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international foundation for development alternatives fundacKSn intemacional para altemativas de desarrollo fondation intemationale pour un autre developpement

i f d a dossier 55 se~tember/october 1986

E S P A C I O LOCAL/LOCAL SPACE . Consejos verdes en Colombia (Maria Isabel Garcia) 3 . Health through people's empowerment 9 . Another development in health: A Zimbabwe case study (R.O. Laing) 1 3 . Earth architecture : A symposium in Beijing 16

NATIONAL SPACE . Indonesia: Cultural dimension of alternatives (Dawam Rahardjo) 17

ESPACE REGIONAL/REGIONAL SPACE . Science, technologie et coop6ration Sud-Sud (R. Andriambololona) 29 . Crisis and alternatives in the Arab world (I.S. El-Din Abdalla) 41

GLOBAL SPACE . The worlds of different peoples (Keith Buchanan) . The market as the sole master? (Martin Huslid) . World military and social expenditures

NEWS FROM THE THIRD SYSTEM . Asia: Grassroots and networking, the ACFOD experience . Afrique: Echo de 1'AFARD . Argentina: Una carta de CEDEPA . Bresil: FASE . Women living under muslim laws . Arable: CEREI . Needed: A new communications model for a new working-class

internationalism . Espafia: INAUCO . Canada: The Latin American Working Group (LAWG) . Survival International . Grassroots experiences in Latin America

LETTERS/FOOTNOTES/MATERIALS RECEIVED FOR PUBLICATION

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ifda dossier 55 . septiembreloctubre 1986 espacio local

MEDIO AMBIENTE Y DEMOCRACIA MUNICIPAL C O N C E J O S V E R D E S E N C O L O M B I A

por Maria Isabel Garcia IPS Apartado a6reo 7739 Bogota, Colombia

ENVIRONMENT AND MUNICIPAL DEMOCRACY: GREEN COUNCILS IN COLOMBIA

Abstract: The Colombian National Institute for Natural and Renewable Resources and the Environment (INDERENA), whose Director General was, until last August, Margarita Marino de Botero, a member of the IFDA Council, launched, on 12 October 1985, a future oriented campaign: the establishment of Green Councils in every one of the 1,000 municipalities of the country. The objective is at the same time to empower citizens to to take charge of their environment and to open a new space to local democracy.

On the basis of a survey carried out among municipal authorities, the theme of the campaign is summed up in a widely popularized motto: thousand mayors saw the future: Green Campaign to plant 10 million trees. It meets a widely felt preoccupation in the country, deforestation. INDERENA provides seeds and technical support, municipalities establish the nurseries and people plant and take care of the trees - all indigenous.

The evidence of the theme availed the campaign with an unprecedented support from the mass media, in particular TV channels and the two main dailies of the country. INCERENA distributed hundreds of thousands of leaflets, and the launching of the campaign occasioned popular celebra- tions following the traditions of each region.

Magistrates, professors, teachers, peasants, fishermen, ecological groups and civic committees adhered massively to the campaign, whose most forward-looking feature, beyond the planting of trees, is the establishment of Green Councils. Seven months after its beginning, almost 700 Councils had been constituted. On 5 June, World Environment Day (commemorating the opening in Stockholm, on 5 June 1972, of the United Nations Conference on the Environment) regional meetings of delegates from the Councils were held all over the country.

A singularity of the campaign is that it is the State which has taken upon itself to suscitate a form of autonomy of the civil society, and that it is the mayors (appointed by the Minister of Interior) who legal- ly set up the Councils. This is to say that the Campaign is not without ambiguities nor problems. What will be the attitude of the new administration (which assumed power on 7 August)? But on the basis of the first experiences, the initiators are confident: citizens are seizing the op-

portunity to intervene in the management of their own development and to open the debate on inequalities in the local space; the Councils have the means to become autonomous organs of the civil society; the process may become irreversible.

ENVIRONNEMENT ET DEMOCRATIE MUNICIPALE: CONSEILS VERTS EN COLOMBIE

Resume: L'Institut national des ressources naturelles renouvelables et de l'environnement de Colombie (INDERENA), dirigg jusqu'en aoiit dernier par Margarita Marino de Botero, membre du Conseil de la FIPAD, a lance, le 12 octobre 1985, une campagne porteuse d'avenir: la creation de Con- seils verts dans chacune des mille municipalites du pays. L'objectif est 2 la fois de faire assumer par les citoyens la responsabilite de leur environnement et d'ouvrir un nouvel espace 2 la democratic locale.

A partir d'enqustes aupres des autorites municipales, Ie theme de la campagne est resume dans un mot d'ordre largement popularise: maires sgment l'avenir: Campagne verte pour planter dix millions d'arbres. I1 repond i une preoccupation majeure du pays, la deforestation. L'INDERENA fournit les semences et un appui technique, les municipalites Ctablissent les pepinisres et les gens plantent les arbres - tous des- pgces indigenes - et en prennent soin.

L'evidence du theme a assure 2 la campagne un concours sans precedent des moyens de communication de masse, notamment les chaines de television et les deux principaux quotidiens. L'INDERENA a distribue des cen- taines de milliers de brochures, et Ie lancement de la campagne a donne lieu 2 des fetes populaires suivant les traditions de chaque region.

Magistrats, professeurs, instituteurs, paysans, ~Gcheurs, groupes ecolo- gistes, comites civiques ont adhere massivement 2 la campagne dont Ie resultat Ie plus porteur d'avenir, au del; des arbres plantes, est la creation des Conseils verts. Sept mois apres son debut, pres de 700 Con- seils verts avaient dej5 et6 constitues. Le 5 juin, journee mondiale de l'environnement (en comm6moration de l'ouverture, Ie 5 juin 1972, 2 Stockholm, de la Conference des Nations Unies sur llEnvironnement), des reunions regionales de delegues des Conseils se sont tenues dans tout Ie pays.

Le moindre des singularitgs de cet effort n'est pas que ce soit 1'Etat qui s'attache S susciter une forme d'autonomie de la societe civile, ni que ce soient les maires (designes par Ie Ministre de 1'Interieur) qui creent lggalement les Conseils. C'est dire que la campagne n'est ni sans ambiguites ni sans problemes. Quelle sera l'attitude de la nouvelle administration (entree en fonction Ie 7 aoiit dernier)? Mais sur la base des premieres experiences, les initiateurs sont confiants: les citoyens saisissent l'occasion d'intervenir dans leur propre developpement et d'ouvrir Ie d6bat sur les inegalites dans l'espace local; les Conseils ont les moyens de devenir des organismes autonomes de la societe civile; Ie processus peut devenir irreversible,

Maria I s a b e l G a r c i a

M E D I O AMEIENTE Y D E M O C R A C I A M U N I C I P A L

CONCEJOS VERDES EN COLOMBIA

L A CAMFANA VERDE

l I n s t i t u t e n a c i o n a l d e 10s r e c u r s o s n a t u r a i e s r e r . o v b l e s y d e l a m b i e n t e ( I N D E R E N A ) d e Colombia ha l a n z a d o una Campaiia s i n g u l a r y dig-na c e a t e n c i 6 n . Se ha p r o p u e s t o e s t i m u l a r l a c r e a c i 6 n d e c o m i t e s o " C o n c e j c s Verdes" e n t o d o s 10s m u n i c i - p i o s d e l p a l s . Su p r o p 6 s i t o e s d c b l e : p o r una p a r t e , v i n c u - l a r a 10s c i u d a d a n o s a 1 c u i a a d o d e l medio a m b i e n t e , y p o r o t . r a , c r e a r un nuevo e s p a c i o p a r a e l d e s a r r o l i o d e l a demo- c r a c i a m u n i c i p a l . Cabe s e f i a l a r , como hecho c u r i o s o , q u e s e t r a t a d e una i n i c i a t i v a d e l E s t a d o que b u s c a q e n e r a r una forma de o r g a n i z a c i 6 n aut6noma d e l a s o c i e d a d c i v i l . En G l - t i rao t 6 r m i n o s e p r e t e n d e que l a comunidad l o c a l , r e p r e s e n - t a d a e n l c s Conce jos V e r d e s , pueda i n t e r v e n i r e f i c a z m e n t e e n l a p l a n e a c i 6 n de s u p r o p i o d e s a r r o l L o con un sen-cido d e r e s - p o n s a b i l i d a d por e l medio a m b i e n t e . Es o b v i o que e s t o s Con- c e j o s s e c o n v e r i i r Z n tambien e n un f o r o p a r a e l d e b a t e s o b r e l a s d e s i q u a l d a d e s y a b u s e s p r i v a d o s a n i v e l l o c a l .

L a Campafia, l a n z a d a pf ib l icamente e l 1 2 d e o c t u b r e d e 1985 , a v a n z a con f u e r z a e n t o d o e l p a l s . De 10s m i l m u n i c i p i o s con Los que c u e n t a Colombia, ya c a s i 7 0 0 ha11 c o n s t i t u i d o s u r e s - p e c t i v o Conce jo a m b i e n t a l . En muchos d e e l l o s s e ha a l c a n - z a d c una representation i m p o r t a n t e de 10s d i s t i n t o s estamen- t o s , q r e m i o s y c l a s e s s o c i a l e s : campesir.os, m a e s t r o s , a u t o - r i d a d e s l o c a l e s , j o v e n e s , e t c .

A comienzos d e 1985 , l a G e r e n t e G e n e r a l d e l INDERENA, Mar- q d r i r a Marino de B o t e r o -- q u i e n e s miembra d e l Conse jo d e l a FIPA2 - e n v i 6 una e n c u e s t a a t o d o s 10s a l c a l d e s d e l p a l s . Indaqaba p o r e s t a d o d e 10s r e c u r s o s n a t u r a l e s e n l a l o c a l i - dad . Do e s t e p r i m e r sondeo f u 4 p o s i b l e c o n c l u i r que unc d e 10s problemas mZs s e n t i d o s e n t o d o e l p a l s e s el. p r o q r e s i v o a g o t a m i e n t o d e l a s f u e n t e s d e a q u a , d e b i d o a l a d e f o r e s t a - c i 6 n d e l a s c u e n c a s . En una sequnda e n c u e s t a s e i n t e r r o q 6 a 10s a l c a l d e s m Z s d e t e n i d a m e n t e p o r e s t a s i t u a c i 6 n y s e ave- r i q u 6 s i e x i s t i a n o no v i v e r o s n !un ic ipa les . S o b r e l a b a s e d e e s t a s a v e r i g u a c i o n e s y c o n t a c t o s i n i c i a l e s , s e e c h o a a n d a r o f i c i a l m e n t e l a Campafia e l 1 2 d e o c t u b r e d e 1985 , d i a d e f i e s t z national .

La carripana s e l a n z 6 con una c o n s i q n a a c o r d e a l a s d v e r i q u a - c l o n e s ya r e a l i z e i d a s : m i l a l c a l d e s S l e ~ i b ~ d n f u t u r c r c a ~ ~ ~ a i i a

verde para sembrar diez millones de arboles. El ob";tivo inicial de la Campafia consiste, Dues, en la creaci6r. de vi- veros rnunicipales con el proposito de que la cornunidad re- foreste las cuencas de sus rios con plantas nativas. La consigns, de cornfin aceptacion en un pais en dondc- se taian 700 nil hectareas a1 a6.0, di6 en el blanco. La Campafia co- menz6 a despertar el intergs de la ciudadanla. El INDERENA se comprometi6 a enviar las semillas adecuadas a cada muni- cipio, mientras el alcalde y la comunidad han ido tomanac a su cargo la construcci6n del vivero y, adelantaran poste- riormente, la implantation y cuidado de 10s Zrboles. El Ins- tituto ha enviado folletos y cartillas que ilustran sobre la manera de llevar a cab0 estas labores.

Para dar a conocer la Campafia a la opinion piiblica el I N D E - RENA ha recurrido a diversos medios. A traves de 10s dos periodicos mas importantes del pals, "El Tiempo" y "El Es- pectador", distribuyeron dos cartillas con 10s lineamientos fundamentales de la Campafia. Ademas, se public6 un bello candelario, un afiche y sellos adhesivos con el simbolo de 10s Concejos: un tierno brote de un 5rbol cuya hoja verde ondea como una bandera. Los adhesivos han comenzado ya a lucir en las ventanillas de 10s automobiles.

R E A C C I O N E S

La Campafia ha sido bien acoqida. El Procurador General de la Nation resolvio establecer una Division en su despacho para velar por el cumplimiento de la legislacion ambiental y es- cribio a 10s Personeros municipales, solicitZndoles su respaldo a la Campafia. De hecho, estos funcionarios, que re- presentan a la comunidad, han sido un apoyo importante de 10s Concejos. Las universidades han comenzado tambien a vin- cularse a 10s Concejos de su respectiva region. En cl Quindio, por ejemplo, 60 profesores universitarios se han puesto a disposition de 10s Concejos para prestarles su ase- sorla tecnica. El beneficio es doble: la Universidad arraiga en 10s problemas concretos del desarrollo regional y 10s Concejos obtienen una asesoria t6cnica importante.

La prensa nacional ha sido qenerosa: continuamente han apa- recido noticias acerca de la constitution de 10s Concejos Verdes en distintas partes del pals. Narro, por ejemplo como el Concejo Verde de Chia habia emprendido la tares de refo- restar toda la region. La Television present6 un caso nota- ble: se trataba de un terrateniente que se habia robado el acueducto y el aqua de tres municipios, sin que nadie, ni alcaldes ni concejos municipales hubieran podido hacer nada por evitarlo. El Concejo Verde, apenas constituido, se en- frento a esta dificil situation, acompafiado por la poiicia dieron captura a1 violent0 ciudadano, 10 enviaron a la car- eel y devolvieron el aqua a la poblacion.

Lo mZs importante es la acogida favorable y entusiasta que comienza a brindarle la poblacion. El poderoso qremio de

maestros ha comenzado a interesarse en la Campafia y se dis- pone a impulsarla entre sus 180.000 miembros. Campesinos y pescadores, grupos ecol6gicos, juntas civicas y comunales presionan a 10s alcaldes para que les de cabida en 10s Con- cejos.

LOS C G N C E J O S V E R D E S

El punto de apoyo y el resultado final de la Campafia son 10s 'Concejos Verdes" . Su naturaleza es contradictoria, como la realidad misma. Surgen por iniciativa del INDERENA que es entidad oficial, son nornbrados por 10s alcaldes municipales, per0 - como se dice en las cartillas de la Campafia - son orqanismos aut6nomos de la sociedad civil. En realidad el INDERENA recurri6 a 10s alcaldes porque eran el finico punto de referenda concrete y determinado a todo 10 largo y ancho del pals. For otra parte, siendo la autoridad local, tenian la suficiente influencia sobre la comunidad como para lanzar la idea. Hubiera sido imposible ponerse en relacion con qru- pos o personas particularss en todo el pals y estos mismos no habrian contado siempre con el respaldo de sus comuni- dades. Sin embargo, el recurso a 10s alcaldes presenta problemas: en muchos lugares estos han nombrado para el Concejo Verde a 10s mismos jefes tradicionales del lugar, en otros han nombrado a sus colaboradores y amigos. En estos casos tales Concejos no propician la amplia participation de la comunidad y en ocasiones se convierten en un ente burocrs- tico mSs, sin ninguna accion real. Afortunadamente, no ha sido asl en un buen nfimero de casos: donde habia movimientos ecol6gicos de larqa experiencia, estos han entrado a formar parte de 10s Concejos y se han convertido en sus prin- cipales animadores. En otros lugares, un alcalde joven y proqresista o una comunidad despierta han qarantizado la buena marcha del Concejo. No faltan municipios en donde el grupo, despues de un ISnquido comienzo, ha principiado a moverse gracias a la influencia de otros Concejos vecinos, o de diversas organizaciones populares.

La verdad es que 10s "Concejos Verdes" tienen aiin una naturaleza anfibia: son convocados por la autoridad local pero aspiran a ser organismos independientes del Estado. El IN- DERENA ha querido confiar a1 tiempo y la experiencia su evo- luci6n concreta, asi como su estructura interna y sus vin- culos institucionales.

Con el fin de promover un primer intercambio de experiencias, se celebrarSn a fines de junio cinco encuentros regionales de deleqados de "Concejos Verdes" de todo el pais. Seguramente all1 10s mSs actives y dinSmicos podran aportar su iniciativa y entusiasmo a los mSs indiferentes.

DESAFIOS Y PERSPECTIVAS El desarrollo y continuation de la "Campafia Verde" plantea qrandes desafios: querrs la nueva administration, que s e

i i i i c i 6 e l 7 de a q o s t o , s e q u i r irnpulsando e s t a nueva f o r n a de o r q a n i z d c i S n de l a coraunidad p a r a e l c u i d a d o de: ambience? Y s i no e s a a i , como q a r a n t i z a r la p e r m a r e n c i a de 10s Cor.ce- j o s ? A juzqar p o r l a f u e r z a que ha tornado er. a l g u n a s r e g i o - n e s d e l p a l s , el p r o c e s o e s i r r e v e r s i b l e y l a Ci mp:ii'!a c o n t i - n u a r 5 i n c l u s o s i n e l apoyo e s t a t a l . C5mc q 3 r a n t i z a r Â¥Jr r ' l u j o permanente de i n f o r m a c i 6 n y f o r r a c i O n airhier'ita:? h f c , r 4 ~ ~ r . a t 2 a - mente hay q r u p o s e c o l 6 g i c o s y p r o f e s i o n a i e s dc Icirga t r d y e z - t o r i a e n e s t e campo que s e han v i n c - i i ~ d o con en tus ias rno dl p r o c e s o . Con qu6 r e c u r s o s e c o n 6 ~ 1 i c o s 7 Es un i n t e r r o q a r . t e d i f l c i l . F o r l e y , t o d o n u n i c i p i o debe d e d i c a r el 1% d e s u p r e s u p u e s t o a l a reforestation. Alqo s s a l a r . Pero e s r a sums e s pequesa y no t o d o s 1 0 s rnunic ip io? l a reserx;an p a r a e s t e f i n . Y s o b r e t o d o , no s i e m p r e p e r n i t i r z r , que e l "Conce]o Verde" d i s p o n q a d e e s e d i n e r o . E s t e de I a f i n a n c i a c i 6 r - i , ha- b r a que d i s c u t i r l o a fondo e n i c s e r . cuen t ros r e q i o n a l e s . P e r o creemos q u e , e n l a medida e n que 10s Cunce jos d2Sempe- iien una l a b o r p o s i t i v a e n l a con-~unidad, pocir2n s o l i c i t d r r e c u r s o s m2s s i g n i f i c a t i v o s .

