elementary teacher education: supporting teacher...

Elementary Teacher Education:

Supporting Teacher Candidates in theInner-City Practicum

Advice from a University - Elementary School PartnershipWinnipeg School Division - King Edward Community SchoolFaculty of Education - University of Winnipeg

The Inner-City Practitioner Booklet Mentoring Teacher Candidates 2

table ofcontents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Advice for Teacher Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Advice for Cooperating Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Advice for Course Instructors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Advice for Administrators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Advice for Faculty Supervisors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Advice for Teacher Education Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23


mentoringteacher candidates

This is not a ‘best practice’ or ‘expert’ booklet in mentoring teacher candidates for the inner-city practicum. This is a sharing of perspectives and practices based on experience – shared for the benefit of educators and prospective educators that may be lacking familiarity with the inner-city context, or how to help prepare Teacher Candidates in this context. Some of this advice may be useful for any practicum situation, but is shared with the inner-city in mind.

This Inner-City Practitioner Booklet emerges from the practicum experience of Teacher Candidates that completed practica at King

Edward Community School in Winnipeg, Manitoba in the 2017-2018 school year through the Teacher Education Program at The University of Winnipeg, and the conversations that emerged about how to do this work effectively. Throughout the practicum experiences that year, there was a collaborative focus between the School and University to meaningfully engage with the Teacher Candidates in the practicum placement. This Inner-City Practitioner Booklet is the result of this collective experience with prospective educators, educators and faculty that are experienced in this context. This is not a booklet claiming to have the best practices in inner-city education. This booklet is an attempt to share practices in preparing Teacher Candidates to work in the complex context of an inner-city school in ways that affirm students and communities, and contribute to wholistic understandings of students and communities geared toward academic success and belonging. This booklet is a collaborative effort of the Co-operating Teachers, Teacher Candidates, the School Administration, Course Instructors, and Faculty Supervisor to share what has been learned about preparing Teacher Candidates for the challenges and opportunities of inner-city education based on lived experience.


The use of the term ‘inner-city’ in this booklet, to describe the neighbourhoods in urban locations effected by economic poverty, is a particular choice. Some people will point out that the term inner-city has shared socio-cultural meanings that convey stereotypical beliefs that portray communities from a deficit perspective. We do not share a deficit perspective of the inner-city, but we do appreciate the resilience of inner-city communities to the effects of poverty and marginalization, while also appreciating the enriched linguistic and cultural diversity of inner-city communities. We feel that changing the word inner-city to something else that might be less laden with prejudicial stereotypes will not really change perspectives. We feel that talking about inner-city contexts in non-deficit terms, might help to shift perspectives. We hope that highlighting the positive and affirming aspects of inner-city neighbourhoods will encourage a more wholistic and balanced view of resilient neighbourhoods in urban locations, and the institutional supports that are needed to affirm communities and the children that attend schools in the inner-city.


There is much work to be done, and we believe that there should be a specific focus in Teacher Education Programs on supporting Teacher Candidates to learn to be effective educators in the inner-city. Canadian survey data continues to attest to the fact that racialized and Indigenous students in Canada experience inequitable educational outcomes (Levin, 2013; Statistics Canada, 2011, 2016), and inequity of educational outcome related to student diversity is particularly apparent in economically marginalized communities in urban centres (Abada, et al, 2009; Gallagher, 2016; Winnipeg School Division, 2016). The inner-city represents a complex form of poverty that is concentrated and inequitably experienced by Indigenous people and people of colour, and produces a problematic cycle where lack of educational attainment results in higher levels of poverty and then high levels of poverty produce lower educational

attainment (Silver, 2013). Inner-city contexts are indeed unique and particularly unjust contexts that are replicated across Canada, and reflect systemic racism of Canadian society. We feel that we can contribute to addressing this challenge by sharing our experience of practices that we have found effective based on our experience. In this booklet we provide advice to Teacher Candidates, Co-Operating Teachers, School Administrators, Course Instructors and Faculty Supervisors of Practicum – as well as Teacher Education Programs. This booklet is organized according to those roles and the key questions that most people unfamiliar to this context might have as they assume roles that relate to the inner-city practicum in a Teacher Education Program.

We sincerely hope that our experience will be useful to others, and will ultimately help to address some of the inequalities in inner-city education.

