Early Societies and Networks of the Eastern Mediterranean

Chapter 4

Second millennium B.C.E.

Egyptians, Mesopotamians empires grew in strength

Competed with one anotherSmaller societies developed influential ideasEstablished cities, states

Hebrews – created the base for three major religionsMinoans – became a flourishing society and

an economic bridge between western Asia and S.E. Europe

Mycenaean – built the first cities in Greece

Phoenicians – created an important new alphabet, established colonies in western Mediterranean, migration & trade fostered networks connecting many ancient societies

Greece – Greek migrants began building an important society

Regional Climate

Cool rainy winters Hot, dry summers Many hills encouraged the planting of olive

trees and grape vines Olive oil and wine became export crops People raised pigs, sheep and goats Sea – fostered boat building, maritime trade

“Cosmopolitan” era

• The Late Bronze Age in the Middle East - 1550-1200 B.C.E.• Diplomatic relations• Commercial contacts• Flow of goods & ideas• Elites enjoyed high standard of living

Egypt – New Kingdom

17th century B.C.E., the Middle Kingdom declined

1640 B.C.E. Hyksos conquered Egypt The Hyksos possessed military technologies

– horse-drawn war chariots, & bow made of wood & horn

The Hyksos assimilated with the Egyptians

Hyksos were expelled from EgyptEgypt inaugurated the New Kingdom 1532 – 1070 B.C.E.Became aggressive and expansionist stateExpanded its territory to Syria-Israel in the

north, and to Nubia in the southWon access to timber, gold and copper, taxes

and tribute, and a buffer zone

Egypt participated in the diplomatic and commercial networks

Egyptians soldiers, administrators, diplomats, and merchants exposed Egypt to exotic fruits & vegetables & new technologies

King Akhenaten

Amenhotep IV– 1353 – 1335 B.C.E.Referred to himself as Akhenaten – sought to

spread his belief in Aten as the supreme deityDeparted from traditional ways Challenged the supremacy of the chief god

Amon Questioned the power and influence of the

priests of AmonClosed the temples of other gods

Attempted to reassert the superiority of the king over the priests

Renew belief in the King’s divinityOnly the royal family could worship AtenThe Egyptian people were pushed to revere

the divine ruler

• Built a new capital city• Commissioned art work depicting the royal

family in unconventional way• Neglected Egyptian policy of conquests and

expansions• His reforms were resented by government

officials, priests, and some elite

• After Akenaten death: • The temples were reopened• Amon was reinstated as chief god• The capital returned to Thebes• The institution of kingship was weakened• Play to the advantage of the priests

The Ramessides Dynasty1323 B.C.E.

• General Haremhab seized the throne & established a new dynasty – the Ramessides

• Renew Egyptian policy of conquest and expansion

• Ramsses II – Ramsses the Great ruled for 60 years

• Built all over Egypt monumental buildings

Commerce and communication

• Ramsses II fought the Hittites at Kadesh• No territorial expansion • Egyptian & Hittites diplomats negotiated a

treaty (strengthened by Ramsses’ marriage to a Hittites princess)

• At issue: control of Syria-Israel

• New modes of transportation were introduced

• Horses were brought into Western Asia around 2000 B.C.E.

• Influenced the speed of travel and communication

• Horses contributed to the creation of large states & empires

• Soldiers & officials could cover great distances quickly

• Horse-drawn chariots became the primary instrument of war

• The team of a driver and an archer fired arrows with speed & force

• By 1500 B.C.E. people in Western Asia began using the Camel

• Camels traveled across barren terrain• Emergence of 1. New kind of desert nomad2. Creation of cross-desert trade routes

The Assyrian Empire 911-612 B.C.E.

• Neo-Assyrian Empire emerged in Western Asia in the tenth century B.C.E.

• The first to rule far away lands and diverse people

• Created the largest empire in the world

• The Assyrian homeland was in a hilly area of northern Mesopotamia

• Mild climate and greater rainfall• Exposed to raiders from mountains (E & N) • Farmers defended themselves from raiders• The peasants-farmers constituted the foot

soldiers of the Neo-Assyrian army

• The king followed the most important trade routes

• Controlled the international trade• Provided booty, prospect of tribute and taxes• Secured access to vital resources – iron, silver