De t o d o s modos l a Carnpafia t i e n e s u g d r a n t i a en una d c b l e n e c e s i d a d r e a l : de una p a r t e , en e l d e t e r i o r o a c e l e r a d o d e l ambien te y 10s r e c u r s o s n a t u r a l e s que s e ha c o n v e r t i d o ya en un problema s e n t i d o p o r l a p o b l a c i 6 n . La q e n t e n e c e s i t a d a r una r e s p u e s t a a e s t e p rob lema. De o t r a , l a demanda de part:-- c i p a c i 6 n d e m o c r s t i c a e n e l d e s t i n o d e l p a l s p o r p a r t e cie l a s m a y o r i a s . Los C o n c e ~ o s son un p a s 0 mss en e s a direction.

HEALTH THROUGH PEOPLE'S EMPOWERMENT

M U L T I L E V E L I N T E R S E C T G R A L A C T I O N F O R

H E A L T H FOR A L L B Y T H E Y E A R 2000

Tonfac t : Dr. Graz ia B o r r i n i 4 2 3 h'arren Hal l School of P u b l i c H e a l t h U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a Berke ley , CA 9 4 7 2 0 , USA

We app laud WHO f o r t h e d e f i n i t i o n of health i t has aeve loped . T h i s d e f i - n i t i o n is broad enough t o i n c l u d e a comprehensive u n d e r s t a n d i n g of human wel l -be ing , beyond t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of h e a l t h s e r v i c e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n i t s e l f , t h e c a l l t o r h e a l t h t o r a l l has Led t o a r e - t h i n k i n g of t h e f u n c t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of s o c i e t y . To t h i s know- l e d g e we would l i k e t o add a few more c o n c e p t u a l s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , which have he lped u s u n d e r s t a n d and c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e meaning of h e a l t h .

. H e a l t h i s n o t t h e same f o r a l l . D i f f e r e n t peop le unders tand d i f f e r - e n t l y whac h e a l c h i s f o r them, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r c :ul ture, h i s t o r y , en- v i ronment , s o c i a l and economic o r g a n i z a t i o n s . That unders tand ing a l s o e v o l v e s w i t h i n t h e dynamic c o n t e x t of t h e i r - o c t e t i e s . Genera l i n d i c a - t o r s , such a s l i f e expec tancy , i n f a n t mortal- ' .y and l i t e r a c y , a r e use- f u l , bu t shou ld n o t b e assumed t o have t h e same meaning f o r a l l , a t a l l t imes . Less e a s i l y q u a n t i f i a b l e i n d i c a t o r s such a s s u s t a i n a b i l i t y of development , r a t e of p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p o s i t i o n of wonen i n so- c i e t y , l e a r n i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s and c u l t u r a l s u r v i v a l , a r e a l s o informa- t i v e and r e l e v a n t .

. H e a l t h i s an i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t and a c o l l e c t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y . H e a l t h a r i s e s w i t h i n a complex web of human, s o c i a l and e c ~ i o g i c i i l r e l a - t i o n s h i p s . I t does no t e x i s t s e p a r a t e l y from a h e a l t h y i :a tural eccsys - tern, nor from peace , j u s t i c e , c o l l e c t i v e i n t e l l i & e n c e and c a r i n g . l n - d e e d , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r ili n e a l t h can o t t z n G? ." ..a back C J po-Lici- c a l and economic v i o l e n c e and e x p l o i t T l c r . . .-, , . , . , ' z rhqo i .oe :c f - , p r e j u d i c i a l p o l i c i e s and l a c k of suc i : : L and h ram; ' 1 ~ , ' , , ,." T h ~ s :h :i:e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r and meanirg of i n L e r : s c t . ' Â ¥ r a .ac'Iion.

. Xeal th i s ~ c t - ~ ~ + g g : , ~ ~ e e d b j L:c:~j~~oaic ~ L . , $ - ~ J , ~ J E ~ L . <ome s t ~ % . i . ~ . . i c s i n d i c a t e a c o r r e l d t i o n between grow:h of G N P , a de:rei tse i n i n f a n t mor-

t a l i t y , and a n i n c r e a s e i n a v e r a g e l i f e e x p e c t a n c y . ?!any a l s o a g r e e t h a t i n s i t u a t i o n s of d e p r i v a t i o n , i n c r e a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y of goods and s e r v - i c e s i s h e a l t h p r o m o t i n g . However, economic g rowth s h o u l d n e t b e e q u a t e d w i t h h e a l t h ir.proveTTients. Some c o u n t r i e s w i t h a l ower GNP a c t u a l l y h a v e b e t t e r h e a l t h s t a t u s i n d i c a t o r s t h a n o t h e r s w i t h a h i g h e r G N P . And i t c a n n o t b e d e n i e d t h a t ne- h e : i l t h p rob l ems o f t e n a r i s e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f econois ic g r o w t h , and t h a t e v e n i n t h e n o s t i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t h e r e p e r s i s t s a h i g h l e v e l o f i l l h e a l t h .

I n t h e p r o c e s s of g rowth t h i s i s m a n i f e s t e d , among o t h e r phenomena, by t h e p a r a s i t i c i n f e c t i o n s which f o l l o w a l t e r a t i o n s i n e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e , by t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e of i n d i g e n o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s , t h e i n t r o d u c - t i o n o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e t e c h n o l o g i e s , and t h e r a p i d u r b a n i z a t i o n wh ich d i s r u p t s t r a d i t i o n a l c u l t u r a l t i e s . I n i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t h i s i s m a n i f e s t e d by h u n g e r , h o m e l e s s n e s s , v i o l e n c e , l o s s of p e r s o n a l a n d c u l - t u r a l i d e n t i t y , h i g h s u i c i d e r a t e s , a l c o h o l i s m , d r u g a d d i c t i o n a n d by w i d e s p r e a d c a n c e r and c a r d i o v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e s . These e x p r e s s i o n s of ill h e a l t h a r e o f t e n d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s o f economic ' d e v e l o p m e n t ' p o l i c i e s b a s e d upon t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f p e o p l e and t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e p r i m a r y h e a l t h c a r e components i d e n t i f i e d by WHO c o n s t i t u t e e s s e n t i a l outcomes t h a t i n t e r s e c t o r a l a c t i o n s h o u l d p r o v i d e . These i n c l u d e : e d u c a t i o n a b o u t p r e v a i l i n g h e a l t h p rob l ems and t h e me- t h o d s of p r e v e n t i n g and c o n t r o l l i n g them; p r o m o t i o n o f food s u p p l y a n d p r o p e r n u t r i t i o n ; a d e q u a t e s u p p l y of s a f e w a t e r and b a s i c s a n i t a t i o n ; m a t e r n a l and c h i l d h e a l t h c a r e , i n c l u d i n g f a m i l y p l a n n i n g ; i m m u n i z a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e m a j o r i n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s ; p r e v e n t i o n and c o n t r o l o f l o c a l l y endemic d i s e a s e s ; a p p r o p r i a t e t r e a t m e n t o f common d i s e a s e s and i n j u r i e s ; p r o v i s i o n of e s s e n t i a l d r u g s . However, t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t h e a l t h i s n o t t h e same f o r a l l , t h a t h e a l t h i s a n i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t a n d a c o l l e c t - i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , and t h a t h e a l t h i s n o t g u a r a n t e e d by economic g r o w t h , l e a d s u s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e p r o c e s s of a c h i e v i n g i t is a s i m p o r t a n t a s p r i m a r y h e a l t h c a r e i t s e l f .

We b e l i e v e t h a t deve lopmen t s h o u l d b e a h e a l t h - f o c u s e d p r o c e s s of change . A c c o r d i n g l y t o t h a t s t a t e d a b o v e , s u c h a p r o c e s s would b e n e c e s - s a r i l y r o o t e d l o c a l l y , i n t h e n a t u r a l and c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n s c o n c e r n e d , and u n f o l d f rom t h e empowerment, r a t h e r t h a n d i s - empowerment, of t h o s e whose l i v e s i t a f f e c t s . We b e l i e v e t h a t t h e e s s e n - t i a l d i f f e r e n c e be tween a h e a l t h - f o c u s e d p r o c e s s o f change a n d t h e u s u a l ' d e v e l o p m e n t * p r a c t i c e s i s t h a t i n t h e f o r m e r t h e l o c u s o f c o n t r o l i s a t t h e g r a s s r o o t s . The i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h i s k i n d of d e v e l o p m e n t , wh ich s h o u l d n o t b e r e s t r i c t e d t o ' d e v e l o p i n g ' c o u n t r i e s , b u t r a t h e r p u r s u e d a s a h e a l t h y change i n ' d e v e l o p e d ' c o u n t r i e s t o o , r e q u i r e s c o o r d i n a t e d e f f o r t s i n d i f f e r e n t s p a c e s :

1 . The l o c a l s p a c e

The l o c a l community, b o t h u r b a n and r u r a l , i s t h e mos t a p p r o p r i a t e and m e a n i n g f u l u n i t w i t h i n wh ich i n t e r s e c t o r a l a c t i o n s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e . A l l i n d i v i d u a l s i n a community l i v e i n a s h a r e d n a t u r a l , s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , and t o g e t h e r e x p e r i e n c e v a r i o u s n e e d s .

To be a b l e t o f o r m u l a t e and con t ro l . hea l th -promot ing change, t h e com.un- - i t v h a s t o be aware of i t s e l f and i t s own p o t e n t i a l power. G a t h e r i n g s L

and community d i s c u s s i o n s of h e a l t h problems and needs f a c i l i t a t e t h i s p r o c e s s , and h e l p peop le unders tand and s u p p o r t one a n o t h e r . Such meet- i n g s shou ld be promoted, w i t h p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n g iven t o t h e p a r t - i - c i p a t i o n and concerns of t h e most v u l n e r a b l e g roups and m i n o r i t i e s . A r i s i n g c o n f l i c t s a r e a p o t e n t i a l p o s i t i v e s o u r c e of change i n any community.

Primary h e a l t h c a r e workers have sometimes i n i t i a t e d community mee t ings b u t they a r e n o t t h e on ly p o s s i b l e c a t a l y s t s f o r such a p r o c e s s . Women's g r o u p s , u n i o n s , p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s , r e l i g i o u s o r g a n i z a t i o n s and l o c a l o r e x t e r n a l l e a d e r s have a l s o p layed t h a t r o l e . L i t t l e of t h i s k ind of p l a n n i n g can s u c c e s s f u l l y o r i g i n a t e o u t s i d e t h e community i t s e l f . Many o t h e r l e a r n i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s can a l s o h e l p peop le in form one a n o t h e r and i n i t i a t e change.

I t is i m p o r t a n t f o r a c t i o n t o deve lop from l o c a l d e c i s i o n making, because i t can t h e n e x p r e s s t h e h e a l t h of e x p e r i e n c e and concerns of t h e l o c a l p e o p l e , and be meaningful f o r their.

We b e l i e v e t h a t each community shou ld emphasize t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of l o c a l r e s o u r c e s and be minimally dependent upon e x t e r n a l i n p u t s and s u p p o r t . I n so d o i n g , ' s m a l l s i z e ' p r o j e c t s w i l l be deve loped , w i t h cor respond- i n g l y fewer chances of unforeseen s i d e e f f e c t s . Also t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s employed i n t h e s e p r o j e c t s , be ing a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s m a l l - s c a l e opera - t i o n s , w i l l be more l i k e l y t o be e a s i l y c o n t r o l l e d l o c a l l y , l e s s depend- e n t on e x t e r n a l i n p u t s , and l e s s e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y u p s e t t i n g .

When change i s l o c a l l y and d e m o c r a t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d , i t b e n e f i t s t h e p e o p l e who i n i t i a t e d i t , and who pay t h e s o c i a l c o s t s of c a r r y i n g i t o u t ( l a b o r , env i ronmenta l s a c r i f i c e , e t c . ) .

I n sum, we do n o t recommend community p a r t i c i p a t i o n s imply a s t h e b e s t 'means ' t o a n end . We r a t h e r b e l i e v e t h a t empowerment of t h e community, c u l t u r a l s u r v i v a l , and s u s t a i n i n g t h e l o c a l ecosystem, a r e h e a l t h ends themse lves .

2 . The n a t i o n a l space

By c o n c e n t r a t i n g on m e d i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s , h e a l t h p r o f e s s i o n a l s have o f t e n been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r b l o c k i n g deeper u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how i n t e r - s e c t o r a l a c t i o n is n e c e s s a r y t o improve h e a l t h . The r e c o g n i t i o n of h e a l t h a s a m u l t i - l e v e l i n t e r s e c t o r a l phenomenon compels u s t o r e d e f i n e h e a l t h competencies and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s w e l l beyond t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t of d i s e a s e .

We b e l i e v e t h a t m i n i s t r i e s of h e a l t h shou ld t a k e a l e a d e r s h i p r o l e wi th - i n n a t i o n a l governments t o a l l o w and f a c i l i t a t e t h e p r o c e s s of l o c a l d i s c u s s i o n of h e a l t h - r e l a t e d problems and needs , t o s u p p o r t t h e imple- m e n t a t i o n of h e a l t h p r o j e c t s dec ided upon by t h e l o c a l communit ies , and t o be r e s p o n s i v e t o community d e c i s i o n s abou t management and a l l o c a t i o n of s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s .

M i n i s t r i e s of h e a l t h s h o u l d work w i t h i n t h e i r gove rnmen t , p a r t i c ' ~ - l a r l y i n l o n g t e r n deve lopmen t p l a n n i n g , t o -- a s s e s s t h e h e a l t h c o n s e q u e n c e s and h e a l t h i ~ p a c t s of any l i i r g e s c a l e p o l i c y o r i : . t . - : rvent ion.

M i n i s t r i e s o f h e a l t h s h o u l d p e r s u a d e n a t i o n a l . gove rnmen t s t o s t o p ~r ~ o d i f ~ p r o g r a r i s , wheneve r t h e s e i n j u r e p e o p l e , harm t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r d n - l e n t o r b r e a k f u n d a m e n t a l s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l t i e s .

Y i ~ z i s t r i e s of h e a l t h s h o u l d a l s o p r o m o t e , b o t h w i t h i n t h e n a t i o n a l go- emr r . r i r i t snd i n t h e i r s o c i e t y a t l a r g e , a n ' i n t e r s e c t o r a l ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g r t h e a l t h a s p a r t o f b a s i c e d u c a t i o n p rog ram? .

". , . n e x o s t urgent : a c t i o n f o r h e a l t h t h a t 211 n a t i o n a l gove rnmen t s c a n + e , m - e v e r , i s t o c u r b v i o l e n c e and m i l i t a r i s m i n d l l t h e i r f o r m s , b e

-- the: i n i e r n a l p o l i t i c a l r e p r e s s i o n , p r o d u c t i o n a r d s a l e of weapons , o r t h e n u c l e a r arms r a c e . T h i s w i l l improve t h e h e a l t h o t t h e i r p e o p l e d i - r e c r l v &Â¥ w e l l a s i n d i r e c t l y , by i a p r o v i n g human r i g h t s and r e l e a s i n g r e s i - , i r c p s f o r h e a l t h p r o j e c t s .

3 . =c-international s p a c e

T n t e r r i a t i o ~ ' . a l b o d i e s , arid p r i m a r i l y WHO, s h o u l d mcike u s e of i n t o r s e c t o c - a l , m u l t i - l ~ e l w o r k i n g g r o u p s when exami i i i ng h e a l t h i s s u e s . These g r o u p s c o u l d i n c l u d e cocmun i ty w o r k e r ? , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f i f i t e r d i s c i - p l i n a r y u n i v e r s i t y p r o g r a m s , members of ' non -gove rns i en t a l ' and gove rn - meni-a! f a n c i e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h members of tht! i n t e r n a t i u n a l b o d i e s thexi- s e l v e s .

WHO i s a l s o t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e body t o c a l l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p o l i c i e s of o t h e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s wh:?ch i n f l u e n c e h e a l t h . Whenever n e c e s s a r y , i t s h o u l d a d v o c a t e t h e i r change .

F o r i n s t a n c e , WHO s h o u l d i i ugges t t h a t t h e 1M! a n d World Bank a d j u s t m e n t p o l i c i e s f o r c o u n t r i e s i-n f i n a n c i a l c r i s i s i n c l u d e h e a l t h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and h e a l t h and hun'i-n r i e h t s g i , a l s .

WHO s h o u l d a l s o s u p p o r t i n i e r s e c t o r a l h e a l t h a c t i o n b o t h n a t i o n a l l y ( a s d e s c r i b e d b e f o r e ) and i n t e r ? . i t i o n a l l y ( f o r i n s t a n c e , by p r o m o t i n g t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e e n v i . r ~ n , ~ c n c a c r o s s n a t i o n a l b o r d e r s , o r by r e q u e s t - i n g t h a t a i d a g e n c i e s ~ e f o r m n l c i t e t h e i r p rog rams a c c o r d i n g t o i n t e g r a t e d h e a l t h p r i o r i t i e s ) .

I n t e r n i i t i o n ^ i l p romot ion and ~ ~ ~ p ; : > r t . a r e i m p e r a t i v e t o c a r r y o u t i n d i g e - nous1.y d e v i s e d pJd-11s f o r c h a n g e . I n i i c ~ , W i C i t s e l f c o u l d b e t h e b e s t p r o m o t e r of a new u n d e r s t a n d i n g i,f . develop.x,ent -. -. --- P a s a h e a l t h - f o c u s e d p ro - c e s s 01 c h a n g e . -- - -

ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT I N HEALTH; A ZIMBABWE CASE STUDY

by Dr. R.O. Laing* 1 Piper Passage Lewes, Sussex, Enqldnd

In Uppsala in April 1975 during the preparatio:: of the L)ag Hammarskjold Report l 9 7 5 What Now: Anckher Dex;~?lc,~r,~?r:t a psn..:l considered "Alterr.stives in Health". A follow up seminar in June 1977 considered "Another Development in Ht?dlth1' I/ and this seminar was attended by Hafdan Mahler, Director - General of the World Health Organization who was a major force 1.1 the Alma-Ata conference of Septem,ber 1'378 at which Primary Health Care was declared to be t h e basis of Health for All by the year 2000. Thus another development is linked with alternative approach to health as international public health policy.

The principles of Primary Health Care are clarly defined i.3 the Alma Ata Declaration 11 as: . Equitable distribution . Community involvement . Preventive and promotive approach . Appropriate technology and . Multi-sectoral approach

These principles should be seen as fundamental and any prolect or programme that claims to be of "Primary Health Care" nature must work towards the implementation of all these principles. There is considerable misunderstanding in industrialized countries where Primary Health Care is taken to mean the first point of contact with health services; this could more accurately be termed "Primary Medical Care".