Winnipeg School DivisionKing Edward Community School

The University of WinnipegFaculty of Education

Cooperating Teachers Administrators Teacher Candidates FacultyBrittany Klein Aaron Bennaroch Larissa Chubenko Jeannie KerrKristi Montgomery Amie Johnston Shania Neyron Sheri-Lynn SkwarchukJaclyn Rivest Lea Soenen Ira UdowEvelyn Yanofsky Clarke Dan Szymanski

Amy Wilson


As a Teacher Candidate in any practicum context, you must be able to demonstrate a range of intellectual and interpersonal skills and abilities. While Teacher Candidates come into Teacher Education Programs with many abilities and qualities needed for teaching practice, the inner-city context can often pose serious challenges that may cause Teacher Candidates to feel

personally unprepared.

Families and children under stress from economic poverty, and the related lack of access to secure food and housing can affect

attendance and readiness to engage or support learning. There are also a multitude of community support agencies that connect with the school and can impact educational plans that you have painstakingly worked towards. As you are learning to work as an educator, you will also need to adapt quickly to these changing

dynamics, and show flexibility and understanding while juggling many responsibilities. Qualities such as compassion,

empathy and respect are important to your practice as a teacher in any school setting, but are especially important

in the inner-city context. The needs can at times be overwhelming and cause you to lose sight of the

enriched linguistic and cultural diversity in which you are immersed, and how that can enhance the opportunities for meaningful education for your students. The inner-city dynamics often challenge

most educators, and may present an expected learning curve if you are unaccustomed or unfamiliar

with these dynamics. The following advice is intended as a guide for your practicum in the inner-city.

advice forteacher candidates


I will be placed in an inner-city school for my practicum. How should I start?

Often practicum placements start with a 1 day per week schedule or short practicum, and then build to a longer practicum for a number of weeks. Initially you can:

Go for a walking tour in the school neighborhood. Get to know the local community centre, organizations and shops, and have dinner in a local restaurant. Walk around the residential areas where the students are living.

Meet with your Co-Operating Teacher before school starts and don’t be shy to discuss the requirements of your Teacher Education Program, your skills and your talents. Your cooperating teacher may be able to help you manage these demands but also help you include your skills and talents in your emerging plans.

Day 1 you will be putting out fires. This is a dynamic environment, so be ready to move and start making decisions.

Build trusting and respectful relationships with students as your key priority. Observe the school environment, listen attentively to what students are sharing of their lives and think about the students’ perspectives and lived experiences. Remember to see strengths and positives in the students. Don’t only focus on fixing the challenges they are experiencing!

Try to get to know all the teachers in the school and attend school and community events. This will increase your understanding of the inner-city context and demonstrate your commitment to the school community and to your teaching practice. Showing up is important.

Introduce yourself to your Course Instructors. Participate in classroom discussions and talk to Course Instructors early about assignment expectations connected to the practicum. Let them know you are in an inner-city practicum and the specific needs and opportunities that you are seeing in your classroom. When a course assignment is meant to connect with your practicum and does not fit well, ask if there is an opportunity for an alternate assignment to meet the objectives.

Be vocal in class and ask about your emerging ideas for engaging with the challenges and opportunities in your inner-city practicum.


What do I do before I start teaching my own lessons?

Connect with the students’ world to give more depth in your interactions – instead of talking generally (i.e. what did you do last night), you can connect very specifically (Did you go to ___ last night for the _______?).

Work with small groups of students. This is an opportunity to get to know students in a smaller setting. Build those relationships! It is the foundation.

Support and collaborate with your fellow Teacher Candidates – they are your colleagues and can be an amazing support.

You will be nervous. But it is okay to make mistakes. You have to be reflective, but also consider what you are learning about your students and inequalities in your city.

Take initiative - don’t just observe, jump in! This is a busy place, with some demanding needs. Help as much as possible. Sometimes Co-operating Teachers don’t want to impose too much and too early, but you can offer.

The setting is intense and emotional – pay attention to yourself if you are getting overwhelmed. Just step back a little and ensure you are engaging in self-care.

Critically consider your own experiences with privilege and racism, and how these dynamics impact your students. Think about how your lessons will provide a voice for your students.


How can I manage the demands in the Long Practicum?

