EXPERIMENTAL METHODEXPERIMENTAL METHOD

Mukut HazarikaMukut HazarikaProfessorProfessor

Department of EducationDepartment of EducationDibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh University

DefinitionsDefinitions

““Experimentation is the name given Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in to the type of educational research in which the investigator controls the which the investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or a educative factors to which a child or a group of children is subjected during group of children is subjected during the period of inquiry and observed the period of inquiry and observed the resulting achievement.” the resulting achievement.”

W.S. Monroe and M.D. W.S. Monroe and M.D. EnglehartEnglehart

“ “ Experimental Research is the Experimental Research is the description and analysis of what description and analysis of what will be or what will occur, under will be or what will occur, under carefully controlled conditions.”carefully controlled conditions.”

J.W. BestJ.W. Best

Nature of Experimental Nature of Experimental MethodMethod

Experimentation provides a method of Experimentation provides a method of hypothesis testing. After defining the hypothesis testing. After defining the problem, a tentative answer or hypothesis is problem, a tentative answer or hypothesis is formulated.formulated.

Experimenters manipulates certain stimuli, Experimenters manipulates certain stimuli, treatments or environmental conditions and treatments or environmental conditions and observe how the condition or behaviour of observe how the condition or behaviour of the subject is affected or changed.the subject is affected or changed.

An experiment involves the comparison of An experiment involves the comparison of the effects of a particular treatment with the effects of a particular treatment with that of a different treatment or no that of a different treatment or no treatment.treatment.

TERMS USEDTERMS USED

VariablesVariables : Variables are the conditions : Variables are the conditions or characteristics that the experimenter or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates, controls or observes.manipulates, controls or observes.

ManipulationManipulation : It refers to introduction, : It refers to introduction, removal or change of a variable.removal or change of a variable.

IndependentIndependent VariableVariable : The conditions : The conditions or characteristics that the experimenter or characteristics that the experimenter manipulates or controls to ascertain their manipulates or controls to ascertain their relationship to observed phenomena.relationship to observed phenomena.

TERMS USEDTERMS USED

DependentDependent VariablesVariables : They are the : They are the conditions or characteristics that appear, conditions or characteristics that appear, disappear or change as the experimenter disappear or change as the experimenter introduces, removes or changes the introduces, removes or changes the independent variable.independent variable.

ConfoundingConfounding VariablesVariables : The conditions : The conditions or characteristics in a study that might or characteristics in a study that might influence the dependent variable and influence the dependent variable and whose effects may be confused with the whose effects may be confused with the effects of independent variables.effects of independent variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHEXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

ControlControlManipulationManipulationObservationObservationReplicationReplication

CONTROLCONTROL

Control refers to the extent to which Control refers to the extent to which different factors in an experiment are different factors in an experiment are

accounted for. Variables that are not of accounted for. Variables that are not of direct interest to the researcher are direct interest to the researcher are

removed or their influence is removed or their influence is minimized. The purpose of control in an minimized. The purpose of control in an experiment is to arrange a situation in experiment is to arrange a situation in

which the effect of variables under which the effect of variables under consideration may be accurately consideration may be accurately

measured. measured.

Purpose of ControlPurpose of Control

Achieving IsolationAchieving IsolationAchieving Changes in MagnitudeAchieving Changes in MagnitudeAchieving Quantitative EvaluationAchieving Quantitative Evaluation

Methods of Controlling Methods of Controlling Confounding VariablesConfounding Variables

Methods of Controlling Inter-Subject Methods of Controlling Inter-Subject DifferencesDifferences

Methods of Controlling Situational Methods of Controlling Situational VariablesVariables

Methods of Controlling Inter-Methods of Controlling Inter-Subject DifferencesSubject Differences

Random Assignment of Subjects to GroupsRandom Assignment of Subjects to Groups Random Assignment on the basis of Random Assignment on the basis of

Homogeneous SelectionHomogeneous Selection Technique of Analysis of Co-VarianceTechnique of Analysis of Co-Variance Method of using Subjects as their own Method of using Subjects as their own

ControlsControls Matching Subjects with Random AssignmentMatching Subjects with Random Assignment

Procedure of Subject to subject MatchingProcedure of Subject to subject MatchingMatching for Mean and Standard DeviationMatching for Mean and Standard DeviationRanking of Subjects in the Matching VariableRanking of Subjects in the Matching Variable

Random Assignment of Subjects Random Assignment of Subjects to Groupsto Groups

Selecting the two samples from the Selecting the two samples from the population using simple random population using simple random sampling.sampling.