• The king was the center of the Assyrian universe

• The gods chose the king as their ruler• All the land belonged to him, and all his

subjects were his servants• Spies brought the king information from

every corner of the empire

• The king was the chief diplomat- He made all the decisions – appointed officials- Heard complaints- Received envoys and high ranking

government officials- The commander and chief

- Supervised the state religion- Ashur was the chief god - He initiated public and private rituals- Supervised the upkeep of the temples- Consulted the gods through rituals- All state actions were carried out in the name

of Ashur

• Government propaganda secured people’s support for military campaigns

• Royal inscriptions were posted throughout the empire boasting military victories

• Inscription emphasized the king charisma• Severe punishments to anyone who resisted

the king

Conquests and Control

• Superior military organization and technology

• Men served in return for grants of land• Peasants and slaves were donated to the

army by their landowners• By 744-727 Tiglathpileser created a

professional army

• Troops were divided to: 1. Armed bowmen and slingers2. Armored spearmen3. Cavalry equipped with bows/spears4. Four-man chariots5. Messengers & signal fires provided long-

distant communication6. Network of spies gathered intelligence

• The Assyrians used terror tactics – to discourage rebellion

• Swift and harsh retribution• Mass deportation and resettlement

elsewhere• The exiled worked on royal/noble estates• Opened new land for agriculture• Built new palaces and cities

Difficulties

• Vast distance• Varied landscapes• Diverse people• Control of the cities was tight• Control of rural areas - difficult

• The Assyrians exploited the wealth & resources of their subjects

• Wars and administration were funded by plunder & tribute

• Wealth from the periphery was sent to the city

• The king and nobility grew rich

• The state invested in the infrastructure • Expansion of the capital & religious centers at

Ashur• New royal cities - encircled by high walls

containing ornate palaces and temples

Assyrian Society

• Three classes – 1. Free landowning citizens - elite2. Farmers and artisans attached to the estate

of the king/rich landowner, merchants3. Slaves – debtors, prisoners of war

• The elite –• They were bound to the king by oaths of

obedience, expectation of rewards, fear of punishment

• The merchant classes- Thrived on expanded long-distance

commerce- Imported luxury goods – fine textiles, dyes,

gems, ivory- Silver – was the basic medium of exchange

• No preferable treatment: • Assyrian citizens, deportees, or immigrants

were referred to as “human beings”• All entitled to the same legal protection• All liable for the same labor and military

service

• Some Assyrian temples had libraries• The library of Ashurbanipal contained official

documents, literary, & scientific texts• Some documents are originals, some copies• “House of Knowledge” – an academy that

attracted learned men to the royal court

The Aegean World2000 – 1100 B.C.E.

The influence of Mesopotamia and Egypt was felt as far as the Aegean Sea

Emergence of the Minoan civilization Emergence of the Mycenaean civilization

• The landscape of southern Greece and the Aegean islands is mostly rocky and arid

• There is limited arable land suitable for grain, grapevines, and olive trees

• Small plains lying between ranges of hills – suitable for herds of sheep and goats

• Natural harbors and small islands in close proximity to each other

• Very little natural resources• The Aegean peoples had to import metal,

timber, and food supplies* The rise and the decline of these two

civilizations, were related to their commercial and political relations with other peoples in the region

The Minoan civilization

• Minoan –native of the island of Crete • Strategic location• Center for sea trade – Egypt, western Asia,

Southeastern Europe• Traded extensively with Sicily, Greece, the

Aegean Islands

• By 3000 B.C.E. used copper• Pioneered a mix agriculture – grape vine,

olive trees, grain

The Minoan had:1. Centralized government2. Writing system – not deciphered 3. Record keeping4. Monumental buildings5. Bronze metallurgy

The Minoans were influenced by Egyptian, Syrian, and Mesopotamian architecture:

Extensive palace complexes, government building

The palace complexes had high-quality indoor plumbing

Absence of fortifications at the palace site

The Minoans had a different concept of authority -

They did not have a king~1630 B.C.E. cities on the island were

destroyed

Art

Colorful frescos on walls of palaces portrays women engaged in conversation or watching rituals or entertainment

Statuettes of women with elaborate headdresses and serpents spiraling around their limbs suggest fertility goddesses

• Minoan vases depicting plants with swaying leaves may reflect a delight in beauty and order of the natural world

Mycenaean Greece

• Became an important power between 1600-1200 B.C.E.