Stay present with your students. Focus on your students and their learning and less on the perfect lesson, or being observed.

You have permission to take a step back now and again to observe the class. You will need to reassess your plans fairly often. There may be students going through personal things and the other students may be concerned. Your priority is the students’ individual and collective well-being.

Start unit and lesson planning with specific students in mind. Consider how your students will relate to and understand what you are planning to do. How will your plans be relevant to your students’ lives? How can you connect with the students’ cultures and knowledge systems to bring greater meaningfulness?

Continue to take care of yourself as the demands increase. Self-care is important, so ask for help when/where you need it.

Don’t be hesitant to talk to your Co-operating Teacher to get advice about their approaches that may work with different students.

Be open to being corrected – these are supports and not judgements.

Listen to parents carefully and understand their priorities and the knowledge they have to share. They know their children very well and what will work for them.

Listen to problems from students and parents, but you are not there to fix the problems. Your role is to understand your students’ needs. For larger issues, you should keep communication open with your Co-operating Teacher and/or Administration.


Continue to participate in school and community events, but also design an out of class experience yourself or with other Teacher Candidates to step out of a purely educator role.

Be prepared to face tough days – this will be normal. The next day is always better.

Be organized- have a planner with a month view and make contingencies in the planning.

Connect beyond the immediate practicum and take the opportunity to lead clubs that interest you and the students that connect with the community. There is an abundance of learning for you in the community, and you can also use what you learn to inform your classroom plans.

You have to work within the routines/expectations that are in the classroom and the school. Get advice from your Co-Operating Teacher about the easiest way to connect.

You are going to be given some leeway in the beginning, but you need to show that you can teach in this context. Think about how you can improve. Think about self-assessment for your practice.

You can’t cover all the curriculum, and there are interruptions for events, serious family issues, and students moving in and out of the school. You may have to scrap your day or unit plan. The focus is on safety, support, security, and comfort of the students. Then you can focus on the planned curriculum.

Teach with rigour and passion, and show the students you care. The students need to enjoy lessons while developing numeracy and literacy. Instruction needs to respond to data collected on these key competencies, but instruction and assessment also needs to respond to the social-emotional well-being of the whole child.

Make connections to the Administrative team. Give a proposal for your ideas for a club or event, submit your thinking and see what conversation emerges. Follow up with Administration on your plans.

Reflect on ways you are disrupting your own cultural bias and related assumptions about the inner-city.


As a Co-Operating teacher, you are one of the most important participants in a Teacher Education Program. Without your continual support, encouragement and mentorship, your Teacher Candidate is unlikely to be successful in their practicum. Your role is to serve as a model, guide and instructor. While your primary responsibility is to the students

in your classroom, your Teacher Candidate needs your mentorship and will be able to

team with you in the best interests of your students.

The inner-city practicum can be a stressful experience for those unfamiliar with inner-city

dynamics, and it is important to find out early how much personal experience your Teacher

Candidate has had in the inner-city and what they are thinking. Your goal is to ensure that while mentoring for teaching

practice, that you are providing a balanced and realistic understanding of the neighbourhood, and the abilities

and needs of your students. As you are aware, working in an inner-city context

is emotional work and there should be an element of self-care that you practice and share with your Teacher Candidate. The following is some practical advice for mentoring a Teacher Candidate in the inner-city school environment.

advice forco-operating teachers


How do I get started with my Teacher Candidate?

Set aside a regular time to talk about challenges and opportunities they are encountering. Help them have a balanced view.

Provide opportunities for your Teacher Candidate to build relationships with the students. Provide Teacher Candidates with small group opportunities, or individual time with students.

It’s helpful to co-ordinate plans with other Co-Operating Teachers and Administration so that there is some consistency of experience amongst the group of Teacher Candidates in the school.

Give your Teacher Candidate guidelines and direction that have enough flexibility to express themselves, but also understand what is expected. They need to know the classroom routines, so as to provide consistency for the students.

Ensure your Teacher Candidate has a view of the gifts your students bring to the classroom and the strengths of the community.

Share with your Teacher Candidates the issues they may face in your classroom and advice in dealing with these issues.

How can I help my Teacher Candidate to learn about the students’ abilities and needs?

Share as much as you can about students’ backgrounds so they have a more wholistic understanding of students’ abilities, needs and strategies that are productive.