Random Assignment on the Random Assignment on the basis of Homogenous Selectionbasis of Homogenous Selection

In certain case, the groups are made In certain case, the groups are made homogenous in the confounding homogenous in the confounding variables and two groups are variables and two groups are selected randomly. For example, in selected randomly. For example, in an experiment the sex is a an experiment the sex is a confounding variable. In such case confounding variable. In such case both the groups are made equivalent both the groups are made equivalent by selecting only boys or girls.by selecting only boys or girls.

Techniques of Analysis of Techniques of Analysis of CovarianceCovariance

The technique of analysis of co-The technique of analysis of co-variance is used to control the variation variance is used to control the variation within the groups. This technique within the groups. This technique analyses the differences between the analyses the differences between the two groups, subjected to two different two groups, subjected to two different experimental treatments, on the experimental treatments, on the dependent variable after taking into dependent variable after taking into account any initial difference between account any initial difference between the groups on pretest measures or any the groups on pretest measures or any other relevant independent variables.other relevant independent variables.

Method of using Subjects as Method of using Subjects as their own Controltheir own Control

Here the method of control is to Here the method of control is to assign the same subjects to two assign the same subjects to two experimental treatments and then to experimental treatments and then to obtain measurements of the subjects obtain measurements of the subjects first under one treatment and then first under one treatment and then under the other. In other words, here under the other. In other words, here the same group is used as both the same group is used as both experimental and control group.experimental and control group.

Matching Subjects with Random Matching Subjects with Random AssignmentsAssignments

Procedure of Subject-to-subject Procedure of Subject-to-subject MatchingMatching or Matching by Pairor Matching by Pair: In : In this method the researcher wants to this method the researcher wants to locate two members ( or pairs of locate two members ( or pairs of subjects) from the available subjects subjects) from the available subjects who obtain equal scores in the who obtain equal scores in the measurement of confounding variable. measurement of confounding variable. Then from each pair, put one in one Then from each pair, put one in one group and other in the other group group and other in the other group using lottery method. using lottery method.

Matching for MeanMatching for Mean: The two groups are : The two groups are selected in such a way such that the mean selected in such a way such that the mean and standard deviation of both the groups and standard deviation of both the groups are equal on the matching variable.are equal on the matching variable.

Matching Ranking of Subjects on the Matching Ranking of Subjects on the Variable: Variable: In this method the scores on In this method the scores on the confounding variable are arranged in the confounding variable are arranged in ascending or descending order. Then it is ascending or descending order. Then it is paired from the above as 1 and 2; 3 and 4; paired from the above as 1 and 2; 3 and 4; and so on. From the first pair, the 1and so on. From the first pair, the 1stst is is placed in 1placed in 1stst group (say group-A) and the group (say group-A) and the 22ndnd is placed in 2 is placed in 2ndnd group (say group-B) and group (say group-B) and so on.so on.

Methods of Controlling Methods of Controlling Situational VariablesSituational Variables

Method of Holding Situational Method of Holding Situational Variable ConstantVariable Constant

Method of RandomizationMethod of RandomizationMethod of Manipulating Situational Method of Manipulating Situational

VariablesVariables

ManipulationManipulation

It refers to a deliberate operation of the conditions It refers to a deliberate operation of the conditions by the researcher. It involves intentional by the researcher. It involves intentional introduction, removal or change of the condition introduction, removal or change of the condition (variable).(variable).

An experiment involves the comparison of the An experiment involves the comparison of the effects of a particular treatment with that of a effects of a particular treatment with that of a different treatment or of no treatment.different treatment or of no treatment.

Usually, two groups are made – Experimental and Usually, two groups are made – Experimental and Control Group. These groups are equated as nearly Control Group. These groups are equated as nearly as possible. The experimental group is exposed to as possible. The experimental group is exposed to the influence of the factor under consideration; the the influence of the factor under consideration; the control group is not.control group is not.