Mycenae was built on a hilltop, surrounded by high fortification walls

Contained the palace and administrative center

• State controlled economy - Recorded people, animals, products and objects

• The government organized grain production & controlled the wool industry and the distribution to the people

• Warrior society – conquered Crete, all of southern Greece and the Aegean island

• Formed an empire• Collected taxes and tribute

• Continued Minoan trade networks• Dispatched ships to Sicily, Italy, Spain and the

Black Sea They traded wine and olive oil They exported weapons, slaves, and mercenary

soldiers May have transported goods of other people Minoan & Mycenaean imported amber, ivory,

grains, gold, copper and tin

• Spread bronze technology Cultural uniformity of all Mycenae centers Similar in shapes, decorative styles,

techniques of buildings, tombs, utensils, tool, clothing and work of art

• By 1200 B.C.E. – collapse• “Sea Peoples” – pillaged, disrupted trade

The Fall of Late Bronze Civilizations

• Around 1200 B.C.E. large numbers of people were on the move throughout the Middle East

• The demise of the Hittites kingdom in Anatolia

• The tide of destruction moved south into Syria, destroying Ugarit

• By 1250 B.C.E. the Philistines -“Sea People”- (hence the name Palestine) invaded Israel who was under Egyptian’s control

• Egypt lost all its territories in Syria-Israel• Egypt lost contact with the rest of western

Asia, and Nubia• According to Egyptian inscription, the

invaders were Greeks

• The end of the Mycenaean civilization illustrates the interdependence of the major centers of the Late Bronze Age

• Collapse in the political, economic and social realms

• The Greek language persisted, so was the religion

• One thousand years later people continued to worship gods mentioned in the Linear B tablets

• People continued to make vessels

Israel2000-500 B.C.E.

The Hebrews, a Semitic people, were one of many groups of pastoral nomads

Engaged in herding and caravan traffic, became sedentary, agricultural people

The Hebrews were led by powerful men known as patriarchs

Their monarchy lasted less than a centuryThe Hebrew contribution to religious history,

especially to Christian and Islamic traditions, exceeded that of either Mesopotamians or Egypt

• The history of Israel is marked by two grand & interconnected events

1. Developed complex political & social institutions

2. Integrated into the commercial & diplomatic networks of the Middle East

Transformed the strict cult of a desert god into the concept of a single, all powerful,

and all-knowing deity

Created ethical & intellectual traditions that underlie the beliefs and values of Judaism, Christianity, and, to a lesser extent, Islam

Israel is a crossroad, linking Anatolia, Egypt, Arabia and Mesopotamia

Its geographical location has given Israel an importance in history out of all proportion to its size

Origins, Exodus, & Settlement

- Information on the Israelites comes from :1. Archeological excavations2. Annals of Egypt & Assyrian3. The Hebrew Bible

-

• Tenth century B.C.E. traditions were written down in a script

• The text we have today is from the fifth century B.C.E.

• The spoken language was Hebrew• It is a Semitic language (related to Phoenician

& Aramaic)

• The Hebrews trace their ancestry as a people back to Abraham -2000 B.C.E.

• His two sons, Isaac and Ishmael, are considered the spiritual ancestors of three monotheistic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Islam

• Abraham was born into a polytheistic world – but he recognized one supreme god

• “Covenant” – pact with the Israelite’s god “Yahweh”

• Joseph was able to help his people when drought struck Israel and forced the Israelite to migrate to Egypt

• The Egyptians feared the Israelites, and reduced them to slaves, building projects for Pharaoh

• In the thirteenth century the “exodus” from Egypt, led by Moses, took place

. The Egyptians are complaining about Apiru- Scholars believe there is a connection between the similar sounding terms Apiru and Hebrew 3. The period of the Israelite slavery in Egypt coincided with the era of ambitious building programs launched by the New Kingdom pharaohs

• Probably oral tradition may have preserved memories of a real migration from Egypt

• Israelites wandered in the Sinai desert 40 years

• Covenant with Yahweh: they would be his “Chosen People”- if they will worship him

exclusively

• Moses is believed to be the founder of the Jewish religion

• Moses gave his name to a code of laws, including the Ten Commandments, by which the Hebrews governed themselves

• These are the basic tenets of Jewish belief & practice:

• The commandments prohibited: murder adultery theftlyingenvy

• It demanded: 1. Respect for parents 2. Rest from work on the seventh day - Sabbath

• The Bible tells how Joshua led the Israelites into the land of Canaan

• The “Children of Israel” were divided to 12 tribes

• Each tribe installed itself in a different part of the country- was led by a chief/chiefs

• These rulers had limited power – 1. Mediated disputes2. Saw to the welfare & protection of the

people

• Sagacious people were appointed “Judges”• Built a shrine on a hill near Shiloh • The shrine housed the Ark of the Covenant –• A scared chest containing the tablets that

Yahweh had given Moses

Rise of the Monarchy

• 1200 B.C.E. – time of trouble in the Mediterranean

• Philistines came to the area, settled along the coastal plain of Israel – frequent conflicts

• Samuel recognized the need for a stronger central authority to lead the Israelites against the Philistine city-states

• Saul was anointed as the first king of Israel-1020 B.C.E.