The components of Primary Health Care are also listed in the Alma Ata Declaration but include a crucial introductory phase:

. Health education Food and nutrition

. Drinking water and sanitation

. Maternal and child health including family planning

. Immunization

* Drl. 3.0. Lainq of Zimbabwe, you or. a study leave in England, pr~epared . . thi.3 note f o r a seriinar on "Answer :.evelopnent zn tt:e S o u t h e r African :e?e:rfyr'\ev1.t CQ/?~T<Q,-.^"'~YI 'Meye f i ce (.;&''Cl C r ^ w : ~ < ~ s " ' hetd % i'cseyu f h ~ 0 t k C ) ir . > ~ o L ' C ~ T ~ < ? 2295.

. Prevention and control of locally endemic diseases

. Provision of essential drugs

This is a minirum list and all effective Primary Health Care programmes will inevitably i r i c i u d e other components as a result of community involve.rent ami the multi-sectoral &p- preach. Primary Health Care is a radical alternative approach to health and it cannot be seen as purely a means of improving existing conventional traditional medical systems.

As Primary Heal-th Care projects have been implemented a further differentiation in approach has occurred with the distinction between the two poles of community supportive and community oppressive as defined by Werner (1977) 3 / .

Commun~ty sup~or- programmes or fcnctions are those which favourably influence the lonq ranqe welfare of the conLmu- nity, tha-t help it stand o n its own feet, that genuinely encourage responsibility, initiative, decision making and self reliance at the community level, that build upon human dignity.

Community oppressive programmes or functions are those which, while invariably giving lip service to the above aspects of community input are fundamentally authoritarian, paternalistic or are structured and carried out in such a way that they effectively encourage greater dependency, ser- vility and unquestioning acceptance of outside regulations and decisions, those which in the long run are crippling to the dynamics of the community.

The Bindura Farm Halth Worker project attempted to develop a community supportative health scheme.

The project arose out of a survey that documented the poor health situation existing within the employed agricultural worker sector in Zimbabwe. when these results were reported back to the workers who had been surveyed, the outline of the scheme was developed in discussions between hospital staff, workers and their wives.

The scheme involved the workers selecting two mothers, usually illiterate, to come for a month of training in an appropriate technology village. The mothers were trained in nutrition, health subjects, water and sanitation and at their request pre-school organisation. At graduation attended by senior officials the mothers presented a drama of what they had learnt and this was later copied as a health education technique.

3 / Werner, "?he Village Health Worker: Lackey or Liberator."", C o n t a c t (August 1 9 8 0 ) .

14

On return to their villages, after a significant delay, improvements in hygiene and in the provision of a ore-school area occurred. The wcmen were supported by a ~.obile tean which proX/lded a monthly back up service as ell as preventive, promotive and curative services and participated with the farm health workers in a health education drara and song routine.

Improvements in sanitation occurred through the traininc of farm builders or the community themselves in the construction of low cost. VIP latrines. Corrmunity participation occurred at. many levels but the most important was in the reg- ular large meetings where the programme was planned. As a result of these meetings initiatives in water supplies, ma- ternity and trade union training occurred.

The benefits of the scheme have been evaluated externally in terms of improvements in nutrition status, immunization status, environmental hygiene and many other indicators.

The costing of the programme at Zs1.73 per head per year was well within the national health budget allocation of Zs8.80. The source of the funds was from four sources: donors Z$28,800, Bindura hospital Z$21,700, the farmers Z$32,900 and the workers Z$14,600. As a result of the prolect over twenty communities combined together to construct a large rural health centre with government support.

Within Zimbabwe the scheme has now been duplicated in 13 other rural councils, some with international support, UNDP, SIDA, SCF and some from existing resources. When all such schemes are running over 400,000 people will be covered.

The implications of this scheme are that ir. Zimbabwe basic health services can be provided for the poorest and most deprived communities through the Primary Health Care Ap- proach. Internationally agricultural/plantation workers live in similar circumstances and this scheme together with other similar schemes in south India 4 / , Sri lanka 5 / and the Phi- lippines show possible means of health for all these people.

In conclusion health can be substantially improved through the Primary Health Care approach but the degree of overall intersectoral development will determine the final state of health of a community.

5/ C . Eckstein, "Improving Conditions o f V c r k s r s o-". >a Z:;rc+esf', Vater- - 7 . t*Zr!@S (7<CL. 3 , ?;O4, : $ L ? $ ) ? p . 3 -2 .

EARTH ARCHITECTURE

A SYMPOSIUM I N BE!JIhS

One t h i r d o f cne x o r l d p u p u l a t i o n Lives i n e a r t h d w e l l i n g s , and UN s t a - t i s t i c s s u g g e s t t h a t scne 800 m i l l i o n houses a r e needed j u s t t o meet t h e needs o f t h e p o o r e s t amongst u s , t h e more a c u t e problems b e i n g i n t h e r u r a l area.- where e a r c h a r c h i t e c t u r e h a s always been and s t i l l i s i n common u s e .

T h i s was t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t of an I n t e r n a t i o n d l Symposium on E a r t h A r - c h i t e c t z r e h e l d i n B e i j i r ~ g i n November 1984 a s t h e c u l n i n a t i n g p o i n t of f i v e y e a r s of r e s e a r c h i n t o v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of e a r t h a r c h i t e c t u r e i n China.

Contemporary concerns w i t h energy c o n s e r v a t i o n , r a t i o n a l u s e of l a n d , p r e s e r v a t i o n of eco-systems and c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e g i v e s e a r t h a r c h l t e c - c u r e new r e l e v a n c e , s a i d t h e Symposium's c h a i r p e r s o n Pen Zhenying, c h i e f a r c h i t e c t of t h e C i t y of Lanzhou.

Papers were p r e s e n t e d by a number of t h e 160 participants (among whom some 50 Japanese a r c h i t e c t s ) i n c l u d i n g t h e "pope" of e a r t h a r c h i t e c t u r e , J e a n D e t h i e r , who organ ized t h e enormously s u c c e s s f u l i n t e r n a t i o n a l ex- h i b i t i o n on E a r t h A r c h i t e c t u r e , s t a r t i n g i n 1981 a t t h e C e n t r e Pompidou i n P a r i s , S i l v i a Matuk of CRAterre (Cen t re f o r E a r t h Research Applica- t i o n ) i n P e n and Hugo Houben of CRAterre i n Grenoble ( F r a n c e ) . D e t h i e r and Houben r e p o r t e d on t h e 6 2 - e a r t h - b u i l t d w e l l i n g s i n t h e new town of L ' I s l e dlAbeau n e a r Grenoble and on t h e proposed I n t e r n a t i o n a l . I n s t i t u t e f o r E a r t h C o n s t r u c t i o n , Ramesh Manandhar on l e s s o n s from e a r t h r o o f i n g i n A u s t r a l i a and Nepal , Hugo Navarro on e a r t h c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s a p p l i e d t o t h e humid t r o p i c .

The p roceed ings of t h e Seminar , c o n s i s t i n g of 75 i l l u s t r a t e d p a p e r s i n E n g l i s h , c o n s t i t u t e a 530-page volume p u b l i s h e d by t h e A r c h i t e c t u r a l . A s s o c i a t i o n of China. Among o t h e r p a p e r s was An i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a n u a l 2 s t a b i l i z e d e a r t h c o n s t r u c t i o n p u b l i s h e d by t h e I f i t e x n a t i o n a l Foundat ion f o r E a r t h C o n s t r u c t i o n (2501 M. S t r e e t N W , Washington DC 20037, USA).

The Symposium was organize! by t h e A r c h i t e c t u r a l S o c i e t y of China and was CO-sponsored by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union o f A r c h i t e c t s , t h e Aga Khan A r c h i t e c t u r a l Award Foundat ior t and t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Foundat ion f o r E a r t h C o n s t r u c t i o n whose p r e s i d e n t , E r i c C a r l s o n , s e r v e d a s v i c e - c h a i r - pe rson of t h e Symposium.

Jean Dcthier, Ie prongtcur de ? 'Â¥' irchitec^vr en t e r r e er. o r i ~ m ~ ~ ~ n f - e u r ~ d'une expos i t i on - 'Les archikes tares de t e r r e - pi a J a i l Le t m r du monde, t r a v a i t l e 6 l a c rea t ion d 'un i n s t i t u t in ternat ional , de La cm- s t r u c t i o n en t e r r e , sur lequel nous reviend"ons. \'o^r a't-ja la revue .? publzke Paris par Z'b'm-on nat ionale des ,?LI~ ( J o X 1 ) . (Jean Pethier,, 27 rue Quinccqioix, 75004 Paris, France).

i f d a o o s s i e r 5 5 . s e g t e ~ b e r / o c t o b e r national s p ? c e P- -

INDONESIA: CULTURAL DIMENSION OF DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES

b y M . Dawam R a h s r d j o FOB 4 9 3 J K T J a k a r t a B a r a t , I n d o n e s i a

;b :s t racL; On t h e b a s i s o f a n r v c r v i m of c h a n g e s i n I n d o n e s i a s i n c e In - dependence , t h e - l u tho r examine:: :he e x p e r i e n c e s of ' m o d e r n i z d . t i o n ' , u s - L a l l y c a l l e d ' d e v e l o p m e n t ' . E s s e n t i a l l y , m a t e r i a l g rowth was s e e n a s t h e y a r d s t i c k of ' p r o g r e s s ' , and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e was t o t r i c k l e down. The a v a i l a b i l i t y of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s made t h e c h o i c e work - t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . Bur t h e i n d ~ s t r i a l i z a t i o i ' ~ p r o c e s s - f o r which t h e West was t h e modei. and o f t e n an d g e n t - r e s u l t e d i n cite i m p o s i t i o n of f o r e i g n v a l u e s and c o n s u i i p t i o n p a t t e r n s upon t h e s o c i e t y - i n f a c t i n c u l t u r a l a l i e n a - t i o n . The s o c i e t y however d i d n o t l e t t h e p r o c e s s go w i t h o u t r e s i s t a n c e . Tak ing t h e e x a a p l e , among o t h e r s , of a n a t i o n a l g e n u i n e p r o d u c t i o n , t h a t f b a t i k , t h e a u t h o r shows t h a t a new a w a r e n e s s i s e a e r g i n g . F o r e i g n m o d e l s , f rom e i t h e r West o r E a s t ( i n t h e p o l i t i c a l s e n s e ) have p roven n o t t o work. Tlie q u e s t i o n i s w h e t h e r some k i n d o f a l t e r n a t i v e d e v e l o p - ment model , r o o t e d i n t h e c u l t u r e and r e s o u r c e s of t h e c o u n t r y , c a n b e d e v i s e d 2nd imp lemen ted . I t s c o n d i t i o n i s t h e deve lopmen t of a c u l t u r a l movement o f t h e p e o p l e .

INDONESIE: L A D I M E N S I O N CULTURELLE D'UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT

R:. (-,;-,ume: A p a r t i r d f u n s u r v o l d e s changemen t s s u r v e n u s e n I n d o n e s i e de- -- p i s l ' I n d e p e n d a n c e , l ' a u t e u r examine l e s e x p e r i e n c e s d e ' m o d e r n i s a t i o n ' h a b i t u e l l e m e n t a p p e l e e ' d e v e l o p p e m e n t ' . E s s e n t i e l l e m e n t , l a c r o i s s a n c e m a t e r i e l l e a e t 6 c o n s i d e r e e c o m e l a mesu re du ' p r o g r s s ' , e t t o u t I e r e s t e d e v a i t e n d e c o u l e r . Les r i c h e s s e s n a t u r e l l e s du p a y s o n t p e r m i s a u :odGle d e f o n c t i o n n e r - j u s q u ' 2 un c e r t a i n p o i n t . Mais I e p r o c e s s u s d ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n - a u q u e l 1 ' O u e s c a f o u r n i I e modele e t 1 ' impu l . s i on - a r e s u l t 6 d a n s l ' i m p o s i t i o n d e v a l e u r s G t r a n g s r e s y c o m p r i s d e s h a b i - t u d e ? de consommation - e n f a i t une p r o f o n d e a l i e n a t i o n c u l t u r e l l e . La s o c i e t 6 n ' a c e p e n d a n t p a s l a i s s e I e p r o c e s s u s s e d g r o u l e r s a n s r 6 s i s - t a n c e . P r e n a n t notamment L 'exemvle d ' u n e p r o d u c t i o n n a t i o n a l e authen- . t j c u e , r . e l l e du W, l ' a u t e u r m o n t r e l ' z m e r g e n c e d ' u n e n o u v e l l e ~ r i , + e de c o n s c i e n c e . Les mode ie s e t r a n g e r s , q u ' i l s s o i e n t de 1 ' O u e s t ou de 1 ' E s t ( a u s e n s p o l i t i q u e ) , s e s e n t a v e r s s non p e r f o r m a n t s . La q u e s t i o n e s t d e s a v o i r q u e l modele a l t e r n a t i f de d e v e l o p p e m e n t , f ond6 s u r l a c u l - t u r e e t l e s r e s s o u r c e s d u p a y s , p e u t ? t r e d e f i n i e t m i s e n o e u v r e . La r e n d i t i o n e n e s t I e d e v e l o p p e n e n t d ' u n movement c u l t u r e 1 p o p u l a i r e .

I N D O N E S I A ; CULTURAL D I M E N S I O N OF DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES

Development is an interdisciplinary tenet, the interpretation of which is historically bound. In other words, it is heavily contextual to a history of a certain society. In Indonesia, for example, development has only become familiar among cormunities since it was popularized by the government in the early seventies, although it can still mean different things to different people.

In the period before the New Order government, the everyday word to itemize efforts for social change was "revolution". In that time, the word "modernization" seemed to sound "subversive". Modernization, in the context of the revolutionary atmosphere, implied something which ran contrary to the aim of revolution. Now, most people will avoid using the word revolution because, in t.he present context, it turns out to contain a meaning against the established power, thus becom- inq subversive...

From 1959 to 1965, the Indonesian government placed itself as the "leader of the revolution", often symbolized by Pres- ident Sukarno. The society was divided into two groups, the revolutionary forces and the reactionary or anti-revolutionary force. With that categorization, the government and those in power aimed at a process of social change. In a positive term, the social change was directed to nation and character building rather than economic growth. The latter, as we mean it today, although it did also occur at that time, was not significant nor publicly articulated.

In 1966, a major shift occurred following the power change. The new regime promulgated a new policy placing economic growth as a central theme. This was different from the pre- vious period in which politics was declared a commanding sector. The intellectuals said that the economic growth was not founded upon economic principles, but based on political logic. This explains why the economy then collapsed and was unable to support its own development.

In the early 70s, "development" became a new "ideology", a sort of "secular religion" in the industrial. countries, at least in the governmental realm and groups of society which were gradually expanding. Economic development, as Daniel Bell puts it, had become a source of motivation, a basis for political solidarity and a mobilization of society for a common purpose. Material development was used as a yardstick to measure progress. Development of non-material sectors such as education, religion, health and other social welfare was measured with physical quantities in the form of investment value of physical achievement. A method of mea-

suror.er.t such as that had never been applied before. Such a neasurcment 'nethod does not owe its influe:!ce to econcn'ics only. Indeed it is more fundamentally derived from the concept that social, political and cultural development is a function of economic growth. In other words, all other sectors will develop by themselves if econoEic growth occurs.

Whdt is described above truly happens. The process i - s k e s place because of the ability of the govzrnment to orcaxise funding, initially from foreign credit, foreign investment, then later from oil and gas income. With the large amount of revenue that the government can collect, it can build schools, hospitals and public health centers, cultural centers, promote publication activities, 3cl.p the communities to build mosques and religious educatic :L institutions, and uplift general social welfare. With the availability of funds, the government can also financially afford political stability through the mobilization of social groups, provision of propaganda or information and the enforcement of law and order. Even idealistic notions such as unity of national integration, can be realized systematically through the utilization of those funds.

In the last twenty years or so, the social development in Indonesia and elsewhere in Southeast Asia, has been moved by the concept of economic growth, but in Indonesia, this only happened at a later stage. In other parts of Southeast Asia, foreign capital had entered earlier. There, the source of economic growth and the inflow of foreign capital rests on agricultural and mineral resources, but in Indonesia, oil and natural gas, and probably also timber, are the attrac- tion for foreign capital and the main source of capital formation and financing. In other countries such as Singapore or the Philippines, perhaps people have to work more to achieve economic growth and therefore human resources have been developed much further or are being developed much fas- ter. Without counting oil and natural gas for example, the Filipinos are more successful and have developed more in terms of their capability to produce industrial goods compared to Indonesians, as is shown in the Philippines ability to export industrial or processed goods. Although many Indo- nesians go to the Philippines to study agriculture and management, they can also learn how the Filipinos have developed handicrafts.

Economic growth in Indonesia and Southeast Asia is taking place through industrialization which agriculture and other sectors are geared to support. To industrialize, Southeast Asian countries have to import machinery, raw materials and energy. Singapore, Thailand and the Philippines have to pro- vide more foreign exchange to import the energy, especially oil, while Indonesia, which possesses its own oil and natural gas resources, has to import machinery and raw materials. In short, all countries basically need a large amount of

foreign exchange to be able to industrialize. Without including oil and gas, the exports from the Philippines, Thailand and Singapore, are larger than Indonesia's. The position of Malaysia as an exporter of oil and ocher miner- als, besides agricultural raw materials, is similar to t-het of Indonesia which still is able to i7.dintain a surplus in its trade balance.

The notion of industrialization in fact operates within a broader concept, that is, modernization. Formally speaking, modernization is understood as a process whereby a society is chanqizq and developing from a tradition,il agrarian one rewards a modern industrial one. Traditiona l society 1:;

viewed as an original condition as if there were no p r ~ o r historical stages. On the other hand, a modern-industrial society is imagined as the ideal type as is reflected in the now industrial corntries of the West. Between the two societies, there is a gap which should be Â£iilt: with d pro- qram of modernization or "development", th.at is a program to disseminate knowledge, skills, organization, values, technology and capital form "advanced" to "underdeveloped" countries. On the basis of experiences of Western Europe and North America in their early stages, the Third World societies are expected to move from the traditional st.ige, with some prerequisites to be met, to the condition or take oif and, finally, to enter the industrial stage chaiacterized by high mass consumption as described by Rostow.

The modernization concept with industrialization as a cdre, with or without rhetoric, has been implenented in almost ail countries of the Third World, including Southeast Asia. In Indonesia for example, by 1993 the economy is expected to arrive, after undergoing five Five Year Pl.ins, at the condition of take-off. The task of the government and society at large is to prepare the prerequisites, i.e. capital, institutions and a certain level of industrial growth.