Invite your Teacher Candidate to planning meetings with other professionals and parents.


Let your Teacher Candidate know about major programs in the school and how each student is doing – share the data!

Ensure your Teacher Candidate gains a sense of their own authority as a teacher in the school. Share ways of engaging fairly with students, and appreciating their unique situations as key to being respected.

Prepare Teacher Candidates to understand student behavior and triggers – especially defiance and disconnection from school routines.

How can I connect with my Teacher Candidates’ course and program of study in a way that helps them bring their learning into the classroom?Ask questions about the Teacher Education program, their assignments and the expectations of their program. Make a plan together that will make sense for the students.

Give your Teacher Candidate some resources and supports related to their Program.

Introduce the Faculty Supervisor to the class.

Discuss things that are normalized in an inner-city school but not necessarily elsewhere. (ie the reasons you have granola bars and juice for the kids in your desk, community programming in the school, etc.)


As a Course Instructor, you are an invaluable aspect of the Teacher Education Program. One of your most important tasks is to engage Teacher Candidates with theoretical knowledge that will help them make sense of and direct their work as educators. However, your role is also to help them connect theoretical concepts to their developing teaching practice. Making these connections for Teacher Candidates in an inner-city practicum can be difficult without your focused

attention on the inner-city context within your educational goals. This will be invaluable in helping Teacher Candidates to make the connection between theory

and practice through relevant and meaningful course activities.

The following is intended to help guide you as a

Course Instructor for inner-city

focused Teacher Candidates.

advice forcourse instructors


Critically evaluate your own curriculum for cultural bias.

Be aware that Teacher Candidates may not have previous exposure to inner-city contexts, opportunities and needs. Find ways to help Teacher Candidates understand the context through your course. Make it a part of your course.

How can I support Teacher Candidates in my course who are completing an inner-city practicum?

The plans for drawing together the practicum with your course might not mesh well - have something else as an alternative. There are many interruptions and required school programming that cannot be changed. If your Teacher Candidate cannot do a particular assignment through their practicum time, then have another choice ready.

Do not focus solely on academic curricular objectives for assignments, but also the emotional and physical needs of students. Caring for the wholistic needs of the student is the most important priority in an inner-city practicum, and Teacher Candidates need support in this aspect through curriculum.

Be aware that there may be specific programming for reading, writing and math that need to be observed and cannot be replaced with other activities. Unless you have taught these programs, reserve judgement. If it is working for the school and the students then it is a valuable program.

Be aware that there are many interruptions and extra-curricular activities that are done during the school day in the inner-city. The timeline often changes and class composition changes often.

Allow for more choice in having Teacher Candidates partner with other Teacher Candidates that have their practicum in the same school.

Provide Co-Operating Teachers with more information about assignments meant for the practicum and their purpose. Get their input on feasibility and be responsive to their feedback.

What should I be aware of? I have no personal experience working in the inner-city as an educator.

Be aware of any assumptions you may have about inner-city neighbourhoods and collaborate with colleagues who can provide more insight. Assumptions about deficits is common and should be a point of self-reflection.


advice foradministrators

As Administrators, you have an important voice in shaping the vision of Teacher Candidates regarding your school and the larger inner-city community. While most of the interactions and practical work will be between the Teacher Candidates and Co-Operating Teachers, you also have an important role in

setting the tone for the practicum and providing supports that will ultimately benefit the school and build a teaching staff that is prepared to work in the inner-city context – or your school.

When you commit to accepting a group of Teacher Candidates within your

school you are committing to the education of those prospective teachers, but they will be of immense benefit to the school and district. You might consider the

opportunity of having Teacher Candidates in your school as part of your own growth as an educational leader, and think of ways of incorporating them into your larger plans for the school. The following are

some considerations for hosting a group of Teacher Candidates.


Should I host Teacher Candidates in my school? What are the benefits to the School?

Yes!! Hosting Teacher Candidates benefits the school and can link to your future teaching staff.

Teacher Candidates are knowledgeable and can be an important part of programming through offering resources and experience to the school.

A group of Teacher Candidates can be beneficial in both supporting each other through what can be difficult learning, and also providing the opportunity for teacher candidates to collaboratively organize unique events.

A group of Teacher Candidates can support programming that requires smaller teacher-student ratios, and can meaningfully link to the objectives of the school.