King David

• 1000-960 B.C.E. David was chosen as the second king of Israel

• He oversaw Israel’s transition from a tribal confederacy to a unified monarchy

1. Built a capital city – Jerusalem outside the tribal boundaries 2. Brought the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem3. Made the city a religious & political center of the

kingdom

1. Built a capital city – Jerusalem outside the tribal boundaries 2. Brought the Ark of the Covenant to

Jerusalem3. Made the city a religious & political center of

the kingdom

4. Conducted a census to facilitate the collection of taxes5. Created a standing army6. Won a string of military victories7. Expanded Israel’s borders 8. Equality – no one is above the law

King Solomon960-920 B.C.E.

• Marked the high point of the Israelite monarchy

• Alliances and trade linked Israel with near and distant lands

• Wealth was accumulated through military and commercial ventures

• Lavish court life• Sizable bureaucracy

• Chariot army made Israel a regional power• Ambitious building program employing slaves

and citizens• Solomon built the First Temple in Jerusalem• Israel had a central shrine• An impressive set of rituals • The Temple priests became powerful and

wealthy class

• The expansion of Jerusalem• New commercial opportunities• Increasing prestige of the Temple hierarchy• Changed the social composition of Israelite

society• -A gap between urban and rural, rich and

poor polarized a people that were homogeneous

• Israel split into two kingdoms:1. The northern kingdom – Israel2. The southern kingdom – Judah

- In 722 B.C.E. the Assyrians conquered Israel and resettled its inhabitants elsewhere in the empire

• New settlers were brought to Israel from Syria, Babylon, and Iran

• The newcomers changed the area’s ethnic, cultural, and religious character

• The kingdom of Judah survived a century longer

• In 586 king Nebuchadnezzar – Babylon-conquered the kingdom of Judah and exiled its king, the aristocracy and skilled workers to the Euphrates area

The bitterness of the “Babylonian captivity” Was reflected in a Hebrew Psalm: “By the rivers of Babylon there we sat down, yea we wept when we remembered Zion” Psalm: 137

• Most of the deportees prospered in the Babylonian captivity

• By mid century Cyrus the Great, conquered Babylon

• The exile ended in 539, when the Persian allowed the Jews to return to Israel

- Most of the deportees elected to remain in Babylon – “Diaspora”

• Jews who went back to Israel in the later 6th century B.C.E., rebuilt a Second Temple on Temple Mount in Jerusalem

• The Deuteronomic Code was drafted – law & conduct

• 5th century B.C.E. the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was compiled

63 C.E. Israel was conquered by the Roman Empire

In 70 C.E. 1. the Second Temple was destroyed 2. revolt against Roman’s rule and authority 3. the Jews were dispersed again

• From that time until the establishment of modern Israel in 1948 C.E. there was no independent Jewish state in Israel

Israelite family

Lived in extended family Marriage was arranged by the parent Male heirs were of paramount importance First born male received a double share of

inheritance

Any couple could adopt a child If a man died childless, his brother was

expected to marry his widow and sire an heir

Women

Women provided a vital portion of the goods and services that sustained the family

Women were respected, enjoyed equality with their husbands

Could not inherit Could not initiate a divorce If caught in extramarital relations – put to

death

• Working-class women labored in agriculture, herding, caring for the house, and children

• In urban centers – women worked outside their home as cooks, bakers, perfumers, wet nurses, singers

• Few women reached position of influence

“wise women”- composed sacred texts in poetry and prose

Because of male bias in the Hebrew Bible the women status declined as Israelite

society became more urbanized

Hebrew Religion &World History

• The religious history of the Hebrews, their ethical code, makes them memorable in world history

• The Hebrew developed four religious concepts:• Monotheism• Morality• Messianism• Meaning in history