However, unlike the process of economic growth that took place over a long period both in an evolutionary and a revolutionary way, through the industrial revolut~on in the 19th century, preceded by commercial growth which has occurred in Europe since the 16th century, accompanied by colonization of the Third World and Australia, followed by period of rod- ern imperialism from the early 20th century, now, most countries emerging after 1945 have started to undergo 'development' by taking a short cut. Industrialization and modernization was carried out by importing the model assumed to have taken place in the West as described in the Western countries' economic histories and soc].al sciences, especial-- ly economics.

That short cut is taken through the importation of capital., technology, institutions and values that qrow in the inzus- trial countries. In that way, critical questions como up:

who is really doing the industrializing? In the first place, it is apparent that by the invitation of foreign capital and enterprises, especially the TNC, the "captain of industry" is then in the hands of foreign economic forces. Most countries implement the strategy of import substitution industrialization, meaning that the goods that were previously imported, are now domestically produced. Generally, however, the ones that actually produce, although part of the capital is owned by domestic groups, are the foreign enterprises. Even if the capital is wholly owned by the domestic groups, the machines and materials still have to be imported as the products essentially reflect the expansion of capital and business of the industrialized countries.

The development problematique in the Third World is not merely economic, such as trade and payment deficits, foreign debt or the marginalization of traditional small-scale and cottage industries, but it is cultural as well.

The perception of culture here can be derived from either a broad or a narrow definition. In a narrow definition, culture only denotes the aesthetic domain such as manifested in the arts and literature, or is part of the ideology in a certain Marxian sense. Culture, however, can be meant broad- ly, such as in the anthropological tradition, where culture is understood as a "total way of life" of a certain conunun- ity which is often construed in an ideal form as found in meaning, value, etc. Between these two extremes one can find other perceptions of culture, i.e. as something existing in the objective mind or in spirit together with its manifesta- tion in human institutions. In this sense, culture still contains the meaning of "cultivation" and "development" that specifically characterize human activities.

Through industrialization, which is basically an expansion of capital from the center to the peripheries, the societies of the Third World have bought, imported or reproduced material culture from industrial countries. Such cultural commodities do not reflect the cultural values of the Third World communities.

When new goods penetrate a certain country and are bought, as a result of advertising campaigns, that society quite often bypasses its own cultural values through a sudden change in taste. They see goods from the "centre" as a status symbol, for example drinking beer or coca-cola, eating certain fried chicken, using household equipment or riding in cars which seem to unconsciously make the users feel "modern". As a result, certain questions arise: why does a society have to drink beer or coca-cola and quit drinking tea or fresh fruit juice? If the problem is how to produce cheap drinking products to satisfy needs, it can be solved by developing traditional drinks for which raw materials are available locally and processed with technology that can be

designed and acquired domestically or indigenously, using modern technology. If a society decides, usually throuqh the interpretation of its elite, to produce foreiqn products or externally derived products, this will be followed by importing technology and intermediate goods, capital and expertise from industrialized countries that have foreseen, pre- pared and planned to produce and supply the needs of Third World countries throuqh import substitution industrialization. In the meantime, in the countries from which all those things originate, a variety of drinking products have developed further, for instance products such as apple luice, tomato juice and even a new kind of orange juice. For the sake of gaining an imagined status of modernity, the society concerned then invites foreiqn capital to produce such jui- ces for which plants are grown in industrialized countries.

The fashion of industrialization as visible in Indonesia and which has also occurred in other South East Asian countries does not only imply an economic imperialism, but also cultural imperialism. The sense and taste in Third World societies have been colonised by those of industrial countries. The values that have long lived in a particular society are labelled "traditional" and therefore, for the sake of symbol attainment, have been abandoned to pursue "modern" symbols through the new consumptive behaviour.

The case that exemplifies both the economic and cultural incidence is that of the textile industry. In the beginning of the 70s the batik industry, which was generally small and spread all over the country, suffered a heavy blow, firstly by the importation of substitution goods, then by the modern textile industry. Batik was, and is, still valued for traditional dress and is manifestly the cultural creation of the Indonesian people. But with the modern textile industry, the taste of the populace has changed in response to the ever expanding advertising. The society left high quality products they themselves produced and shifted to buying international commodities produced by foreigners.

However, some Indonesian designers have rebelled against modern textiles to create better batik. Some government figures also rose up to supuort and campaian amona the upper- class elite layers thatbatik is beautiful and should be properly valued. Certain occasions have been decided as - - times when batik should be worn, such as at seminars, at formal gatherings, wedding ceremonies and various other events. Many schools independently determined to use batik material for uniforms. Even the civil servants organization has obliged its members to use batik uniforms as formal dress to be worn on formal occasions. Fashion shows also participate by using batik. Today it is the foreigners who see batik as a cultural part of dress which has unlimited possibilities. Batik if not only used to garment materials, but has also developed into paintings, decoration in the

home, offices and hotels. Batik could be the art piece of mass produced commodities. Here we witness an important cultural attribute which could regain an important high position which it had lost before.

Similar things in fact often occur. In the early 60s Indone- sia underwent a popular musical resurgence created from traditional musical elements to the effect that society was liberated from the dominance of western popular music. This resurgence owed much to the public calling by President Suharto to condemn vulgar western music. This then encouraged Indonesian musicians to compose their own songs. Now, Indonesia can be proud of its popular music which is giving birth to a particular industry.

The same cultural achievement had also occurred before Inde- pendence. When groups of students held the first national congress in 1928, they took an oath that they were united in one homeland, one nation and one language. Thanks to that oath, it happened that a local language, from North Sumatra - which had become a lingua franca throughout these islands - succeeded in becoming the national language for all Indo- nesians, without any disturbance at all, not only for con- versation but also for literature, and language used in schools, formal language in the government and, public at large and a science language as well. A s a result of a cultural policy, the Indonesian language has won over western languages, notably that of the colonizers, the Dutch.

One of the last incidents was the taking over of the coca- cola market by a bottled tea product. In the early seventies coca-cola had captured the soft drink market. However, Indo- nesian consumers, especially those from the lower and middle layers, still prefer to drink tea because their stomach cannot stand gaseous drinks or bitter alcoholic drinks like beer. Another story concerns cigarettes. The so-called "white cigarette" has in fact never won over the ruling of kretek cigarettes", a type of cigarette using both tobacco and spices unique to Indonesia. This cigarette - notwith- standing its danger to health like that of any other cigarette - has proved able to penetrate the export market. What is important is the message that in all these cases the In- donesian people can appreciate their own industrial products.

But outside these particular cases, the imperialism of taste still rules over Indonesian consumers, as of others in South East Asia. Sometime ago, before the import banning regula- tion, the market for fruit in most big cities and towns was ruled by imported fruits such as oranges, grapes, apples, pears and other US and Australian fruits, as one can commonly see in Singapore or other markets which, for the most part, do not grow such kinds of fruit. Indonesians up to now still drink imported canned milk which is widely sold in

restaurants and by food sellers. The sour tomato which was commonly consumed sometime ago, has now been replaced by other varieties, the seeds of which are imported. Fast food, such as Kentucky Fried Chicken, has also captured the taste of town people, especially those of the elite. This, in spite of the fact that Indonesia is rich in all kind of fruits, can raise her own milk cows, can cook chicken taste- fully, and can grow tasty tomatoes. A change in taste, as a result of the influence of advertising and, most important- ly, because of an inferiority complex vis & vis the foreign culture of the West, has wide economic consequences.

The products of Western culture in the Third World have become symbols of cultural superiority and have developed a kind of culture which has affirmative powers as Marcuse has put it:

By a f f i r m a t i v e cu l t u re i s meant t h a t cu l t u re o f the bourgeois epoch uhich Led i n the course o f i t s owi development t o the segregation from c i v i l i s a t i o n of t he nen ta i ana s p i r i t u a l ucr td as an i d e p e n - dent. realm o f value t ha t i s a l s o considered super ior t o c i v i l i s a - t i o n . J^ts dec i s i ve charac t e r i s t i c i s the a s se r t i on of a un i ve r sa l l y obl igc torg , ac tua l l y b e t t e r and more valuable uorld that mfit be unconditiona& a f f i m e d : a uorld essentiaLLy aL f f e ren t frm the factual w r i d of the a a i l y s t m g g ~ e for ex i s t ence , y e t r ea t z sab t s by every indiv idual for h imsel f "from uithir.". . . , without any t ranspor ta t ion o f the s t a t e of f ac t .

In the Third World, the so-called "affirmative culture" has been long circulated among the bourgeoisie, especially throuqh colonial education. Western culture is regarded as the ideal type. One visual mark is the adopting of import substitution industrialization reflects the desire and ideal to reproduce a model of modern society as illustrated in the industrialized countries - by gradually producing comod- ities of the western civilization which is regarded as superior.

The cultural penetration is immediately visible, particu- larly in urban life and in physical development. Every country has its international city and metropolitan urban area. This, in turn, expands to other big cities, even to the smallest ones. But this internationalization process has not penetrated thoroughly. Therefore "enclaves" have emerged which strikingly demonstrate the coming in of something alien in that particular country.

Some writers, such as Sunk'el and Fuenzalida, point to an entrenchment of what they coin as a community of "transnational culture". This particular culture is inculcated throuqh imposition of knowledge and skills as a prerequisite for entering that community which then influences the ha- bits, ideas, faith, values and behaviour in the family and the consumption pattern of everyday life. In a traditional

society which is vertically oriented, the elite values tri- ckle down to lower strata and there form cultural items, however vulgar they may appear, to function as the affirmative culture. In industrial countries themselves for example, where going to McDonalds restaurants may reflect a vulgar taste, in Third World countries that act may be considered as asserting a high status symbol. Behind that, is an attitude of looking superior in western civilisation in contrast to their own indigenous culture.

The process of industrialization in the Third World as it has historically taken place can be discussed further in cultural rather than in economic terms. Myrdal once said that industrialization is an ideology manifesting the desire of the intellectual strata in newly independent states. If they said that their countries are "under developed" they meant that there are "only a few industries". Therefore "development" is translated as industrialization.

But is that wrong? Industrialization per se is not basically a wrong step, it can even be imperative. Population growth, ever diversified human needs, interaction among individuals, groups and nations, and human nature itself, tend to create and develop everyday devices, means of production and tra- ding among people; all these create an imperative necessity for industrialization. Here what I mean by industrialization is a process whereby a society and nation as a whole increase their ability to produce more varied goods for their own and other societies in a more efficient way. Building factories does not automatically mean an industrialization process will follow, especially since factories are not the only system of goods production. Nevertheless factories could be built if those who built them were motivated by the economic forces of other societies.

These days, out of the experiences of the past twenty years or so, the nations of South East Asia can draw lessons from negative impact of industrialization that took a short cut by taking in factory systems from industrialized countries. Rapid and concentrated industrial growth has resulted in premature urbanization, sectoral and regional imbalances, the emergence of monopolies, oligopolies and monopsony, the depletion of natural resources and pollution, culture ero- sion and the lack of community level participation, even, rnarginalizatiori of people in employment.

There is, nevertheless, another effect that is concerned with the falling of the nation into :. f . ~ r o - ~ - : . debt trz.2, w h i c h may be beyond :he dbil-ity i ^ i i t.:e r.:.5 . :. p-':# be-

- . - cause that mode of industriaiiz .'-:.or. .: 5 d i ' a e . ? .. ..,' ^.^wee b2 . , an ever increasing need to inipor: v ; i i , ~ n a s *l^::' L . -Â¥-Â¥,;.x-+:i

. . the ability to --iorr. 5 r'?iq:-. excharq~. A;-::?.er prc2:)L!-= :I-, . . . management, not '..:I e-oRom.cdi. su i : i- i b t i sociaiiy and p-.,- litically. On the one hand, Third World ccur!cries cannot

fulfil the skill and expertise gap, and on the other, the magnitude of the problem has brought the government to prac- tise violent social and political engineering. This explains why the characteristic of peripheral countries is the erner- gence of authoritarian governments in the modernization process.

Taking into account the constraints, negative impact and consequences of the industrialization pattern, it follows that industrialization should take place and should be carried out historically and in stages. What is meant by historical is that industrialization should be set, historically, appropriately, by taking into consideration factors in history which made up the present situation and problems. Development should occur in an evolutionary manner without any "great leap forward" which the Third World countries cannot usually afford unless by letting external powers and international capital accomplish the task and expand their economies, usually in an authoritarian manner. This further implies that every plan set should consider the available resources so that the implementation of each stage will be based on self-reliance.

The process of development could take place in two ways. First, by adopting a closed economic system usually accompanied by central planning, in which the state sector is the main pillar and actor in the economy, matched by direct control in the consumption behaviour to make savings possible for investment and capital accumulation through production. Burma or Albania are examples often mentioned. The second pattern advocates an open economy by letting market forces work.

Third World countries have today seen the reality of both capitalism and socialism and they too had their own experiences in choosing one of the systems or selected elements of both as they deemed appropriate. To realize the negative aspect of the free market system and to avoid the negative impact of it, such as monopolies or iniquities that the system has generated, countries can hardly choose the socialist system because, from examples of its implementation, they also recognize the negative consequences such as inefficien- cy and repressive political systems.

The main notion of an alternative model lies in the idea of participation by the community members on a consciously vol- untary basis. This can only happen if the power of the state or government can be minimized although its role and function should be effective enough, not in controlling the people but in promoting the people's creative power.

The alternative idea has now emerged from the development critique. Especially in Indonesia, this idea gains momentum with the down-swing in oil prices since 1985 which created a

situation where the state and society cannot any longer afford to pay the cost of industrialization. In such a situation, a new model should be invented. At present, economic calculation is incapable of finding a new model, because its key lies in the cultural outlook. Therefore, a cultural movement is now needed which can redirect the orientation of the life style. For example, at present, the automotive industry has encountered profound difficulties to develop, because the purchasing capacity of Indonesia is too weak to meet the high price of automobiles. What should be thought of is a new type of transportation system. The present system of transportation is based on the concept of the big city. To develop a new concept, therefore, needs a reorien- tation of an urban system based on the concept of a small town. On the basis of this system an alternative model car and carriage can only be thought of.

The critical problem in this case is that the import of an advanced industrial culture is too expensive for the economy. But change in the industrialization strategy cannot be easily made through economic policies which will always follow economic logic. It can only be changed with social and cultural policies. How this could happen remains a big question. The economic power of the monopoly capital and repressive government, which are usually twins in the Third World, will always prevent the emergence of alternative thinking and movements. However, movements for alternative development strategies have emerged in many Third World countries and have now become of international concern and action.

The problems confronted by the movement are that they have to prove some kind of alternative development models are technically feasible by testing the workability of micro community development projects such as appropriate technology, informal cooperatives, alternative energy, community health centers, participatory planning, low cost housing, etc. These projects, however, are in fact still dependent on financial surplus generated by conventional development institutions made available by international funding agencies of sympathetic government agencies and officials. A true self-reliant model is largely still beyond the comprehension of the present development logic. The alternative model ap- parently could only become feasible and workable if it were to become a cultural movement of the people.

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i fda doss ier 55 . septen;bre/octobre 1986 espace regional

POUR UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT

LA SCIENCE, LA TECHNOLOGY ET LA COOPERATION SUD-SLID

p a r l e p r o f e s s e u r P.aoelind Andriambololona D i r e c t e u r du L a b o r a t o i r e d e phys ique n u c l s a i r e e t de phys ique a p p l i q u c e U n i v e r s i t e de Madagascar B o i t e p o s t a l e 4 2 7 9 A n t a n a n a r i v o , Madagascar

R6sume: L ' a u t e u r , p h y s i c i e n ma lgache membre d e 1 'Academie d e s S c i e n c e s du T i e r s Monde, p l a c e s a r e f l e x i o n s u r I e t r a n s f e r t de l a t e c h n o l o g i e d a n s l e c o n t e x t e d e d e f i n i t i o n s r i g o u r e u s e s du deve loppemen t , d e l a s c i e n c e e t d e l a t e c h n o l o g i e . S ' z c a r t a n t t ies i d e e s c o n v e n t i o n e l l e s d ' u n d e v e l o p p e m e n t . ' e t r o i t e m e n t Sconomique, 11 f a i t s i e n n e l a demarche v e r s un auLre dGveloppement . I1 r a p p e l l e que l a s c i e n c e e s c u n i v e r s e l i e e t n e u t r e , c o n t r a i r e m e n t 2 s e s a p p l i c a t i o n s t e c h n o l o g i q u e s . R a i s o n n a n t p a r a n a l o g i c s u r l a b a s e du modele t hemodynamique , il mont re que l a n a t u r e m$me d e s deux c o n c e p t s r e n d l e s consequences d e l e u r t r a n s f e r t complSte- n e n t d i f f e r e n c e s . En p d r t i c u l i e r , l e r i s q u e m a j e u r du t r a n s f e r t d e t e c h - n o l o g i e , e s t c e i u i de :a d spendance , que I e T i e r s Monde ne p e u t com- b a t t r e e t G v i t e r q u ' e n developpant : s c n au tonomie c o l l e c t i v e p a r l a co- o p e r a t i o n Sud-Sud, d o n t il donne t r o i s e x e n p l e s , l e s p r o g r a m e s n u c l e a i - r e s en A f r i q u e o r i e n t a l e , l a c r e a t i o n d e 11Acad6mie d e s S c i e n c e s d e 1 ' A f r i q u e e t c e l l e de 1'AcadGmie d e s S c i e n c e s du T i e r s Monde.

TOWARDS ANOTHER DEVELOPMENT

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOUTH-SOUTH COOPERATION

A b s t r a c t : The a u t h o r - a p h y s i c i s t f rom Madagascar and a member o f t h e T h i r d World Academy o f S c i e n c e s - p l a c e s h i s r e f l e c t i o n on t h e t r a n s f e r o f t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e c o n t e x t of p r e c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s of deve lopmen t , s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y . R e j e c t i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l i d e a s o f n a r r o w l y economic ' d e v e l o p m e n t ' , he a d o p t s :he a p p r o a c h towards a n o t h e r dev? lop - ment . Hi- r eminds u s t h a t s c i e n c e is n o t u n i v e r s a l and n e u t r a l , c o n t r a r y t o i t s t e c h n o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s . On t h e b a s i s o f a n a n a l o g y w i t h t h e thermodynamic model , he shows t h a t s-he v e r y narl-ire of t h e two c u n c e p t b r e s u l t s i n to :a l ly d i f f e r e n t consequences o f t h e i r t r a n s f e r . A ma jo r r i s k t o t h e t r a n s f e r of t e c h n o l o g y is t h a t o f dependence , which t h e T h i r d World c a n f i g h t and a v o i d o n l y i n d e v e l o p i n g i t s c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e t h r o u g h South-South c o o p e r a t i o n . He g i v e s t h r e e examples : nuc- l e a r c o o p e r a t i o n i n E a s t e r n A f r i c a , t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e A f r i c a n Academy o f S c i e n c e and t b a t of r h e T h i r d World of S c i e n c e .

