and which contribute to the sustainable development of their communities.

INTERMEDIATE ТECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT GROUP

BANGLADESH • KENYA' PERU • SRI LANKA' SUDAN • UNITED KINGDOM • ZIMBABWE

Intermediate Technology Development Group. Company Reg . No. 871954, England. Reg . Charity No. 247257.