Monotheism

Monotheism developed in two stages:While polytheism remained influential for

some centuries among other peopleThe Hebrews worshiped a single god YahwehYahweh made a “covenant” with their earlier

patriarchThis covenant was reinforced with the Ten

Commandments

Obey Yahweh, and he will protect themThis form of monotheism did not deny the

existence of other gods, but the Hebrews had only one

Over time, asserted there is only ONE GOD Yahweh for all people

Morality

It is not enough to obey the Bible’s social and ritual commandments

Following Yahweh meant leading moral life refraining from lying, stealing, adultery, and

persecution of the poor and oppressed

Mesianism

The belief that God had given the Hebrew people a special mission in the world

Messianism acquired a broad spiritual meaning of bringing proper ethical behavior to all peoples

• “I will give you as a covenant to the people, as a light to the nations, to open blind eyes, to bring out prisoners from prison, those who sit in darkness”

Isaiah 42:6-7, Holy Bible

Meaning in History

History itself has meaning and it moves forward in a progressive, linear fashion

Yahweh acted in history by making specific agreements with particular individuals

Human beings worked out their salvation by choosing good over evil

Gave birth to the idea of progress, the notion that the future will be better than the past

• Phoeniciaand

the Mediterranean 1200-500 B.C.E.

By 1200 B.C.E. the Middle East entered a violent period and mass deportation

Ancient Phoenicians who referred to themselves as Can’ani- migrated into the interior of Syria

Can’ani – settled in the interior of SyriaIsraelites – settled in the interior of IsraelPhilistines – occupied the coastPhilistines introduced iron-based metallurgy

Small city-states: Byblos - distribution center for cedar timber,

and papyrus Tyre – access to silver, food, and trade routes

(E/S)

Weakness – depended on food and fresh water supplies

All city-states turned to seaborne commerceThriving trade - cedar, pine, metals, papyrus,

incense, wine, spices, salted fish, textile, ivory

• Accumulated wealth• Important role in International politics• Rulers of the city-states were leading merchant

families• Preserved autonomy 1. Playing the great powers off against one

another2. Accepted subordinate relationship when

necessary

• The Phoenician developed an “alphabetic” system of writing

• The Greeks added symbols for vowel sounds• Created the first truly alphabetical system of

writing

• Constant conflict with the Greeks over colonies, trade

• Both fought for control of Sicily –brutal wars• Carthage – a Phoenician colony controlled all

of Sicily by mid 3rd century B.C.E.

Carthage

o Established around 814 B.C.E.o Strategic positiono Located between hilltop citadel and two

harborso Controlled the middle portion of the

Mediterranean

• The wealthiest and strongest Phoenician outpost

• Autocratic city government – political instability

• Differences in between the Phoenician settlers and the native Berbers

• Frequent wars with the Greeks

• 425 B.C.E. – expedition to North Africa• Seeking markets, route to Asia• Founded trading posts in Morocco

• Created an empire• Third century B.C.E. – controlled Spain, much

of the north African coast, the islands Sardinia, Corsica

o City’s central square housed government buildings

o Magistrates heard legal cases outdooro Judges – elected from the elite groupo Served as head of state

o Senate – leading merchant families, served for life

o Formulated policies, made decisionso Assembly of the citizens o – elect officialso - vote on important issueo The ruling class – shared the wealth

Policy

o Protected sea laneso Gained access to raw materialo Claimed waters of western Mediterranean –

its owno Signed treaties with other nation

o Carthage imported goods – textiles, animal skins, slaves, food

o Reexported raw material – silver, iron, tin, lead

o Carthage was one of the largest cities in the world (population 400,000)

o Ethnic diversity – Phoenicians, indigenous peoples, immigrants

War and Religion

o Allowed city-states in their “empire” to be independent

o These city-states looked for military protection, and supported Carthage foreign policy

o Sardinia under control – safeguard their agriculture, metal and manpower resources

o Citizens were not required to serve in the army

o Little to fear from North African populationo Relied on mercenaries o Separation between the army and civilian

government

o Gods – Baal Hammon – storm-godo Tanit – female fertility figureo Elite – sacrifice their own male children in

time of crisiso Tophets – walled enclosures where

thousands of small, sealed urns lay buried

• Plutarch – 100 C.E.“The Carthaginians are a hard and Gloomy people, submissive to theirRulers and harsh to their subjects,

Running to extremes of cowardice in timesOf fear and of cruelty in time of anger;

They keep obstinately to their decisions, Are austere, and care little for amusement or

The grace of life.”

Conclusion

• The Late Bronze Age expansion of commerce and communication – stimulated the emergence of new civilizations

• The interdependence of the societies of the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean made them vulnerable for destructions and disorder

• The entire region slipped into a “Dark Age” –• Isolated• Stagnated • Decline lasted several centuries