Raoelina Andriambololona

POUR UN AUTRE DEVELOPPEMENT

LA SCIENCE, LA TECHNOLOGY ET LA COOPERATION SUD-SUD

Q U E L Q U E S DEFINITIONS

Avant d'aborder le probleme du transfert de technologie pour Ie developpement, essayons pour notre cadre de reflexion de preciser ce que nous entendons par developpement, science et technologie, au risque de redire ce que beaucoup savent d6jA.

Developpement

Le mot 'd6veloppement' est apparu avec l'adverbe 'sous' au lendemain de la deuxieme querre mondiale.

Le sous-developpement etait caracterise par des syrnptomes comme la pauvrete, un etat nutritionnel et sanitaire en de- labrement, 11analphab6tisme, etc. .. On pensait que ces para- metres pouvaient etre synth4tises par Ie plus siqnificatif: Ie revenu par tete d'habitant en fonction duquel on classa les pays en cinq categories.

On prit ensuite trois crit6res pour identifier Ie sous-d6ve- loppement: les ineqalites considerables dans la distribution sectorielle des productivites; la d6sarticulation du syst6me 6conomique; la d6pendance 6conomique exterieure.

On relia Ie d6veloppement A l'augmentation annuelle du produit national brut (PNB) et des revenus par fete d'habitant. L'accent fut ainsi mis surtout sur 1'4conomique, le social et la repartition des revenus passant au second plan. Pour- tant, cornme le dit Robert MacNamara en 1973:

Le produit ra t i ona l b ru t e s t un i nd i ce de La valeur t o t a t e des pro- d u i t s e t serzvices r e s u l t a n t d f u n e konornie, it n f a j m i s i t& ques- t i o n q u ' i l soit m e meswe de Zeur d i s t r i b u t i o n . Come dans un pays en vote de diveloppernent, 40% de l a population recotvent 7 5 % ds tons l e s r e v m u s nationaux, une augnentation &A ?;;B e s t s s s e n t i e l - lement un indice du bien-&re de ce g r o u p 2 haut revenu. EZZe ne a i t r i e n S U P ce qui a r r i ve pour tea G(/'; paau~>f-s q;*; ae r e f o ' i v m t co'ilectivement que 10 2 h% du revenu nat ional tocab.

De meme, affirmait la Declaration de Cocoyoc (octobre 74)

ActueLZement, au mains l e s t r o t s quarts du revenu nonaial , des in- ves t i ssements e t des s e rv i ce s e t presque toutes Les r e M e r c i e s dans Le rnonde e n t i e r sont dans l e s trains C u r . quart as s e s habi tants .

Ainsi, declara en l971 1'Union Nationale Africaine de Tanya- n ~ i k a (TANU 1

Ainsi apparazt une nouvelle concept-ion du developpement, conception qui commence a prenare de plus en plus d'importance. Il a 6t6 constat4 qu'une croissance 6conomique n'im- clique pas necessairement un progr6s s o w , du moins si nous nensons a des meilleures conditions de vie materielle pour la qrande partie des gens. L'accer.t est mis non plus sun les choses, ou les contorts mat6riels, mais sur les homes.

Pour nous, 6fSveloppemerit ne peut Stre que L a formule dbrSg4e significint, le c j6ve loppement de l'homme dans toute sa d i y n . ~ ~ d ' homme.

Que signifie alors 'd6velopper 1 'homme ' ? C 'est ce que nous aliens essayer de definir maintenant.

Le 'developpement de l'homme dans toute sa diqnite d'homrne, c'est la recherche, l'assurance et le preservation de toutes les conditions de son epanouissement physique, intellectual et moral, en tant qu'homme.

Pour ce faire, il faudra satisfaire aux cinq besoins fonda- rnentaux: la nourriture, le logement, le vstement, la sant6 et l'education. Tout processus de developpement qui ne repond pas au moins & ces cinq besoins fondamentaux n'est qu'une mystification. Toutefois,

Le develo ement social doit occuper une place aussi :T -z tante quepT'economie 1,'6conomie toute seu:e A rnoln- . orlent6e politicuerrent d6s Ie depart dans le sens > K - motior humairLe ver-~tab; e ri'entralne pas neces- - - d4velopperrent social. Reciproquement, le SOU? , r v . - est essentiellement unz s~tuatior. de dominat.; . , tation.

Le developpement socic-6concmique aura done pou E x u , fin et aqent l'homme; il doit apporter -:onw.e cor.s6que:..-_ un re- levement des revenus des habitants, une am6lio1ation des loqements, de la nourriture et des services publics c o m e I'adduction d'eau, la construction des ecoles, le developpement du transport public: l'am4lioration du service social. Toute cette action sera men6e avec l'aide et la participation du peuple entier par l'interm6diaire de structures ade- quates realisant concr&tement la maitrise populaire du developpement. Elle doit entrainer line diminution du ch6mage et du sous-emploi et une redistribution equitable des revenus.

Le developpement de l'homme ne concerne seulement "l 'stre j.ndividuel", mais aussi "lfSt.re socia?': l 'h~~mne en tant que membre d'une societ6 d'zne natior., d'un peuple de l a terro. Aussi, les mesures prises en vue d'un deveioppe- ment actuel ne doivent-elles pas se borr.er A r6soucit-e des questions ponctuelles d'un int6rSt immediat, quelle cue soit leur urgence, mais aussi comprendre Ie souci des generations futurs pour qui le monde d'aujourd'hui ne doit pas stre un "heritage empoisonne". Tout d4veloppement doit Stre un ' Id&-

veloppement soiidai.rel'.

I1 est alors evident que le developpement a necessairement une dimension morale: l'homine doit profiter de toutes les conditions qui lui sont offertes soit par Ie monde nature1 soit par la civilisation pour sa promotion personnelle mais sans oublier Ie bien et le bien-Stre d'autrui.

C'est ainsi que le developpement se fera

. en respectant, autant que faire se peut, lrenvironne- ment;

. en utilisant la quantite minimale de ressources naturelles compatibles avec Le niveau adequat des besoins fondamentzux afin di6viter le gaspillage et de preser- ver l ' avenir ;

. en se basant d'abord sur les propres ressources natu- relies et humaines dc chaque pays, de chaque region;

. en d6noncant et depassant partout toutes les formes de vie ofl l'hornme se trouverait oublie, avili et asservi, allant de la discrimination raciale ou sexuelle aux dangers des realisations les plus hautes de l'humanite, de la science et de la technique, en passant bier. entendu par la carence des produits de premiere ngces- site.

Chaque homme doit se sentir solidaire de tous. Solidarite siqnifie dependance reciproque, forme d1interd6pendance 02 c qui arrive aux uns retentit spontan6ment sLir les autres. C'est aussi un devoir moral d'entraide et d'assistance entre les membres d'une &me societe en tant qu'lls se consid6rant comne formant un seul tout (Albert Tevoed-]re) en etendant cette dimension sociale d La planSte entiSre. Cette solidarite doit done exister dans tous les espaces (national, r6- gicnal et mondial). L'humanit4 enti6re doit se considsrer alcrs c o m e '-in ensemble solidaire en vue de rescudre a- dairement les graves probli^mes actuels: suppression des dis- parites criantes entre nations et qroupes sociilux, elimina- ^ion des causes structurelles de ia mis+re, utilisation rai- sonr.@e et rationnelle au service de tous des ressources non renouvelables, naltrise de la demcqrap!iie qalopante, etc . . .

Une strat6qie possible pour attaquer le probl2:rie du iaai- d6veloppement mondial est d'etre "a l'ecoute du people et des peuples". La tactique effi.ca.ce du developpement endoq6ne 011 autocentre er. vue de l'autonomie (self-reliacce) ne peut entrainez, au plan gcndlal, qu'un ~ d e v e l c pener.t. 11 est patent, en ef fet, que le developpement ainsip con$; n'exclut tas toute aide extkrieure, mais au contraire suppose une l i s a t i c n rai-io:-.r.elle dcs interrelations, aussi bien com- TereiaLes qu'intellectuelies, pour atteindrc le but vise3.

Le d6ve'Loppener.t: se constri-iit de llintSrleur, 2 partir des besoins du ~eu?Le, ne c c ~ i ~ t a n t d'abord que sur ses propres

forces pour ensuite s'ouvrir vers l'extbrieur pour que puisse exister un monde de justice et de paix. Quand des centai- nes de millions d'etres humains souffrent de la faim, n'ont pas de toit pour dormir, de vztements pour se proteger des internpbries, ne resolvent meme pas les soins medicaux les plus elementaires, sent analphab&tes, on ne peut pas se taire, on ne p e u t pas ne pas crier centre le scandale du surar- rnement conventionnel, chimique, bact&riologique, nucleaire.

I1 faudrait creer A tous les niveaux le rkflexe bien compris du "donner et du recevoir", soit en trois mots instituer 1 ' "initiative du developpement solidaire", qui a 4t4 par ailleurs baptisbe I . D . S .

C'est sous cette optique que nous aborderons le probleme du transfer! de la science et de la technologie.

Mais que sont pour nous la science et la technologie?

Science

D1apr6s le Dictionnaire usuel Quillet-Flammarion la science est definie c o m e "l'ensemhle de connaissances et de recher- ches tendant A la decouverte des lois qui regissent les phe- nom&nesi'. C'est done Ie savoir consid4rb indbpendamment de ses applications. Bien qu'a l'heure actuelle la formation du savoir scientifique depende de la soci6t6 dans laquelle se font les dkcouvertes, le contenu du savoir lui-m6rne - en tant que tel - n'appartient ni a une classe ni h une nation. I1 n'y a pas de science amhricaine, russe, chinoise, mala- gasy, africaine, etc...

La science est neutre, ce qui n'est pas le cas de la technologie.

On peut noter d4ja que la science ainsi definie semble r4a- liser deux caract6ristiques du d4veloppement 6num6r4es ci- dessus :

. la science, en tant que connaissance, prouve la capa- cite de l'home h mattriser les conditions de son existence;

la science, par son objectivity, et ses exigences propres, non seulement est educative mais facilite la comprehension et l'kchange entre les homes.

Cependant qui ne verrait, A la lumi6re de l'histoire, que ces memes caract6res sont ceux qui ont justifie cu que 1'on a evoques fallacieusement pour justifier la "mission civi- lisatrice" qui a cach4 les formes des plus ehont4es de la domination et de l'exploitation de groupes ethniques, de peuples ou de continents entiers?

Le savoir donne la puissance sur la nature.

On commande A la nature en lui obeissant. On comprend qu'on puisse evaluer la puissance d'un pays partir du nombre de ses cnercheurs scientifiques et de ses Prix Nobel.

Technologie, technique

Le mot technoloqie d4rive de logos, signifiznt sclence et de technn dont le sens est fabriquer, produire, construire. Le nom technos designe l'outil, l'instrurne~t, et aussi l'instrument le plus radical, c'est-&-dire les armes.

La technique est le pouvoir de transformer une situation objective, par un mode d'action appropriee sur les elements existants, en vue de resoudre un probliS-me concret. C'est done la mise en oeuvre des lois de la ;.ature de facon & resoudre un probleme specifique, par exe $iple Ie transport, la construction de maisons, Ie labour dus champs, etc. . . Nous voyons done qu'il puisse y avoir des technologies nationa- les. Certes, elles peuvent etre tres diffkrentes en appa- rence dans leurs realisations, rnais les lois fondamentales sous-jacentes sont les mGmes.

Regardons maintenant la relation entre la science, la technoloqie et le sous-d6veloppement. Selon nous, ce dernier est surtout d'origine intellectuelle. Aussi, si nous voulons etablir une strategic de lutte contre le sous-developpement, faudrait-il d'abord nous battre contre ce sous-d6veloppement intellectuel, cause insidieuse mais determinante des retards et des inkgalitds.

On a propose comme solution du sous-developpement "un nouvel ordre economique international". Soit!. . . mais qui r.e verrait la vanite d'un tel projet qui ne serait qu'A ranger parmi les voeux pieux de la politique s'il n'etait precede et accompaqne d'un nouvel ordre mondial de developpement intellectuel et scientifique.

C'est deliberement que nous n'avons pas ajoute d'adjectif technologique", car la technoloqie est la consequence du d4veloppement intellectuel et scientifique.

La technologie engage des savoir faire et des moyens finan- ciers qui reinvent fondamentalement des orientations et options politiques en fonction desquelles elle peut Gtre Ie moyen d'exploitation de l'honune ou l'instrument de sa promotion reeile.

Le d6veloppement peut Gtre qrandement favorise par la science et la technoloqie. La science est la recherche des iois de la nature. La technoloqie est l'application des lois de la science. Son but doit Gtre loqiquement celui du developpement de l'homme, et a done pour corollaire l'autonomie technoloqique-. --

La science et la technologie sont des conditions necessaires mais non suffisantes du d6veloppement.

Existe-t-il un transfert de la science et de la technologie?

Nous pouvons definir le transfert conune le passage d'un point a un autre. C'est un courant a sens unique, univoque (par exemple le transfert de chaleur, le transfert de l'energie . . . ) . Si Ie courant est 2 double sens, ce n'est pas un transfert, c'est un echange (par exemple, l'echanqe de chaleur, l'echange de l'enerqie . . . en physique). Nous allons raisonner par simulation avec le module thermo- dynamique en physique. Nous donnons les correspondances et les definitions suivantes: A l'6tat theri~~odynamique correspond 114conomie du pays; aux variables thermodynamiques cor- respondent les param&tres de l'6conomie (production, importation, exportation, d6pendance scientifique, dependance technologique, education, logernent, nourriture, etc ... ) I1 y a deux types de variables, les variables intensives qui ne dependent pas de la quantite de matiere presente, comme la temperature, la pression, et les variables gxtensives qui sont proportionnelles A la quantity de matlure presente, c o m e la quantite de chaleur, la masse, le volume, etc. .. Les variables positives sont celles dont la croissance correspond au developpenerit dt5fini plus haut. Les variables negatives sont celles dont la croissance correspond au mal- d6veloppement1 comme la d6pendance scientifique, la dependance technoloqique, etc...

Un etat en equilibre est celui od les diffgrentes variables sont bien d6finies et fixes; un etat hors d'equilibre est celui 03 Ies variables sont ma1 definies:

Quand l'etat d'un systume change, nous disons qu'il a sub1 une transformation. Elle est dite reversible quand un chan- gement infinitesimal des conditions exterieures suffit A en renverser Ie sens; durant une telle transformation, l'etat du systfeme est A chaque instant infiniment voisin d'un etat d'equilibre. Elle est dite irreversible dans Ie cas contraire. Une transformation reversible est un cas limite ideal qu'on ne peut r4aliser qu'approximativement dans la pratique. Les transformations spontan6es naturelles sont irrgver- sibles.

Le transfert d'un point 1 au point 2 izplique que Ie point 1 est a u n potentiel superieur A celui du point 2. Par exem- pie, le transfert de chaleur (d'energie) d'un point; l au point 2 n'est possible que si la temperature T, (l'energie E ) du point 1 est plus grande que la temperature TT (116nergie E ) du point 2. Si nous supposons qu'il y a ed &change, ce Qernier impiique que nous op6rons autour d'un

&at d'equilibre, que la transformation est reversible, c'est-A-dire q u ~ la temperature Tl (1'energie E.1 est vol- sine de la temperature T2 (l16nergie E,,). .

L

(:orme consequence des definitions dc: la science, de la technoloqie e5 du transtert, ncus deduisons que la science et la technologie sont transferabies. Mais ies consequences du transfer! sont compi6tement differentes.

Donnons un exsmple. Une 101 scientifique fondamentale dgcou- verte dans un pays 1 peut etre transferee dans un pays 2 a la seule condition qu'ii existe des homes pour 1'assimiler et, dans ce cas; elle ne doit plus n e n 2 son origixe.

Considc5ron.s maLntenant la technologie. Un pays q u i dispose du fer er. abondance va exploiter la technoloqe du fer pour resoudre ies proLli^mes concrets posees par ie transport, la construction, etc. . . ce uu'on desiune habituell-ement oar "transfert de technolo- gl-" r.'est en f a ~ t qu'un commerce A sens unlque. Et L:> cr6e la dgpenciance t e c h r o l o g i ~ , qui est un aspect du mal-developpement.

1 y a dependance techrioloyique quand l'essentiel d e la technoloqie provient de I'ftranqer. Cett.e acquisition de techrioloqie etranq+re pcut provenir d'un ou dc plusieurs pays. Le pays qui s'appnie exciusivemer~t sur une seule source se trouve dans une situation de dependance plus grande que cekui qui peut s'adresser 2 plusieurs pays. De m6nia, un grand nombre d e pays du Tiers Konde se trouve dans une si- tuatior~ de double d6peadar.ce en c? sens qu111 leur faut non seulement acquerir lcs 616ments des connaissances techniques mais qu'ils doivent aussi farre venir chez eux des specia- listes capables d'utiliser ces connaissances.

D'apr&s une etude de l'ONUDI, l a dependance technologique contrecarre forcement tout effort que peut faire un pays en - m e de renforcer ses possibiiit6s dans les domaines de la recherche scientifi-que et du developpement technoloqique. Cela se manifeste de deux facons: d'une part la d6pendance technologique constitue un "Â£rei a l'apprentissage par la pratique" qui est la clef du developpement des capacitds scientifiques; d'autre part, elle tend a "d6valuer" les activites des 6tablissements scientifiques et techniques &- caux en en faisant de pales copies de ceux qui existent dans les pays industrialists.

Enfin, la dkpendance technoloqique forme un "cercle vicieux" pour le Tiers Monde, e n fait deux cercles VICIGUX connectes, pulsqu'ii provoque une ht5moriayie de devises d&';i inanquantes ou un endettement progressif qui ayqrave encore la situation,

La technologie, avons-nous d6jA dit, n'est pas neutre; le transfert technoloqique, pris dans Ie sens habitue1 du ter-

me, est un commerce A courant unique. I1 se transforme rapi- dement en "dependance technologique" qui devient 2 tres court terme une domination 6conomique et/ou politique du pays donateur sur Ie pays receveur. Soulignons que ce n'est pas le cas du transfert de la science. Pour sortir de ces cercles infernaux un pays doit creer sa propre technoloqie (la technoloqie endogene) en utilisant la connaissance scientifique de base et Ie genie de son peuple. Cela passe done d'abord par la formation des homes non pas come sim- pies agents d'ex&cutiori et utilisateurs mais c o m e inven- tours capables de maitriser les donnees socio-economiques reelles.