The treatment variable is the independent variable.The treatment variable is the independent variable.

ObservationObservation

In experimental research, the In experimental research, the researcher studies the effect of the researcher studies the effect of the manipulation of the independent manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable. variable on the dependent variable. The researcher records the change, The researcher records the change, appearance and disappearance of appearance and disappearance of the dependent variable with the the dependent variable with the change, introduction or removal of change, introduction or removal of the independent variable.the independent variable.

ReplicationReplication

Replication is a matter of conducting Replication is a matter of conducting a number of sub-experiments within a number of sub-experiments within the framework of an overall the framework of an overall experimental designexperimental design

Steps in Experimental Steps in Experimental ResearchResearch

Surveying the Literature Relating to the Surveying the Literature Relating to the ProblemProblem

Selecting and Defining the ProblemSelecting and Defining the Problem Stating of HypothesisStating of Hypothesis Constructing the Experimental planConstructing the Experimental plan

Identifying all non-experimental variables and Identifying all non-experimental variables and controlling themcontrolling them

Selecting a research designSelecting a research designManipulating the treatment variableManipulating the treatment variableSelecting/constructing instruments to measure the Selecting/constructing instruments to measure the

outcomesoutcomesOutlining procedures for collecting dataOutlining procedures for collecting dataTesting the null hypothesis.Testing the null hypothesis.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNEXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

““Experimental Design is the blueprint of Experimental Design is the blueprint of the procedures that enable the the procedures that enable the researcher to test hypotheses by researcher to test hypotheses by reaching valid conclusions about reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and relationships between independent and dependent variables. Selection of a dependent variables. Selection of a particular design is based upon the particular design is based upon the purposes of the experiment, the type of purposes of the experiment, the type of variables to be manipulated, and the variables to be manipulated, and the conditions or limiting factors under conditions or limiting factors under which it is constructed.”which it is constructed.” Best & KahnBest & Kahn

Experimental Design Tells UsExperimental Design Tells Us

How subjects are to be assigned to the How subjects are to be assigned to the Experimental and the Control GroupExperimental and the Control Group

The way variables are to be The way variables are to be manipulated manipulated

The way confounding variables are to The way confounding variables are to be controlledbe controlled

How observations are to be madeHow observations are to be madeThe type of statistical analysis to be The type of statistical analysis to be

employed in interpreting data.employed in interpreting data.

Pre-Experimental Designs Pre-Experimental Designs

The One Shot case study : The One Shot case study : XX OOThe One-Group Pretest-Posttest The One-Group Pretest-Posttest

Design :Design : OO11 XX OO22

The Static Group Comparison design :The Static Group Comparison design :XX OOCC OO

True-Experimental DesignsTrue-Experimental Designs

The Posttest-only, Equvalent-groups The Posttest-only, Equvalent-groups Design :Design : RR XX OO11

RR CC OO2 2

The Pretest-Posttest Equivalent-groups The Pretest-Posttest Equivalent-groups Design :Design : RR OO11 XX OO22

RR OO33 CC OO44

The Solomon Four-group Design :The Solomon Four-group Design :RR OO11 XX OO22

RR OO33 CC OO44

RR XX OO55

RR CC OO66

Quasi-Experimental designsQuasi-Experimental designs

The Pretest-Posttest nonequivalent-The Pretest-Posttest nonequivalent-groups Design :groups Design : OO11 XX OO22

OO33 CC OO44

The Time Series Design :The Time Series Design :OO11 OO22 OO33 XX OO44 OO55 OO66

The Equivalent Time-samples The Equivalent Time-samples Design :Design : OO11 XX11 OO22 XX00 OO33

XX11 OO44

HISTORICAL METHODHISTORICAL METHOD

Dr. Manashee GogoiDr. Manashee Gogoi

Department of EducationDepartment of Education

Dibrugarh UniversityDibrugarh University

DefinitionsDefinitions

Historical research describes Historical research describes what what waswas. The process involves . The process involves investigating, recording, analyzing and investigating, recording, analyzing and interpreting the events of the past for interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discovering the purpose of discovering generalisations that are helpful in generalisations that are helpful in understanding the past and the understanding the past and the present, and to a limited extent, in present, and to a limited extent, in anticipating the future. (Best and Kahn, anticipating the future. (Best and Kahn, 1989)1989)

Historical research refers to the Historical research refers to the application of scientific method to the application of scientific method to the description and analysis of past description and analysis of past events. (Singh, 1997)events. (Singh, 1997)

Nature of Historical ResearchNature of Historical Research

Historical research attempts to establish Historical research attempts to establish facts so as to arrive at conclusions facts so as to arrive at conclusions concerning past events.concerning past events.