How do I get started with a new group of Teacher Candidates having a practicum at my school?

Meet with the hosting Co-operating Teachers as a group and ask how you can provide support throughout the school year. Make sure they are able to host a Teacher Candidate in their class each year – don’t assume.

Have plans for supporting Co-operating Teachers as mentors for Teacher Candidates – have check-ins planned into your schedule with Co-operating Teachers regarding their Teacher Candidates.

Put the timeline of the 1-day practicum visits and practicum blocks in the School Calendar for the entire school year. Include this in parental and school communication.


Meet Teacher Candidates as a group or on their own before they start their practicum, to share your experience and perspectives about teaching in the inner-city, and find out their goals and background. Make them feel welcome!

If this hasn’t been arranged, have Teacher Candidates complete a 1-page biography with a headshot that can be left with you to help with placement decisions. Decide collaboratively on placement decisions if possible.

Place Teacher Candidates collaboratively with specific Co-operating Teachers after you have met with them and have consulted with Co-operating Teachers.

Connect with Teacher Candidates by sharing your experience and perspectives about inner-city needs and opportunities and let them know how to get involved. Give them your vision of ‘why’ all of the dynamic programming and connections are happening, and share the larger goals you are working towards.

Once Teacher Candidates are assigned to specific classrooms, how do I support them?

Invite Teacher Candidates to put up their biographies in the lunchroom so others can get to know them.

Provide Teacher Candidates with a passcode for the printer and keys for the classroom. They need to feel welcome.

Meet with Teacher Candidates as a group again, and share your insights about the community of the school, school philosophy, and strategies for diffusing issues that emerge with students. Let them know they can consult with you.

Make plans for Teacher Candidates to observe different programming in the school. Show them how the school is responsive to the students and community.


Teacher Candidates might have little understanding of what it is like to live in economic poverty. If they do not have this experience, help them understand the multiple ways the school responds to this difficult issue.

Share your philosophy and purposes of the school with Teacher Candidates regularly. They were learning a lot when you first spoke with them and might not have retained your key message.

Share the data you are collecting and why it is important to the school – how this connects to the ‘why’ for what is going on in the school.

Encourage Co-operating Teachers and Teacher Candidates to work in a group on an event relevant to the community. Create opportunities to know more about the community.

Provide release time for Co-Operating Teachers to work with their Teacher Candidate. Their mentorship time is adding to their workload and this will help provide some balance.


You are the ‘face’ of the university in the practicum setting, and your presence and engagement in the school is immensely valuable. In an inner-city context this is equally important. If you are unfamiliar with an inner-city context, you can follow the advice that is provided to the Teacher Candidates – get to the know the neighbourhood. To understand the ways the school’s priorities and programming are responding to local needs and opportunities, you need to build relationships with the administrative team, and the teachers and students.

There are some unique considerations for the inner-city due to the dynamic and complex context for educating in a context

of poverty and stress, but also of the benefits of linguistic and cultural diversity. Your Teacher Candidates will have different capacities for engaging in the context, so you will need to keep an open-line of communication through regular visits and meetings. Through this regular contact, administrators

and teachers will have a better understanding of the Teacher Education Program’s goals. Also, you will have a greater understanding of the context of the inner-city school, and inner-city students’ backgrounds and their intellectual, social and personal development. This knowledge will

help you better prepare Teacher Candidates for their inner-city practicum experience.

The following is some practical advice to consider as a Faculty Supervisor.

advice forfaculty supervisors


I’ve never supervised practicum in an inner-city school, how can I learn more?

Go for a walking tour in the school neighborhood. Get to know the local community centre, organizations and shops, and have dinner in a local restaurant! Walk around the residential areas where the students are living. Same advice as for Teacher Candidates.

Meet with Co-Operating Teachers as a group and find out their priorities for the school and programming. Ask to see available data results on targeted programming in literacy and numeracy, and ask how the Teacher Candidates might fit into the programming.

Meet with Administrators and find out the ‘why’ of what they are doing. What are the big plans for the school?

Find out the community connections and supports that are working with the school. Inner-city schools have significant and numerous partnerships, and Teacher Candidates can get involved with these programs if you provide the connections and support.


What can I do to support the Teacher Candidates?