Cette autonomie a et6 souvent reclamee par les pays du Tiers Monde. Dans le Plan d'Action de Lagos pour le developpement 6conomique de 1'Afrique 1980-2000 (Nigeria, avril 1980) , a et6 utilisee cornme principe de base du developpement l'autonomie nationale et collective.

ALI chapitre Science et technologie du plan de Lagos, des programmes sont proposes: technologie endogene, creation de centres nationaux de la science et de ia technologie au service du developpement, mist, en valeur des ressources humaines, developpement des infrastruct.:res pour une base scientifique et technoloqique, mobilisation de fonds pour la science et la technologie, etc.

L'Tnde est un des rares -:>i:;s du Tiers Monde a avoir utilise 'al.itonomie c o m e base o d6veloppement. Elle ss trouve ainsi - hasard ou cons6quence? - A Gtre un des rares pays qui sont en points si on ne consid&re que Ie developpement scientifique et technoioq-ique.

Dans i'autonornie, i'aide exterieure, qui n'est pas exclue, ne cor,sist.e pas en une pure et simple importation de la technolc-qie exterieure, mais .:elle-ci doit Gtre adapt6e A ce qui exis;+ dans I e pays de facon a conduire a un r6el deve- loppeme'it soutenu. Alors, el'ie sera plus efficace, plus pro- ductrice et liberatrice.

Y-a-t-il transfer! de technologie entre deux pays ayant le meme potentiel technologiq~ie? Les deux pays mettent ensemb1.e leurs propres technologies, iis vivent en symbiose technologique. I1 y a echange (et ncn transfert) technologique.

En resume, nous pouvons done, de facon generale dire que

. la science est transferable du Nord (N) au S u d (S), du N au N , du S au S, sans cr6er de dependance intole- rable;

. l'echanqe technologique entre N-N et S-S peut s'etablir au profit reciproque des partenaires;

le transfert technoloqique N-S cr6e le cercle vicieux

de la dependance technologique, constitue un frein au developpement du pays Sud "aide" et transforme m6me Ie pays en pays en voie de perpetuel sous-d6veloppernent.

Nous avons constate le cas general. Bien entendu, il peut y avoir des exceptions a la regle. I1 est bien connu en science, qu1apr6s la decouverte d'une loi generate, il est plus interessant de chercher la "violation" de cette loi q4r.era- le. En physique theorique, nous avons la violation de la parite, la cassure de la symytrie. En mathematiques, la recherche des sinqularit6s d'une fonction est au moins aussi importante que l'etude de son comportement general.

Les principes des exceptions seraient celles 03 les relations comerciales sont elles-memes subordonnees, non pas a 1'interSt des opyrateurs economiques et politiques unique- ment mais 2 un plan rationnel et concerto de developpement globai qui exige des homes autant de responsabilit6 qu'il leur apporte de promotion et de bien-etre.

Exemples de cooperation internationale Sud-Sud

A titre de conclusion, nous allons nous limiter A un point particulier de l'autonomie collective, la cooperation Sud- Sud.

Elle a et6 lonqtemps meprisee par les pays industrialises et par certains pays du Tiers Monde eux-mSmes c0mrr.e 4tar.t la solidarity des pauvres, l'entraide des impuissants ("janiba mifarapitantana" selon l'expression malgache, deux aveugles qui se guident termineront leur marche commune dans Ie fosse au bord de la route).

Le Tiers Monde ne manque pas de moyens, il a les matisres premieres, la matiGre qrise et meme le capital, mais nor. en quantity compl6mentaire. La cooperation internationale Sud- Sud permet la mise en comun des moyens du developpement solidaire.

Nous aliens donner trois examples.

1 ) Pour dbvelopper et soutenir les utilisations des techniques nuclkaires A Madagascar clans le cadre du dkveloppe- ment, 1'Agence Internationale de 1'Energie Atomique (AIEA) A Vienne nous a aide a monter, alors qu'il n'existait encore rien, Ie Laboratoire de Physique Nucleaire et dc Physique Appliquae (LPNPA.) a l'Universit6 de Madagascar. Ce dernier a rnainten~int une vingtaine ae cnercneurs rui-ia C d r i : r - " 5 loea'Le- rncnt. Tous o n t fait 1~1:r memoires de .Â¥i5cyc'i ~lari. . ; :i0..r+: 11- --

-l t 2 Â ¥ J T \ 15t6 boratoire. Plusieiir--, theses de do;'corat "ie 3Â¥Â¥'-"7 -

preparees et sol-ite~ues devant ur. y r y internatioi'ial q u i a juge Ie niveau au :ric~;ss riqal 5 celui Ces -1nciennes theses francaises de 3'cycle.

Des programmes de techniques nucleaires ont ete mis en chan- tier dans la sous-region Afrique de 1'Est. Et, pour les ai- der, ont et6 organises des cours sous-regionaux avances sur l'electronique nucleaire (19821, sur les microprocesseurs, sur l'utilisation des microordinateurs pour les experiences de physique nucleaire entre les laboratoires dlAntananarivo, de Nairobi, de Khartoum, de Lusaka.

A notre avis, liexp6rience a ete un succks. I1 faudrait con- tinuer et c'est l2 Ie probl&me!

(2) En decembre 1985, a et6 creee, A Trieste, Italie, 1'Academie des Sciences de 1'Afrique dont le siege est 2 Nairobi. L'un des buts est de mettre en contact les scientifiques de toutes les disciplines du continent en vue de cr6er une ambiance propice de collaboration et d'echange d'experiences. L'AAS a dej2 tenu un premier colloque 2 Tri- este sur la "Faim, la desertification et Ie deficit alimentaire en Afrique" en decembre 1985, suivi d'un second colloque sur Ie meme theme en 1986 & Nairobi. I1 a et& decide de creer 2 Khartoum un Centre International sur la desertification au service de la plupart des pays saheliens qui souffrent de la desertification.

(3) En 1984, a et6 cr66e 1'AcadGmie des Sciences du Tiers Monde sous la presidence du Prof. Abdus Salam, Prix Nobel de Physique, Directeur du Centre International de Physique Theorique.

La plupart des Prix Nobel de toutes disciplines venant des pays du Tiers Monde ainsi que les scientifiques du Nord qui voudraient soutenir les efforts du Tiers Monde en font partie pour conseiller et chercher la meilleure voie & emprun- ter en utilisant l'autonomie collective et le developpement solidaire c o m e base.

Plusieurs des resultats obtenus, entre autre l'encouragement des scientifiques du Tiers Monde a rester dans leurs propres pays en les mettant en contact avec les scientifiques de haut niveau d'autres pays, sont encourageants.

La cooperation internationale Sud-Sud, qui a ete systemati- quement 6cartee et dedaignee par les pays du Tiers Monde eux-memes, commence a avoir de plus en plus droit de cite. I1 y a des pays qui ont des capitaux mais souffrent de manque de cadres, d'autres qui manquent de capitaux mais ont des cadres. S'ils rnettent ensemble leurs moyens, la cooperation leur serait mutuellement benefique: ce sera la solidarite de i'aveugle et du paralytique, un aspect du developpement solidaire qui a Dour cons6quence l'autonomie nationale et collective. L'aveugle porte sur son dos Ie paralytique qui sert de guide au premier dans leur marche commune.

CRIS IS AND ALTERNATIVES I N THE ARAB WORLD

by Ibrahim Saad El-Din Abdalla Third World Forum FOB 43 Orman Cairo, Egypt

Abstract: After some initial successes in the 50s and 60s, the failure of the Arab Liberation Movement since the second half of the 70s impeded the ability of the Arab nation to meet the many challenges facing its renaissance. The author examines the causes of such a situation, including the fact that successes were attributed to the ruling classes, who thought that the oil rent was a sufficient condition of development and that they could etiter into partnership with the center, an illusion in view of the US and Israeli stake in the Palestinian question. A real Panarab development can be based only on emancipation from dependency, overcoming imbalances and regional integration. This did not happen because of the socio-economic structures of the Arab States. The center regained control over the markets; whatever industrialization took place was limited by the smallness of national markets and export-oriented strategies; food production is lagging and food dependency increasing; growth is by and large restricted to a few scarcely populated countries. This state of affairs has been criticized, and some alternatives out- lined, but the two opposition movements - the Islamic and the progressive one - don't offer much. The first one hardly goes beyond the aspi- ration to an Islamic society, and the second is still undemocratic. Real opportunities for another development will result only from a mass movement informed by a clear vision of the future.

C R I S E S E T A L T E R N A T I V E S DANS L E MONDE ARABE Resume: AprSs quelques succCs initiaux dans les annees 50 et 60, 1'6chec du mouvement de liberation arabe des la seconde moitie des annees 70 n'a pas permis 2 la nation arabe de faire face aux multiples defis de sa renaissance. L'auteur examine les causes de cette situation, notamment Ie fait que les succSs ont et6 attribues aux Glites dirigeantes, les- quelles ont cru que la rente petroliSre etait une condition suffisante du d6veloppement et qu'elles pourraient devenir les partenaires du centre, illusion en raison du r51e des USA et d'1sraZl dans la question palestinienne. Un authentique developpement panarabe ne pouvait se d6- rouler qu'2 partir de l'emancipation, Ie dgpassement des desequilibres et l'int6gration. Rien de tel de ne produisit en raison des structures socio-6conomiques des Etats arabes. Le centre a repris Ie contrsle des marches; une industrialisation limitee a trgbuche sur les obstacles de lt6troitesse des marches nationaux et son orientation vers l'exportation; la production agricole est 2 la tralne et Ie deficit alimentaire staggrave; la croissance est demeuree pour l'essentiel limitee 2 quelques pays peu peuples. La critique de cet Stat de !:noses a et6 abondam- ment faite, et certaines alternatives esquiss6c~, L*,IIS les deux mouvements d'opposition - ie mouvement islamique et :.C iiiouvc~.iri^. ?i-'ogressiste - ne proposent pd? vraiment de projet. 1.e premier ne depass-e suere l'as- piration 2 une soci6tC islamique, et le second persiste dans scs habitu- des non d6mocratiques. La chance reelle d'un aatre developpement repose sur un mouvement de masse informe par une vision claire de l'avenir.

Ibrahirn Saad El-Dir. Abdalla

CRISIS AND ALTERNATIVES IN THE ARAB WORLD *

In the Images of the Arab Future , published first in AraLic in January 1982, the authors of the book ('.vtio include the present writer) wrote that

It was hence considered that Arab potential progress greatly depended upon the ability of the Arab Liberation Movenieat to complete the path of liberation from imperialism and to brinq dependency to an end. While the Arab liberation movement achieved some initial success during the fifties and sixties, and even the early seventies, its failure during the second half of the seventies and the eighties impeded the abili-ty of the Arab nation to meet t.he many challenges that face its overall renaissance.

A point of departure in this respect was the October war of 1973. The war itself marked the peak of anti-imperialist struggle in the Arab region. Important gains were achieved; besides the rather successful battles waged by the Arab ar- mies against Israel, the Arab oil producing and exporting countries were able to impose, in coordination with the other OPEC members, more equitable prices for their oil. For the first time its prices were fixed by the producers without the intervention of internat.ional companies. Most Arab countries regained control over the production of their crude oil.

The successes that redressed the balance of power in favour of the Arab liberation movement were soon wasted to a very c;rcat extent. C'nc C..? tin-' ::air. r,-;i;oris W.-: that t h ~ successes

were attributed to the then leading governing elites in the Arab world. This strengthened the position of the right-wing leadership and enhanced the role of the Arab oil rentier states in Arab politics. The influx of sudden wealth and the rather strong monopolistic position of OPEC lured so many decision makers and opinion leaders to believe that they could easily solve the problems of development. Governing circles in oil rich countries, who considered themselves elevated to the same position as the countries of the centre, thought that they could deal with the industrialized countries, including the USA, on the basis of joint interests and the joint protection of these interests. It was believed that oil could be exchanged for advanced technology that would enable these countries to achieve accelerated development. Surplus funds owned by the rich Arab states would be circulated through the international capital market which would place them or invest them in both North and South, thus protecting and enhancing the interest of both partners.

On the other hand, rulers and governing elites of the non- oil Arab countries believed that they could benefit from Arab surplus funds and from the possible inter-marriage between Arab mcney and Western technology. Such resources could enhance the opportunities of accelerating economic and social development.

Such assumptions were far off the mark when it came to understanding the realities of development on the one hand and the nature of imperialism on the other. The events of the last twelve years cave witness to the fallacy of such theo- ries. Strategies and policies based on these assumptions led to the deepening of 'the crisis of both the Arab liberation movement and Arab development.

The deepeninq of the crisis of the Ar&b liberatior* move=

Although international conditions in the aftermath of the 1973 war favoured a stepping up drive to solve the major problems plaguing the Arab nation, notably the liberation of the territories occupied durinq the 1967 war, the establishment of a Palestinian Arab state and an independent integrated Arab development, the chance was lost as the Arab ruling right-wing elites chose the way of reaching an historical compromise with American imperialism.

The USA was sought to play the role of mediator between the Israeli aggressors and the Arab states and to engineer some kind of settlement between Israel and its neighbouring Arab states in exchange for the acceptance of continuation of the dominant role of the USA in tne area, and the protection of what were considered to be vital American interests. For this purpose, an early halt of the oil embargo took place and Henry Kissingfer was invited to mediate.

US imperialism, the main supporter of Israel, considering it as its staunchest ally and believing that the Israeli army is the most powerful and least costly stronc; arm should it be necessary to use power, seized the chance to draw a new geopolitical map in the "Middle East". The power base of the Arab states was weakened through a process of protracted neqotiations which allowed ample time for the re-arnmc;nt of Israel and the discarding of the effectiveness of tue oil weapon.

Arabs were never accepted as real partners or allies. Seve- ral means were used to keep them in the position of dependent states under American domination.

The Arab oil producinc; countries who regained cor.tro1 over their oil resources had to face tough measures and pressures from the industrialized countries under the leadership of the USA to keep them in their place and to compel them to q i v e back whatever gains they achieved. H u ~ e oil reserves were bui'it. up within the industrialized r-o';ntri~s to neutra-- 1ize the potential of oil as a tool of pressure. New oil production centres outside OPEC and OAPEC were initiated or enlarged. An ambitious program to use other alternative sources of energy was launched togecher with a program to save energy and limit tlie growth of demand. The spread of the world economic crisis also led to a dscl-ine "in nverall demand. The Arab oil producing countr-Les were a:. first compelled to reduce their production and were then pushed to lower the pxices of oil. Besides, the price -i-r.~lutio!~ ana fluctuations in exchange rates eroded the financial assets held by the countries with surplus funds. While they were pressured or encouraged to recycle the bulk of their money through the US and Eurodollar markets, ettempts were made t.o prevent the Arabs from gaining hold of any of the leading economic sectors or even of any important enterprises in the industrial countries. Most of the funds were kept in the form of bank deposits, treasury securities and other bonds with very little influence by the Arab owners over their use, if any influence at all.

The success of the Third World countries to initiate a North-South dialogue for the purpose of effecting changes in the international order, was soon faced by an uncompromising stand toward their demands. The dialogue came to a virtual halt.

Egypt was lured to sign an unjust separate peace treaty with Israel under the sponsorship of the US, which led to the military departure of Eqyp t from t:he Arab fold. This opened the way for a more agqressivt- attitude by Israel and fla- grant interference in the internal affairs of other Arab countries, including encroachment upon their sovereignty.

Feuds between Arab leaders were kindled and fanned to the point of becoming basic contradicti-ns. One-man rule and the

ibser.ce of democracy in most Arab states led these feuds between leaders to assume the form of disputes between countries, in some cases going as far as armec; confront.ition. Under the pressure of Israeli aggression, conflicts erupted between different croups in the Lebanon leading to the most violent and longest c i v l war, giving way to the disintegra- t i o n of the Lebanese state and the virtual establishment of separate mini-states.

Kith its military heqenony well established, Israel invaded Lebanon in an attempt to finally liquidate the Palestinian Liberation Movement. The long arm of the Israeli air force was used against Iraq and Tunisia to prevent Iraq from building a nuclear reactor and to compel Tunisia to chase 3way the PLO leaders from its land.

The more aggressive Israel became, the more the Arab leaders became dependent on the USA to protect them from Israeli aggression and to bring some kind of settlement of the Arab- Israeli conflict..

Other international and regional developments were also used to regain American hegemony over the whole region. Within the context of the US new aggressive policy, the changes that took place in Afghanistan, Iran and the Horn of Africa were exploited to the utmost. Imperialist forces, especially in the US, played on the fears of the conservative Arab re- qiries for their stability in order to acquire military bases and facilities in a number of countries in the region. The Iraq-Iran war, first encouraged by the USA, was soon used to boost the dangers facinq Arab conservative states in the Gulf and the need for alliance with the US.

Within the context of the general retreat of the Arab Libe- ration Movement, conflicts erupted even among the national and popular forces, each blaming the others for the deterio- rating situation.

The crisis of Arab development

Real economic and social development on a Pan-Arab basis entails a process of emancipation from dependency, the riqhteninq of the imbalances in the overall Arab economy, and a high degree of internal integration. To achieve this, the Arabs must struggle jointly with other Third World countries aqainst foreign hegemony in its various and multiple forms. As the Arab liberation movement was compelled to retreat on many fronts, the efforts of development could not also but reach d Jeep crisis.

Because of the nature of the Arab states and their socio- economic structures, the oil boom of the seventies, instead of enabling the Arab people to accelerate the building up of their productive capacities and achieving greater self-reli-

ance, unleashed very strong consumption attitudes and led to narrow state nationalism. It also led to a profligate use of resources and disregard of cost-benefit analysis, and the demolition of many productive capacities. A number of economic activities were attracted towards areas where wealth exists, rather than to where the sites are the most advan- tageous. The availability of huge funds with limited absorp- tive capacities encouraged speculation and led to more an2 more parisitic activities and adversely affected the value system.

As mentioned earlier, although Arab countries regained control ever their own oil resources, the industrialized world was soon able to recontrol the markets through the encouragement of the establishment of new production centres outside OPEC, the declining demand due to more economic use of energy, the acceleration of the development of other resources, and the spread of the world economic crisis. Finan- cial funds owned by a number of Arab oil states were kept under tight control and were eroded through inflation and fluctuating exchange rates. While Arab countries with a balance-of-payments deficit received aid or concessionary loans from richer Arab countries, they still depended heavily on the international financial market and were burdened by huge debts at very high interest rates.