It includes interpretation of past events It includes interpretation of past events and their relevance to present and their relevance to present circumstances and what might happen in circumstances and what might happen in the future.the future.

It provides an accurate account of the past It provides an accurate account of the past so as to gain a clearer perspective of the so as to gain a clearer perspective of the present.present.

Historical research includes the Historical research includes the delimitation of a problem, formulating delimitation of a problem, formulating hypotheses or tentative hypotheses or tentative generalisations, gathering and generalisations, gathering and analyzing data, and arriving at analyzing data, and arriving at conclusions or generalisations based conclusions or generalisations based upon deductive-inductive reasoning.upon deductive-inductive reasoning.

It lacks control over both treatment It lacks control over both treatment and measurement of data.and measurement of data.

It has little control over sampling and It has little control over sampling and has no opportunity for replication.has no opportunity for replication.

Types of Historical ResearchTypes of Historical Research

Bibliographical ResearchBibliographical ResearchLegal ResearchLegal ResearchStudying the History of IdeasStudying the History of IdeasStudying the History of Institutions Studying the History of Institutions

and Organisationsand Organisations

Bibliographical ResearchBibliographical Research

Bibliographical research aims at Bibliographical research aims at determining and presenting truthfully determining and presenting truthfully the important facts about the life, the important facts about the life, character, and achievements of character, and achievements of important educators. Example: Studies important educators. Example: Studies on the contributions of Gandhiji, on the contributions of Gandhiji, Tagore and other educationists and Tagore and other educationists and their influence on current educational their influence on current educational practice and thought.practice and thought.

Legal ResearchLegal Research

Legal research aims at studying the legal Legal research aims at studying the legal basis of educational institutions run by basis of educational institutions run by different religions and castes, relation different religions and castes, relation between central and state governments between central and state governments with regard to education, legal status of with regard to education, legal status of teachers and students, administration of teachers and students, administration of private aided schools, school finance, private aided schools, school finance, participation of students in the participation of students in the administration of universities, etc. Legal administration of universities, etc. Legal research needs special training in the field research needs special training in the field of law.of law.

Studying the History of IdeasStudying the History of Ideas

It involves the tracing of major It involves the tracing of major philosophical or scientific thoughts philosophical or scientific thoughts from their origins through their from their origins through their different stages of development.different stages of development.

It also aims at tracing of changes in It also aims at tracing of changes in popular thoughts and attitudes over popular thoughts and attitudes over a given period of time. a given period of time.

Studying the History of Studying the History of Institutions and organisationsInstitutions and organisations

It includes the study of some It includes the study of some prominent schools, universities and prominent schools, universities and other educational institutions. other educational institutions.

Steps involved in Historical Steps involved in Historical ResearchResearch

Selection of the problemSelection of the problem Formulation of hypothesesFormulation of hypotheses Collection of data:Collection of data:

a) Primary Sourcesa) Primary Sourcesb) Secondary Sourcesb) Secondary Sources

Criticism of data:Criticism of data:a) External Criticisma) External Criticismb) Internal Criticismb) Internal Criticism

Interpretation dataInterpretation data Reporting of findingsReporting of findings

Primary SourcesPrimary Sources

Primary sources are eyewitness Primary sources are eyewitness accounts of events reported by an accounts of events reported by an actual observer or participant in an actual observer or participant in an event. The original documents come event. The original documents come under the category of primary sources. under the category of primary sources. They are available in written, pictorial They are available in written, pictorial and mechanical forms such as personal and mechanical forms such as personal records, official records, oral testimony records, official records, oral testimony of traditions and events, pictorial of traditions and events, pictorial records, remains or relics, etc. records, remains or relics, etc.