During orientation, give Teacher Candidates a balanced view of the challenges and opportunities in the context. Help them understand the community demographics and how the classroom is enriched with cultural diversity, diverse ways of knowing, and multilingualism. Also help them understand the challenges related to the stress on children and families of living in economic poverty, as well as traumas from experiencing refugee situations.

Schedule Professional Learning Meetings where Teacher Candidates can make sense of what they are experiencing and learning. A place where they can share their challenges as well as emerging practices they find effective. Make the inner-city a focus of discussion.

Make sure Teacher Candidates share their biographies with the Co-operating Teachers and Administration.

Become part of the school culture to ensure the students are comfortable with your presence. Find opportunities to connect with the students so that when you show up for evaluations of the Teacher Candidates, the students are focused on the lesson instead of you. If possible, come by the school when you are not evaluating.

How might my supervision differ in the inner-city?

Understand that your observations may not always go as scheduled, and that the primary focus is on the student’s well-being

– stay flexible. Understand that Teacher Candidates need to meet the students’ needs before they can meet those in the learning plan.

Understand that some things may be out of the Teacher Candidates’ control in the practicum context.

Do monthly check-ins with Co-Operating Teachers to keep a sense of the classroom that your Teacher Candidate has been placed in.

You can’t be too general when asking Teacher Candidates about their class. Be clear about demographics, needs, challenges, and opportunities in each class.

Be clear with Teacher Candidates about the need for differentiation of curriculum, and how to approach this.


advice forteacher education programs

The inner-city school environment is unique and the Teacher Education Program must respond to that uniqueness. Faculty members, including Course Instructors and Faculty Supervisors need to spend significant time in inner-city schools in order to develop an understanding of the inner-city context and understand how to build relationships of trust. The preparation of Teacher Candidates placed in an inner-city school must reflect this context and provide supports for these priorities. The following are some considerations for Teacher Education Programs.


How can the Program Organize to Support Inner-City Focused Teacher Candidates?

Consider making a specialized group that will focus on the inner-city by choice and have instructors knowledgeable about the context.

Give opportunities for Teacher Candidates to take different electives that are relevant to the inner-city.

Plan courses for learning needs such as “trauma-informed teaching” and “teaching in multilingual contexts”, etc. before scheduling practicum in inner-city schools. Teacher Candidates need this kind of course work before or during the practicum to feel more confident and effective in the practicum.

Consider a pass/fail system for practicum related courses where a pass reflects knowledgeable and effective performance. The goal in a professional program should be on meaningful, professional and collegial learning. The goal should not be high marks and competition between Teacher Candidates.

How can the Program Organize for Practicum Support?

Ensure there is a group of Teacher Candidates in one school together. Some days are very tough and emotional, and the support of other Teacher Candidates can make all the difference. This also helps the Teacher Candidates integrate into the school.

Provide some programming time for building relationships. It is important for the Faculty Supervisor and Teacher Candidates to build relationships within the school, and they need time to do this.

Host an orientation session for Co-operating Teachers at the University. Listen to their priorities as you share your own.

Create an inner-city advisory with experienced inner-city teachers to help guide the creation of assignments and connections and larger program changes.


connections andreferences

We hope this booklet has provided some insights and practices that may support

your own role working with Teacher Candidates in inner-city education. If you would like further information or to connect with us, please contact Dr. Jeannie Kerr at The University of Winnipeg at [email protected].

Abada, T., Hou, F. & Ram, B. (2009). Ethnic differences in educational attainment among the children of Canadian Immigrants. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 34(1), 1-28.

Gallagher, K. (2016). Can a classroom be a family? Race, space, and the labour of care in urban teaching. Canadian Journal of Education, 39(2), 1-36.

Silver, J. (2013). Aboriginal adult education: Combatting poverty and colonization. In J. Silver (Ed.) Moving forward giving back. Winnipeg: Fernwood Publishing.

Statistics Canada (2011). Immigration and ethnocultural diversity in Canada. Available at: https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-010-x/99-010-x2011001-eng.cfm.

Statistics Canada (2016). Education in Canada: Key results from the 2016 census. Available at: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/171129/dq171129a-eng.htm

Winnipeg School Division (2016). School demographics report 2015/2016. Winnipeg: Winnipeg School Division.

© 2019 Jeannie Kerr

This research was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

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