The expected redeployment of manufact.uring industries in favour of the Arab countries did not take place. Such transfer was minimal. The role of manufacturing industry remained very limited. With the exception of the petrochemical industries which were mainly established in the Gulf area, the manufacturing industry concentrated on the production of consumer goods, especially food and textiles. While many of the petrochemical industries in the Arab world were established with the help and participation of the transnational companies, they are facing very stiff competition in the markets of the industrialized countries in which they have to sell. They also have to penetrate these markets under disadvantageous conditions including the protection by a very high tariff wall.

Arab countries which tried in the past to build industries to produce for the local markets and which used to adopt import-substitution strategies, were lured to open their doors for the potentially large inflow of Arab funds and advanced foreign technology. They were encouraged to adopt an export-oriented strategy. Instead of the expected transfer of more advanced techniques and accelerated development of their productive capacities, they mainly got speculative funds that helped raise the rate of inflation and were exposed to intensive campaigns of advertisement that promoted foreign consumption patterns. Their local industries came more and more under the influence of transnational companies. They have been compelled, under changes in tastes and

because of new patterns of consumption, to produce patented goods with special permission from the transnational conpa- nies and under their supervision in exchange for fees.

Very little effort was rndde to integrate Arab industries. Industries have been set up either to meet the limited needs of the domestic market, or to produce for export to the world market, with no serious attempts at establishing an integrated industrial Arab base. Hence, manufacturing industries still account for less than 10% of the GDP and are still peripheral, compromising one stage or two at most of the manufacturing chain.

Agricultural production also could not keep pace with food needs. In spite of availability of huge agricultural resources, the Arabs as a whole and each and every country, have become increasingly dependent to meet their food require- ments. They have had to import about 40-50% of their wheat consumption over the last decade. The food gap continues to widen as the rate of food consumption continues to rise by about 5% annually while the rate of growth of food production does not exceed 2% on average.

Figures for economic growth and structural changes in the Arab region during the seventies show the uneveness of growth in favour of the Arab Oil producing countries that are sparsely populated in the Gulf area and North Africa. They also indicate the greater imbalance within the economic structure. Manufacturing industries and agriculture grew at a lower rate than other sectors; their share of GDP went down in favour of mining, construction, trade and finance, and public administration.

The share of Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Libya with less than 10% of the Arab population, increased from less than 30% in 1970 to more than 50% of all Arab GDP after the oil boom, and the share of countries with more than 90% of the Arab population was proportionately reduced. A noticeable decline took place in the share of agriculture in every Arab country during the period 1970-81 as compared with the decade before. The share of manufacturing industries declined in many countries including Algeria, Iraq, Egypt and Saudi Arabia. In contrast, there was a sharp increase in the share of mining in all countries with the exception of Mauritania, Somalia and Sudan. The share of construction sectors increased significantly in most of the Arab countries, especially Algeria, Iraq, Libya, Saudi Ara- hia, Qatar and UAE. The contribution of trade and finance also increased significantly, especially in Algeria, Egypt and YAR. In general, while the share of the commodity producing sectors declined, the services sector grew rapidly.

Data on resource utilization reveal two distinct groups of countries. The majority of the Arab countries used resources

which outstripped their own GNP. These include Algeria, Egypt Jordan, Mauritania, Morocco, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, the YAR and the P D R Y . Their resource gap as a percentage of GNP rose greatly as compared to the earlier decade, except for Algeria and Tunisia.

The second group includes all the oil producing countries in the Gulf area and Libya. Their surplus ranged from about 20% of GDP during the 1 9 7 0 - 8 1 period in the case of Iraq, to as high as 43.83; in the case of Kuwait. The percentage of surplus to GDP increased after the oil boom for all these countries with the exception of Libya and Oman.

In spite of the high priority accorded to education by most Arab countries - most of them spend about 5% of GNP on education - the arab economy is still marked by a very low pro- ductivity of workers and by shortages of labor especially on the higher professional rungs which require advanced theo- retical and practical. formation. Shortages of manpower is in one way related to the low participation rate of Arab people in the labor force. Out of a population of little more than 170 million at the beginning of the eighties, the labor force reached only 45 million workers, or 26.5% of the total population. While this is partly due to the age composition of the populat-ion, it is also a function of the limited contribution of women-organized economic activities outside their homes and families. The Arab manpower is still concentrated in the lower rungs of the Ladder of professions and crafts. One of the reasons is the very high percentage of illiterate workers. Illiteracy rate is still over 60% of the total population over fifteen. The absolute number of illi- terates continues to increase as the primary school enrol-- ment still falls far short of the actual number of childien at school age.

Because of the overall shortages in labor force, the Arab region had to depend on a large influx of workers at different levels of skills, mainly from Asian countries and from Europe and the USA. Within the Arab region itself, a large movement of laborers has taken place from different Arab countries to the rich oil producing countries in the Gulf and North Africa.

This movement had great effects, both positive and negative, on the labor exporting countries. One of the most important effects, however, was that it made the whole Arab economy, including that of the non-oil producing countries, dependent on oil. The interlinks, due to migration and hackflow of re- mittances, are making a sneeze by any of the major Arab oil producers cause a fever to the economies of most other Arab countries. The deterioration in the share of the Arab producing and exporting countries in the oil market and the sharp fall in prices of oil is bringing the Arab region to a deep crisis.

The s i t u a t i o n i s becoming c r i t i c a l f o r t h e Arab r e g i o n a s a whole and f o r a l m o s t a l l of i t s c o u n t r i e s . L e s s t h a n a dozen y e a r s a f t e r t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e o i l bocm, which was t h o u g h t by c e r t a i n d e c i s i o n makers t o be a panacea f o r a l l Arab p r o - b l r i ~ ~ s , t h e Arab r e g i o n s t i l l f a c e s v e r y s e r i o u s c h a l l e n g e s , namely t h e l e g a c y o f under3eve lcpnep . t and t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s i n deve lopment e f f o r t s , t h e g r e a t dependency f o r a m a j o r p a r t o f i t s focd and o t h e r consumer g o o d s , t h e a d o p t i o n o f p a t t e r n s o f consumpt ien t h a t do n o t c o r r e s p o n d t o i t s pro- d u c t i v e c ~ i p a c i t y , t.hu s e v e r e f a i l i n t e r m s o f t r a d e , t h e v e r y l a r g e o u t s t a n d i n g d e b t a n a t h e heavy burden o f d e b t s e r v i c e .

Arab d s w e l l a s o t i i e r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e a l s o coming t o f e e l t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f r a p i d t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p - ment i n tlie i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s . The problem i s a c q u i r - i n q s e r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s wit-h t h e emergence o f a number o f new t e c h n o l o g i e s which may have s e r i o u s long- te rm c o n s e q u e n c e s f o r T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s . The t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s which monopol ize a c t u a l and f u t u r e t e c h n o l o g i e s , a r e a c q u i r - ir .9 a n i n c r e a s i n g l y prominent r o l e i n r e s t r u c t u r i n g t h e wor ld economy, and a r e s u b j e c t i n g t h e T h i r d World, i n c l u d i n g t h e Arab c o u n t r i e s , t o t h e i r c o n d i t i o n s .

T h i s d e t e r i o r a t i o r : c f t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e Arab w o r l d , eco- n o m i c a l l y a s w e l l a s pc1 i t i c a l l y , i s t a k i n g p l a c e a t a t i m e i n which a n Arab n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n movement i s d i v i d e d and i r i r o r n a l 7;ab fe'ads .ir.d c o n f l i c t s a r e mountinq t o new l e v e l s Wi thout c l o s i n q t h e i r r a n k s i t i s d i f f i c u l t t c s e e how t h e Arabs can face; t h e s e c h a i i e n q e s .

There i s no d e a r t h o f l i t e r a t u r e by Arab s c h o l a r s , s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , p c l i t i c c t i and s o c i a l l e a d e r s , c r i t i c i z i n g t h e , r t " v a i l i n g g i i t t e r r s o f deve lopment . S e v e r a l a s p e c t s , which a r e i n t p r r e i a ~ e d , c ~ m e under v e r y s e v e r e a t t a c k s name]-y, t h e dt3t.ender.cy o f t h o h . s b economy, t h e l a c k of Arab c o o p e r a t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n , t h e q r e a L w a s t e of r e s o u r c e s , and t h e i n - c r e a s i n g m o d a l i t y betwec-n c o u n t r i e s as w e l l a s between c l a s s e s a :d s o c i a l st.ri.ita w i t h i n t h e same c o u n t r y .

S t r a t e g i c v i s i o n s and p e r c e p t i o n s o f P a n a r a b development i n v a r i o u s f i e l d s and s e c t o r s were o f f e r e d by s c h o l a r s and b y F a n a r a b o r g a n i z a t i o n s . Many documents warned o f t h e a d v e r s e i^fft:r:ts of narrow na t io r ' . a l i sm and i n v i t e d t h e Arab s t a t e s a n d peoplt-S t o d e p l o y a l l t h e i r p o t e n t i a l i f t h e y hope t c . a . - iy. to +hp c h a l lonqes f a c i n g them and overc:ome them i n ! i t 2 f prc.,'rpss .-ind deve lopment .

A : i ' i ; inbcr of Ai-ai> econuiriists .ind s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s who a d o p t - e d t h e dependency t h e o r y , exposed t h e n a t u r e o f d o m i n a t i o n of t h e Arab economy by i n t e r n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l and t h e i n t e - g r i a t i u n of ? h e e c ~ n o m i e s ? o t tP.u s e p a r a t e Arab s t a t e s w i t h i n

the international capitalist markets and the growing process of transnationalization which is taking place'. The specific characteristics of dependency in the Arab region are ana- lyzed and explained. A main feature that Arab social scien- tists emphasize is the role of cultural penetration and domination by the West in the deepening of dependency and in obstructing real development. Cultural renaissance and as- sertion of Arab cultural identity are considered by many scholars as a precondition for the emancipation and mobilization of Arab resources.

Independent development based on collective self-reliance is presented as the alternative pattern that would enable the Arab people to overcome the deep crisis they are facing. Self-reliant development is still an ambigious concept. It is defined as that development which is based on the mobilization of internal resources, is self-centered, aims at the satisfaction of basic material and cultural needs of the masses, and is in harmony with eco-systems. Self-reliant development is based on active participation in the decision making processes at the grassroot level by the masses. It also requires the building up of a national scientific and technological base that would be able to develop appropriate technologies. Such a development could not be pursued other than through a hard and prolonged struggle to eradicate and liquidate the basis of dependency and imperialist exploitation and to build new structures that would ensure complete emancipation.

Without belittlinq the influence of academic literature on alternative development and scholarity criticism of the prevailing patterns of economic and social growth, it has to be stressed that real opportunities for an alternative path are related to the struggle of popular forces, their convictions and the kind of projects they envisage for future change.

The present situation in the Arab region is criticized even from within. Elements that accept the present system and defend the interests of the dominant classes are pressing for higher efficiency, better planning and management, the adoption of clearly defined strategies and policies, more strict use of cost benefit analysis and likewise. What is called for here is the mere reform of a system rather than a change or an alternative path. Opposition to the prevailing social order and struggle for an alternative in the Arab region stems from two quarters: the Islamic Revival Movement and the Arab Progressive Moment.

The Islamic Revival Movement is struggling for the establishment of an Islamic society, rule and social order. The present social and political systems, according to them, is not conforming with Islam. Legislation in the present society is neither derived nor directly based on Islamic instructions, legislative system or rules. Moslems are under the

domination of an alien culture. The modernization process that was accelerated in the Arab region especially after the oil boom introduced a new value system that contradicted Islam in many aspects.

While these are common aspects that are shared by all the many and different groups and trends that comprise the Isla- mic revival movement, different organizations do not share the same outlook in respect to the me-ins to be used to achieve their goals and the nature of t'.~e true Islamic society. While certain organizations depend more or less on violent means, there are those who view "Jihad" by all means including the use of power and violence as a divine duty on all true Moslems. Moslems are ordered to establish the Isla- mic society even with the edge of the sword. On the other hand, two main trends can be observed concerning the present system of production, distribution and exchange. The main- stream in the Islamic revival movement is propagating a kind of Islamic system that accepts all the premises of capitalism, with the only qualification that it should be purified from whatever activities and dealings that directly contra- dict Islamic instructions. More radical groups refuse consumerism and are struggling for a more equitable society. Equity in this case is to be the result of the prevalance of Ismalic morals rather than the result of civil legislations that God did not order or allow. They however usually take a more aggressive attitude and play a more active role against foreign domination and the internal agents of the foreign powers. They are also very vocal against social oppression by the rich and against the domination and exploitation of foreign non-Islamic enterprises and especially the transnationals.

In general, the Islamic revival movements are staunch enemies of foreign cultural domination, and are hard fighters for a society that adheres to Islam and the concomitant Is- lamic identity. Other than that they do not present a clear and well defined societal project that can be considered an alternative for the prevailing socio-economic system or can help the Arab people to meet and overcome the economic, political and social challenges facing them.

The Arab Progressive Movement comprises a large number of organizations who are struggling against the present socio- economic order and who aim at radical changes that would eventually lead to the establishment of a socialist Arab integrated society. While all of them have some kind of socialist and unionist orientation, different parties and organizations adhere to different views and interpretations of what such a kind of society really entails. They start from different ideologies, priorities, points of emphasis, and views concerning relations with their international socialist and liberation movements.

Such d i f f e r e n c e s d o n o t however p r e v e n t more o r l e s s c o m o n s t a n d s a g a i n s t t.he p r e v a i l i n g soc io-economic o r d e r , nor do t h e y o b s t r u c t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t . o f c e r t a i n coma;', f r o n t s f o r c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c a i m s . Most o f t h e c o m o n s t a n d s and a c - t i o n s , however , a r e r e l a t e d t o day- to-day s t r u g g l e s a g a i n s t common enemies i n c l u d i n g f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l do- m i n a t i o n , a g g r e s s i o n o i o c c u p a t i o n by I s r a e l , r e p r 5 s s i o n by non-democra t ic governments , e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e masses and b u r d e n i n g them w i t h t h e e f f e c t s of t h e economic c r i s i s , e t c . . . One o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r such emphas i s on t h e day t o day a c t i o n i s t h e t a c t t h a t t h e Arab l i b e r a t i o n movement i s i n r e t r e a t . A g g r e s s i v e a t t a c k s a r a 1aunchc:J L'/ :he in iper ia - l i s t and g o v e r n i n g e l i t e s a g a i n s t t h e g a i n s a c h i e v e d by t h e masses d u r i n g e a r l i e r d e c a d e s . The most r e a c t i o n a r y f o r c e s i n t h e USA and I s r a e l a r e t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f t h e c r i s i s f a c i n g t h e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s and t h s c o u n t r i e s o f t h e T h i r d World t o l a u n c h a f r o n t a l a t t a c k on the Arab p e o p l e . Another i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i s t h e l a c k o f a common, c l e a r s t r a t e g i c o u t l o o k f o r t h e f u t u r e . There i s no agreement a b o u t t h e k i n d o f Arab u n i t y e n v i s a g e d , nor a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f s o c i a l i s m and i t s s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e c a s e o f t h e Arab n a t i o n . The r o l e ct democracy and t h e way o f s e c u r - i n g p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s n o t d e f i n e d 1". t h e programs o f most o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h a t c o m p r i s e t h e Arab P r o q r e s s i v e Movement. There a r e a l s o d i f f e r e n t p o m t s uf view c o n e e m m y t h e n a t u r e o f t h e c l a s s e s and s o c i a l f o r c e s t h a t a r e e x p e c t - ed t o be i n v o l v e d i n t h e s t r u q q l e f o r t h e new a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i a l o r d e r . While most ~ r q a n i z c i t i o n : . &rid p a r t i c s s c t u - i l l ^ s t r u g g l e t o e m a n c i p a t e t h e i r c o u n t r i a s rind t h e Arab n a t i o n a s a whole from t h e s h a c k l a s of depeiidoncy, and t o p u r s u e i n d e p e n d e n t deve lopment , t h e r e i s y e t no c l e a r a g r e e d upon c o n c e p t i o n a b o u t what t h a t e x a c t l y e n t a i l s o r t h e p r e c o n d i - t i o n f o r f o l l o w i n g such a p a t h .

What i s more d i s t u r b i n g , from t h e p o i n t o f view of t h e a b i l - i t y t o p r e s e n t a s o c i a l p r o j e c t tha t . c a n be a d o p t e d b y t.he m a s s e s , i s t h e wide s p r e a d o f u n d e m o c r a t i c means o f s e t t ] - i n g of i s s u e s w i t h i n t h e Arab P r o g r e s s i v e Movement. Not o n l y do a number of p a r t i e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s l a c k i n t e r n a l demo- c r a c y , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o many c a s e s where d i f f e r e n c e s a r e e l e v a t e d t o b a s i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t a r e s e t t l e d by v i o l e n t means, i n c l u d i n g m i l i t a r y c o n f r o n t a t i o n . Such b e h a v i o r makes i t more d i f f i c u l t t o c o n v i n c e t h e masses t h a t s u c h g r o u p s c a n be b e a r e r s o f any s o c i e t a l p r o j e c t t h a t c a n r e a l l y s o l v e t h e Arab prob lems and e n s u r e t h e overcoming o f t h e d e e p c r i s i s t h a t t h e Arab n a t i o n i s now f a c i n g .

Once a g a i n , r e a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s Lcir a n a 1 t e r n a t i v e d e v e l o p - ment c a n n o t b u t be t h e i f - s u i t o f a mass ino'/ei;ieiil. 'hat h a s a c l e a r v i s i o n o f t h e k i n d o f new s o c i e t y o r d e r it c a n e s t a b - l i s h . Both t h e I s l a m i c R e v i v a l Movement- and t h e Arab Pro- g r e s s i v e Movement a r e f a r away from a c h i e v i n g s u c h a n o b j e c - t i v e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , i n s p i t e o f t.he d e e p e n i n g o f t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic c r i ses .