Secondary SourcesSecondary Sources

Secondary sources are the accounts Secondary sources are the accounts of an event provided by a person of an event provided by a person who did not directly observe the who did not directly observe the event, object, or condition. event, object, or condition.

Secondary sources are discussions Secondary sources are discussions on past written by persons who have on past written by persons who have had either directly or indirectly had either directly or indirectly access to primary sources.access to primary sources.

Criticism of DataCriticism of Data

The process of establishing the The process of establishing the authenticity of the sources and of authenticity of the sources and of establishing the validity of its establishing the validity of its contents is known as criticism of contents is known as criticism of data.data.

External CriticismExternal Criticism

External criticism is one which External criticism is one which establishes the authenticity or establishes the authenticity or genuineness of the historical data.genuineness of the historical data.

It helps to determine whether it is It helps to determine whether it is what it appears or claims to be and what it appears or claims to be and whether it reads to be original.whether it reads to be original.

The purpose of external criticism is The purpose of external criticism is the ‘establishment of historical the ‘establishment of historical truth’. (Mouly,1963).truth’. (Mouly,1963).

Testing authenticity involves such Testing authenticity involves such techniques as authentication of techniques as authentication of signatures, handwriting, script; signatures, handwriting, script; chemical analysis of paint, carbon chemical analysis of paint, carbon dating of artifacts, ink, paper, cloth, dating of artifacts, ink, paper, cloth, stone, metals, wood, etc.stone, metals, wood, etc.

It tries to establish whether or not It tries to establish whether or not these elements are consistent with these elements are consistent with known facts about the person, known facts about the person, knowledge available and the knowledge available and the technology of the period from which technology of the period from which remains have been obtained.remains have been obtained.

Internal CriticismInternal Criticism The process of establishing the validity of the The process of establishing the validity of the

content is termed as internal criticism.content is termed as internal criticism. Internal criticism is one in which the historian Internal criticism is one in which the historian

tries to evaluate accuracy or worth of the data.tries to evaluate accuracy or worth of the data. It is concerned with the validity, credibility, or It is concerned with the validity, credibility, or

worth of the content of the document.worth of the content of the document. It tries to establish whether the writers of the It tries to establish whether the writers of the

data were honest, unbiased and actually data were honest, unbiased and actually acquainted with facts or whether they were acquainted with facts or whether they were themselves biased or too antagonistic or too themselves biased or too antagonistic or too sympathetic to a true picture, whether they were sympathetic to a true picture, whether they were in agreement with other competent authority of in agreement with other competent authority of that period, whether they wrote about the events that period, whether they wrote about the events freely or were under pressure.freely or were under pressure.

Interpretation of DataInterpretation of Data

For interpretation of data in historical For interpretation of data in historical research, ingenuity and imagination is research, ingenuity and imagination is necessary on the part of the researcher.necessary on the part of the researcher.

Interpretation of data includes determining Interpretation of data includes determining the trends which the data may suggest the trends which the data may suggest and drawing inferences from the data.and drawing inferences from the data.

It makes use of analogy in the It makes use of analogy in the interpretation of historical data.interpretation of historical data.

It makes use of similarities and differences It makes use of similarities and differences in comparing one historical event with in comparing one historical event with another. another.

Writing of Research ReportWriting of Research Report

The report of historical research includes a The report of historical research includes a statement of the problem, a review of the statement of the problem, a review of the literature, the statement of the objectives literature, the statement of the objectives and hypotheses, survey and sources of and hypotheses, survey and sources of data, and methods of collection, data, and methods of collection, organisation, classification and ordering of organisation, classification and ordering of data; the criticism; analysis and data; the criticism; analysis and interpretation of data, the conclusions interpretation of data, the conclusions reached and a bibliography.reached and a bibliography.

The style of writing research report should The style of writing research report should be objective and systematic; and free from be objective and systematic; and free from distortion.distortion.

The historical research report must The historical research report must be presented in the logical, be presented in the logical, chronological and topical order.chronological and topical order.

It must be precise, continuous, clear It must be precise, continuous, clear and complete.and complete.

SynopsisSynopsis

IntroductionIntroductionReview of related literatureReview of related literatureSignificance of the studySignificance of the studyTitle of the studyTitle of the studyObjectivesObjectivesHypothesesHypothesesDefinitions of the terms usedDefinitions of the terms used

Methods and proceduresMethods and procedures

i) Methodi) Method

ii) Populationii) Population

iii) Sampleiii) Sample

iv) Tools to be usediv) Tools to be used

v) Collection of datav) Collection of data

vi) Analysis of data vi) Analysis of data Delimitations of the studyDelimitations of the studyChapterisationChapterisation

Descriptive MethodDescriptive Method

Descriptive method provides a Descriptive method provides a method of investigation to study, method of investigation to study, describe and interpret what exists at describe and interpret what exists at present.present.

Nature of Descriptive Nature of Descriptive ResearchResearch

Descriptive research studies are Descriptive research studies are designed to obtain pertinent and designed to obtain pertinent and precise information concerning the precise information concerning the current status of phenomena.current status of phenomena.

It is concerned with drawing valid It is concerned with drawing valid general conclusions from the facts general conclusions from the facts discovered.discovered.

It involves measurement, It involves measurement, classification, analysis, comparison, classification, analysis, comparison, and interpretation of data.and interpretation of data.

It investigates phenomena in their natural It investigates phenomena in their natural setting.setting.

Descriptive research provides mainly three Descriptive research provides mainly three types of information:types of information:i) of what exists with respect to variables i) of what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.or conditions in a situation.ii) of what we want by identifying ii) of what we want by identifying standards or norms with which to compare standards or norms with which to compare the present conditions or what experts the present conditions or what experts consider to be desirable.consider to be desirable.iii) of how to achieve goals by exploring iii) of how to achieve goals by exploring possible ways and means on the basis of possible ways and means on the basis of the experience of others or opinion of the experience of others or opinion of experts.experts.

Types of Descriptive Types of Descriptive ResearchResearch

Survey StudiesSurvey Studies Interrelationship StudiesInterrelationship StudiesDevelopmental StudiesDevelopmental Studies

Survey StudiesSurvey Studies Survey studies are conducted to collect Survey studies are conducted to collect

detailed descriptions of existing phenomena detailed descriptions of existing phenomena with the intent of employing data to justify with the intent of employing data to justify current conditions and practices or to make current conditions and practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving them. more intelligent plans for improving them. ( Koul, 1988)( Koul, 1988)

The objectives of survey studies are:The objectives of survey studies are:i) to analyze, interpret, and report the i) to analyze, interpret, and report the status of an institution, group, or area in status of an institution, group, or area in order to guide practice in the immediate order to guide practice in the immediate future.future.ii) to determine the adequacy of status by ii) to determine the adequacy of status by comparing it with established standards.comparing it with established standards.

Case StudyCase Study

The case study is an intensive and in The case study is an intensive and in depth investigation of a social unit. The depth investigation of a social unit. The unit may be an individual, a family, a unit may be an individual, a family, a school, an institution, a group of school, an institution, a group of delinquents, etc.delinquents, etc.

The element of typical ness, rather than The element of typical ness, rather than uniqueness, is the focus of attention.uniqueness, is the focus of attention.

A ‘case’ is not only about a person but also A ‘case’ is not only about a person but also about that ‘kind of person’. A case is an about that ‘kind of person’. A case is an example of, perhaps even a prototype for, example of, perhaps even a prototype for, a category of individuals. (Bromley,1986)a category of individuals. (Bromley,1986)

It is a longitudinal approach, showing It is a longitudinal approach, showing development over a period of time.development over a period of time.

The case study is a way of organizing The case study is a way of organizing social data for the purpose of viewing social data for the purpose of viewing social reality.social reality.

The purpose of case study is to The purpose of case study is to understand the life cycle or an understand the life cycle or an important part of the life cycle of the important part of the life cycle of the unit.unit.

Steps followed in the Case Study Steps followed in the Case Study Method:Method:

Determining the present status Determining the present status of the unit chosen:of the unit chosen:

Formulation of hypothesesFormulation of hypotheses: To : To determine the most probable determine the most probable antecedents of the case and to antecedents of the case and to formulate a fruitful hypothesis or set formulate a fruitful hypothesis or set of hypotheses through the of hypotheses through the knowledge of similar cases.knowledge of similar cases.

Verification of the HypothesesVerification of the Hypotheses::

Validation of the diagnosisValidation of the diagnosis: After : After verification of the hypotheses, the verification of the hypotheses, the next step is directed towards further next step is directed towards further validation of the diagnosis. In this validation of the diagnosis. In this step, some remadial measures are step, some remadial measures are suggested in the light of the causes suggested in the light of the causes found.found.

Follow upFollow up: The case study is re-: The case study is re-examined to ascertain whether any examined to ascertain whether any changes have been produced by the changes have been produced by the treatment introduced. If the changes treatment introduced. If the changes is positive and significant, the is positive and significant, the diagnosis is taken to be correct.diagnosis is taken to be correct.

Ethnographic Research Ethnographic Research

A)A) Ethnos: A Greek word for people, race of cultural Ethnos: A Greek word for people, race of cultural group.group.

B)B) Ethnography: Descriptive account of people of race Ethnography: Descriptive account of people of race or cultural group of descriptive anthropology.or cultural group of descriptive anthropology.

C)C) Ethnographic Research: This type of research is Ethnographic Research: This type of research is concerned with studying a social group and giving concerned with studying a social group and giving its cultural description.its cultural description.

D)D) The Ethnographic research method is The Ethnographic research method is characterized by:characterized by:i) Strong emphasis on EXPLORATION rather than to i) Strong emphasis on EXPLORATION rather than to test hypothesis.test hypothesis.ii) Need to be OPEN to elements that cannot be ii) Need to be OPEN to elements that cannot be coded before. Data is UNSTRUCTURED.coded before. Data is UNSTRUCTURED.

Steps followed in Ethnographic Steps followed in Ethnographic ResearchResearch

Initial ExplorationInitial ExplorationStudy of the geographical SettingStudy of the geographical SettingPlanning for observationPlanning for observationGetting into the social settingGetting into the social settingMaking observation about the settingMaking observation about the settingDrawing conclusions about itDrawing conclusions about it

Content AnalysisContent Analysis

Content analysis is a research technique for Content analysis is a research technique for the objective, systematic and quantitative the objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of description of the manifest content of communication. (Berelson, 1952)communication. (Berelson, 1952)

Content analysis is a method of social Content analysis is a method of social research that aims at the analysis of research that aims at the analysis of content-qualitative and/or quantitative-of content-qualitative and/or quantitative-of documents, books, newspapers, magazines documents, books, newspapers, magazines and other forms of written materials. (Ahuja, and other forms of written materials. (Ahuja, 2003)2003)

Process of Content AnalysisProcess of Content Analysis

Specifying the ProblemSpecifying the ProblemSamplingSampling: Sampling here refers to : Sampling here refers to

sampling of newspapers, magazines, sampling of newspapers, magazines, books, TV serials, songs novel, etc.books, TV serials, songs novel, etc.

Choosing and defining unit of Choosing and defining unit of analysisanalysis: The unit analysis may be a : The unit analysis may be a single word, a theme of subject (e.g. single word, a theme of subject (e.g. Propaganda, advertisement, etc.), a Propaganda, advertisement, etc.), a character, a sentence or paragraph, character, a sentence or paragraph, etc.etc.

Category Construction: This refers to Category Construction: This refers to classifying the content of the classifying the content of the materials being investigated. The materials being investigated. The constructed category must reflect constructed category must reflect the major theoretical concepts. For the major theoretical concepts. For example: in the illustrating of caste example: in the illustrating of caste violence, some useful category could violence, some useful category could be status of castes, personality be status of castes, personality characteristics of caste leaders, etc.characteristics of caste leaders, etc.

Analysis and Interpretation of data:Analysis and Interpretation of data:ReportingReporting

Causal-comparative Studies or Causal-comparative Studies or Ex post facto ResearchEx post facto Research

Ex post facto research is systematic Ex post facto research is systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have variables because their manifestations have already occurred or they are inherently not already occurred or they are inherently not manipulable. Inferences about relations manipulable. Inferences about relations among variables are made, without direct among variables are made, without direct intervention, from concomitant variation of intervention, from concomitant variation of independent and dependent variables. independent and dependent variables. (Kerlinger,1983) (Kerlinger,1983)

Correlation and Prediction Correlation and Prediction StudiesStudies

This type of research is concerned with This type of research is concerned with determining the extent of relationship determining the extent of relationship existing between variables. They are existing between variables. They are used to obtain description of existing used to obtain description of existing phenomenon and enable a researcher phenomenon and enable a researcher to ascertain the extent to which to ascertain the extent to which variations in one variable are variations in one variable are associated with variations in another. associated with variations in another. The magnitude of the relationship is The magnitude of the relationship is determined through the use of determined through the use of coefficient of correlation.coefficient of correlation.

Developmental StudiesDevelopmental Studies

Developmental studies are used for Developmental studies are used for investigating the characteristics of investigating the characteristics of children and the ways in which these children and the ways in which these characteristics change with growth characteristics change with growth and development. Such studies are and development. Such studies are concerned not only with the present concerned not only with the present status and interrelationships of status and interrelationships of phenomena but with changes that phenomena but with changes that take place as a function of time.take place as a function of time.

Phenomenological ResearchPhenomenological Research

It was first propounded by Edmund Husserl.It was first propounded by Edmund Husserl. The aim of phenomenology is to study The aim of phenomenology is to study

human phenomena without considering human phenomena without considering questions of their causes, their objective questions of their causes, their objective reality, or even their appearances.reality, or even their appearances.

The aim is to study how human The aim is to study how human phenomena are experienced in phenomena are experienced in consciousness, in cognitive and perceptual consciousness, in cognitive and perceptual acts, as well as how they may be valued or acts, as well as how they may be valued or appreciated aesthetically.appreciated aesthetically.

Phenomenology seeks to understand how Phenomenology seeks to understand how persons construct meaning and key persons construct meaning and key concept is inter-subjectivity. concept is inter-subjectivity.

In phenomenology, personal experience is In phenomenology, personal experience is the starting point. The source of personal the starting point. The source of personal experience is a description or account of experience is a description or account of the lived experience.the lived experience.

It consists of six research activities:It consists of six research activities:i) Turning to a phenomenon which i) Turning to a phenomenon which seriously interests us and commits us to seriously interests us and commits us to the world.the world.ii) Investigating experience as we live ii) Investigating experience as we live rather than as we conceptualize it. rather than as we conceptualize it.

iii) Reflecting on the essential iii) Reflecting on the essential themes which characterize the themes which characterize the phenomenon.phenomenon.

iv) Describing the phenomenon iv) Describing the phenomenon through the art of writing and through the art of writing and rewriting.rewriting.

v) Manipulating a strong and oriented v) Manipulating a strong and oriented pedagogical relation to the pedagogical relation to the phenomenon.phenomenon.

vi) Balancing the research context by vi) Balancing the research context by considering parts and whole.considering parts and whole.

To produce lived-experience descriptions, To produce lived-experience descriptions, van Manen suggests: van Manen suggests: i) You need to describe the experience as i) You need to describe the experience as you live (d) through it avoiding as much as you live (d) through it avoiding as much as possible causal explanations, possible causal explanations, generalisations, or abstract generalisations, or abstract interpretations.interpretations.ii) Describe experience from inside as it ii) Describe experience from inside as it were; almost like a state of mind: the were; almost like a state of mind: the feeling, the mood, the emotions, etc.feeling, the mood, the emotions, etc.iii) Focus on a particular example or iii) Focus on a particular example or incident of the object of the experience: incident of the object of the experience: describe specific events, an adventure, a describe specific events, an adventure, a happening, a particular experience. happening, a particular experience.

Try to focus on an example of the Try to focus on an example of the experience which stands out for its experience which stands out for its vividness, or as it was the first time.vividness, or as it was the first time.

Attend to how the body feels, how Attend to how the body feels, how things smell, how they sound, etc.things smell, how they sound, etc.

Avoid trying to beautify your account Avoid trying to beautify your account with fancy phrases or flowery with fancy phrases or flowery terminology.terminology.