1 f g a d o s s i e r 55 . seotember/october 1936 d00.31 s i ^ c ?

by K e i t h 8uchdr;ar. c i u Z. and S . Apathy 20 Mana S t r e e t Wellii-gttin 2 , N e w Zealand

Resume: 'L, 'hypothtfse que des peup les p '1 i n s t r u i t . 3 p u i s s e n t c h o i s f r de c r e e r un :?ofide mc6er:ie d l f f S r c i i t . i e l r : . ~ r i i ~ 6 r i q u ~ , ~ r . s y s ~ ? " e e f t ! < a c r o r g a n i s e d 3 u n e manicre radi?alenient J l f f6 ren l . e , semble p r6sen t t i r plu- s i e u r s problrimes de ciia'r,r6hensi'.on' - pour l cs Occidencatix du a o i n s . L ' a u t e u r e x p l o r e dans ce b r e f e s s a i l e s s i g n i f i c a t i . o n s de c e t c e c i t a t i o n i r o n i q u e , e t l ' e x p l o r a t i c n e s t d' -iutant p l u s n f . csssaLr~ : -iT-iri ?',-I; n ' e n a u r a i t pas imied ia tement p e r s u l ' i r o c - l " . L ' a u t e u r note; qce l't;o:noger&i- s a t i o n c u l t m e I L e (a11 s e n s Iarg'2) p r o g r e s s i v e dy.1 ?;.-ird h l a w a t ii'j.me Â¥minc ' e l i t e ' dans I e T i e r s Mends fa i . t c o t i r i r I f r i squ t - d l o u b L i e r l:i r i c h e d i v e r s i t s d e s soc iGt6s humaines ct. d ' ^ l e v e r des h k r r i t f r e s q u a s i insurmontah les 2 l a comprehension d e s cornplexirZs a u monde r e e l . Des c o n c e p t s q u i p a r a i s s e n c Gvidencs a beaqcoup d 'ms I e t'mrd s o n t l o i n s d ' s t r e u n i v e r s e l s . En f a i t , l e s mondes d2 dhaque groupe hunain s o n t (ie? ' c o n s t r u c t i o n s c u 1 t : i r e l l e s ' . Las mondes de gens d i f f g r c n t s o n t des fo r - mes - e t d e s con tenus - d i f f e r e n t s . Alors que l a plupart" des c u l c u r e s n o n - o c c i d e n t a l e s ' s o u t de-, c u l t u r e s de t o t a l i t e , l a c u l t u r e o c c i d e n t a l e e s t une c u l t u r e d s f r a g m e n t a t i o n - c e q u i a largemecc con t r ib ' i ? aux d&-- c o u v e r t e s s c i e n t i f i q u e s , mais 3'2 h e u r c e d ' E : r o i t e s Mmi tes dS5 que l ' o n en tend d s p a s s e r l a logi-que J e l-i pr .~d i ic r i~ - i r i m.i tkr i . -11e, Q u i p l u s e s t , nombre de problZmed cor.tpCporair.s z p p e l e n t pr6cl.sCnrn'; une Â¥i':~pzcl*i d e p e r c e v o i r l e s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s e n t r e J e s phSno'aGnas, en un n o t , l c u r t o t a l i t e . II. e s t donc i a p o r c ~ n i ; q u e l a :,o'rd ;:on ~.2uler ' .ent c e a s e d ' i~ .p<l - s e r ses v a i e u r s au r e a c e du munde, a a i s fju+>,: ql.'i: ; " i f J rcp < ' q p 7 , . J . ? - d r e d s s a u t r e s c u l t u r e s . i . ' a u t e u r examine en p a r t i ~ ~ 1 i e r i e s r a p p o r t s e n t r e : joc i6 tes hiimaines e t n a t u r e e t Id proh1t'-matiquc d ~ i ,16veIoppe~e3lt . Le f a i t e s t q u ' i l " 1 a u t m t de formea d e $>v-Lopp:?ment q i i ' i l y ."it? sociÂ¡t".G iwrnalnes, ei: quo V^ p : - o c ~ ~ ~ s u s .'!v ac- ;~Lm~:~enenc u ' i ine s o c i ^ t ? - donnee na puut s e n i c d u r ~ r q u ' i 1'au:ie cle 1: i:ul?~.re Je c e i t e sociGtt?,

Keith Buchanan

THE WORLDS OF DIFFERENT PEOPLES

Since the end or the Second World War, the societies of the White North have undergone a process of increas~ng homoqeni- zation. Improved communications by land and air, the impact of TV and of mass marketing techniques, Europe-wide sporting and entertainment contests, above all a gadget-dominated and affluent lifestyle - all these are progressively attenuating national and regional differences. I/ It is true that we may still find cultures and groups which have not yet been finally absorbed by the dominant society - rural Males and rural Brittany, some sectors of the working class, are examples - but these are very much relict societies, small in size and subjected to the continuous pressure of their weal- thier or more powerful neighbours.

A similar homogenization is taking place among the upper and middle classes in the Third World. The processes at work are similar to those in Europe, with the added influence of the giant transnational firms, and these are resulting in the imposition of patterns of life and consumption very similar to those of the middle classes in the White North. However, as yet the majority of the Third World's peoples have been relatively little touched by these processes so that a yawn- ing gap exists between the masses and their middle-class or upper-class leaders. These latter are closer in lifestyle and ambitions to comparable groups in the White North. And since it is these middle or upper class groups who "make the news", who dominate newspaper and TV reports on the Third World, we may easily fall into the error of taking such groups as typical and thus of overestimating the extent of homogenization in these countries of the South. More important, we may underestimate the continuing importance of traditional cultures, of traditional values, and of traditional lifestyles. 2/

Under such circumstances, we are in danger of positing a sort of abstract man similar to the "economic man" posited by economists. And by doing this we reduce to a grey mono- tony the rich diversity of humankind 3/ and we create an almost impassable barrier to the understanding of the com- plexities of the real world. Concepts which seem to many in the North as (possibly deceptively) very straightforward and obvious - such as wealth and poverty, development and progress - may have a range of unexpected dimensions to other peoples; if we in the North seek to understand the world in which we live we cannot ignore these other dimensions. Nei- ther can we assume that E definitions of problems and E solutions will of necessity be shared by other peoples; indeed, in certain cases, the very existence of a "problem" may be flatly, and often with some justification, denied.

Such situations are not the result of "backwardness" or of some peculiar moral obliquity on the part of other groups, of people who are Not-Us, but are simply due to the fact that people in different cultures, because of the different value-systems around which these cultures are built, perceive a very different world from the world we perceive.

The culture f a c t s

Many years ago, the American geographer Car1 Sauer stressed that "natural resources are cultural appraisalsn, that it is the culture of a group that determines which elements of an environment will constitute "resources" and which will re- main simply "neutral stuff".

A "resource" is thus not something given but rather a cultural construct, so that different peoples will perceive different resource patterns in the same environment. And, indeed, pushing Sauer's thesis a little further, we may claim that our world, and the worlds of other human groups, are similarly "cultural constructs"; the world perceived by a Briton from Manchester is very different from that perceived by a Chinese from Hong Konq; that perceived by an Asian peasant very different from that perceived by an American busi- nessman.

This has been well expressed by the anthropologist Walter Goldschmidt; says Goldschmidt: "Anthropology has taught us that the world is differently defined in different places. It is not only that peoples have different customs; it is not only that people believe in different qods and expect different post-mortem fates. It is rather that the worlds of different peoples have different shapes. The very metaphysi- cal presuppositions differ: swace does not conform to Eucli- - - dean geometry, time does not form a continuous unidirectio- nal flow, causation does not conform to Aristotelian logic, man is not differentiated from non-man or life from death, as in our world". 4/

And, we may add, while most other cultures are "cultures of totalities", Western culture is a "culture of fragmentation". This fragmentation of problems and processes into discrete units for study and analysis was an essential ele- ment in the "scientific method" - but it involved the qrad- ual loss of the capability to conceptualize in totalities. Yet many of the major issues of our time demand just such a capability. Development, for example, is not just simply a case of gearing up the economic machine so that each person shall have more but also of promoting those profound social and political changes which will make it possible for each to be more, and if "development" is regarded with scepticism by some peoples it is because they have learnt to distrust the expert's obsession with what is to them only part of the process.

C f t z a c h l n g a n d learning

The very specialised, f r a g m e n t e d , v i s i o n w h i c h h a s c h a r a c - terized much o f Wesv-ern t h o u q h t s i n c e t h e wan ing o f t h e Re- n a i ~ s ~ i ~ ~ e w a s an importi-i : i t f a c t o r i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c p r c q r e s s of t h e l a s t f o u r c e n t u r i e s . I t h a s b e e n a s p e c t a c u l a r p r o - (q-ress b'zt w e s".::.otir'~e,; o v e r l o o k t h a t , b e c a u s e i t became i n - c r e a s i n g i y prcJ ' . ! : t -L~n-cr i e n t ? d , i t h a s b e e n a v e r y u n e v e n p r c q r e s s . W e have L e a r n t much a b o u t m a t t e r - b u t o u r knew- Ledne of iris"-:. arid c'f how s o c i e t i e s f u n c t i o n i s f a r more f i a q - m e n t a r y ; i t c a n 1 % a r q u e d t h a t p e o p l e s r e g a r d e d by t h e N c r t h ;As l s :q-cr dcveioi. ' t -dl ' , eve- "br.c~wiird" , deni i fns t rc . te i;i t.he complex c r d e r i n f - : c f t h e i r s c c i r . t i e s a i c r e a ? e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g - 6 n a n t h a n th& : i . ~ ; ; t ' : . ~ 7 ; h i ~ t i c a t e d m a c h i n e - c i v i l i s a t i c n s o f the so--callA;d ".-:"v::j-.rec;" n a t i c r - s . Y e t w e a r e sometiir .es i n - c l i n e d t o f o r q c t t h i s arid tc assume t h a t t h e N o r t h ' s s c i e n - - t i f i c a c h i e v f c n e r i t s g i v e t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g necc ' s sa ry t o p r e - s c r i b e s o l u t i c ' n s +o the rr.a]ot: hl.iir'd1; p r o b l e m s o f o u r t i m e . W e t2r.c r i i - t on11 t o ovcr!.uok t.1-i~ e r r o r s o f j u d v m e n t i n e v e n t h e l e s s cc:npiex fields ut, s d y , ~ n q i n e e r ~ n g o r b i o l o g i c a l .=..- ^ L ~ e n c ' e wnich have h a d in[ . - ior tar . t , eve:: d i s a s t r o u s , e c c l o g i -

cal o r s ~ ~ c i a 1 r e p e r c u s s i o n s , ( s u c h a s t h e Aswan High Sam o r t h e i n d i ~ i c r i n i ~ n a t e usr: o; p e s t i c i d e s s u c h a s DDT); - 5 / what i s worst, l i e fcti'.. t o s e e them f o r wha t t h e y a r e - a n d t h a t ! S rr l f l r ing FXP.ITF~I?S i.f t h e ina~.leqi.- .cy and, i n d e e r ? , t h e d a n - jr -rs , o f c-. pdr t i , ? ! 1 - i ~ o n , >..-,,+rÂ¥.-Â¥v . - , o y i ~ i s t i c a t e d .

Giy:en th tese t ! - . i n ~ ~ , -it i s i m p o r t a n t t h a t w e s h o u l d c e a s e t.o i r . p o s e o u r vie',; c;n e t h e r cuP- t -u res , t h a t we s n o u l d r e : ccqn ize t .he v a l i d i t y and t h e c o h t - r e n c e o f t h e othc.i. w o r l d s n?n anti T..;cmen havd s h a p e d . An? ~ e i : h a p s , a s A c t h u r E r i c k s o n su ! ;qes t s , f r o m theses w c r l d s w e nd'y le^.r:i "6 l a r g e r ar.2 d e e p e t vie'/ , o f i - ~ + a l ' t t y t haz cur <:.a;> n v e " . he :?ay disc 2ec"'..~n r r c m these c-tht-r Ciii-Lun:s "r.c,t t c l i - r a n e e c r s ; m p u t h y , which i s coi-ide- scer:'::incj, b u t hr 'w t o dr; tkiri?;: rb .=t tcr our?.;-'';es - ;,E:: n c ~ t r'n? '.Â 6- hilt. b e . . , , " .' - -.-- -

L e t u s exam'i.n:i, i n *^" "Â¥r-.a .. i - f c t . a m oi t e r m ? , some o t t h e rr'ost s t r i ~ i r . g c o n t r a s t s b e t w e e n t h e n z i t i o n s o f t>& C e n t r e and t h e p e o p l c i . o f t h e P e r i p h e : y i n t h e n p e r c e p t i o n o f s e l e c t e d i";i;b<il t'lemt-.C.: r , a n l s p i a c e 2 . ; n ~ t ^rv a ~ r t h i 5 a t t i t u d e t o t.he

l a n d ; h i s a t t i t u d e t o t h e o t h e r p e o p l e s w i t h whon he s h a r e s t h e g l o b e ; t h e i s s u e s o f p r o g r e s s and deve lopment ; and h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between p e o p l e s a t t h e ~ n - t c r n a t i o n a l l e v e l .

Man and n a t u r e

The e x t i n c t i o n o f many s p e c i e s , t h e t h r e s t e n e d ex t inc+ . ion e f hundreds more, t h e p r o g r e s s i v e d e g r a d a t i o n of t h e w o r l d ' s v e a e t a t i o n cox.,er - a l l t h e s e a r e symptoms o f t h e e c o l o q i c a l c r i s i s p r e c i p i t a t e d by t h e deve lopment p o l i c i e s o f t h e na- t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e . Lynn White J r . h a s a rgued t h a t w i m - p o r t a n t e l e m e n t i n t h i s c r i s i s h a s beer. Wes te rn rua2's b e l i e f t h a t ' ' i t i s God ' s w i l l t h a t m a n e x p l o i t n a t u r e f o r h i s 2 r o - p e r e n d s " , t h a t "no i t e m i n the ; p h y s i c a l c r a a t i o r h a 4 a n y p u r p o s e s a v e t o s e r v e man ' s p u r p o s e s . " 11 Given suck, a d e e p - s e a t e d - and a n c i e n t - c o n v i c t i o n it became' p o s s i b l e t o e x p l o i t n a t u r e " i n a mood o f t o t a l i n d i f f e r e n c e t o t h e f e e l - i n g o f n a t u r a l o b j e c t s " - and w i t h t o t a l i n d i f f e r e n c e tc t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s . And w i t h t h e deve lopment o f i n c r e a s i n g l i ' so- p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n o l o g y and t h e i n c r e a s i n g demand f o r YCSGZr- c e s o f a l l s o r t s t h e d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s o f such a n a t t i t u d e was i m e n s e l y enhanced .

The a t t i t u d e s o f many p e o p l e s (whom we r e g a r d somehow a s p r i m i t i v e " ) a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t . The n a t u r a l wor ld was n o t c r e a t e d e x p l i c i t l y f o r man ' s b e n e f i t , b u t f o r t h e b e n u t i t of all 1 i v i n q t h i n s s . T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f m a n ' s p l a c e i n nai-ure, a c o n c e p t i o n s h a r e d by many non-Westerr. p e o p l e s , was s p e l l e d o u t c l e a r l y by Lercy L i t t l e Bear i n h i s e v i d e n c e t o t h e B e r g e r Commission which was s e t up by t h e Canadian Govern- ment t o a n a l y s e t h e impact c f a p roposed g a s p i p e l i n e on t h e p e o p l e s o f C a n a d a ' s North: " t h e C r e a t o r " , s a i d Le ioy 1.i t t l e G e a r , " i n g r a n t i n g l a n d , d i d n o t g i v e t h e l a n d t o lunian b e i n g s o n l y , b u t Gave i t t o a l l l i v i n q t h i n g s . T h i s i n c i u d i - ' ~ p l a n t s , sometimes r o c k s , and a l l ani:i!aLs. ir. o t h e r words , d e e r have t h e same t y p e of e s t a t e o r i r . t e r ' ? . ~ t a s hvifnan L e - i n g s . T h i s c o n c e p t o f s t i o r i n g w i t h f e l l o w an12a ' .s Â£in p l a n t s i s q u i t e a l i e n t o Wes te rn s o c i e t y ' s c o n c e p t o f l a n d " . -. E! I t i s i n d e e d a l i e n , b u t b e f o r e we d i s m i s s it aÃ§ i r r e l e v a n t w e s h o u l d p o n d e r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e g l -oba l e n v i r o n m e n t and t h e impover i shed f l o r a and f a u n a o f e v e > o u r own immpdi-ate ne ighbourhcod which a r e t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of o u r p r e d i t o r y , man-orier . ted, p h i l o s o p h y o f deve lopment . We m a y t h e n bcgi?. t c u n d e r s t a n d how g r e a t i s o u r need tc fern; a :'ifw a w a r e n e s s o f m a n ' s - p l a c e - i n - n a t u r e i f we a r e t o aver" , a". scolocic.?:- c a t a s t r o p h e .

Man and l a n d

C o n s i d e r a t i o n of man's a L t i t u d e s t o and r o l - i t i ~ ~ ~ h i r t o t n e l a n d show t h a t i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between Wes te rn man and many of tha w o r l d ' s p e o p l e s ; i t shows, t o o , t h a t Wes te rn m a n ' s a!'ci-.u:.leb t . a ' ~ e underqc:na cons i3erdbS.e changes o v e r t h e cent:uri 'ss

With the breakdown of the feudal system, land became comer- cialised. As city populations grew and trade developed, it became an important factor of production, 'a means not simply of sustenance but also, and increasingly, a source of pro- fits. Rights of use, on which the medieval economy rested, gave place to rights of ownership and land became something that could be bought and sold. This trend towards individual ownership and commercialisation did not at first lead to the exploitation and soil-mining which characterises much so- called advanced agriculture for, as Wendell Berry has stressed, there "existed yeoman or peasant or artisan classes, whose birthright was the fundamental skills of earth- keeping . . . As long as these classes and their traditions were strong, there was at least the hope that the world would be well used". 91

But the industrial revolution has, with a few exceptions, swept such groups away and substituted for the old concept of stewardship a simple cash relationship.

This Western attitude to the land contrasts sharply with the attitudes of many non-Western groups. Among such groups only rights of use are recognized; land is not a possession but an inheritance to the living, handed down by the ancestors and to be held in trust for the unborn. Only after contact with the West did the idea of land as a commodity, as something that had a money value, begin to displace the old concepts. And in many parts of the world these different attitudes to land were subsequently to give rise to major conflicts since the white man regarded any land transactions with native groups as conferring on him the rights of absolute ownership while those ceding the land regarded the ces- sion as being of rights of usage only and revokable at will.

Worlds of development

Jirnmie Durham, speaking of development issues as an Indian, remarks that "we of the Third World have neither the time nor the options, nor the priorities that Europeans have" 101. We in the North do not find this easy to recognize or accept, yet wherever the supposed beneficiaries of modern "development" have been given an opportunity to express their views they leave little doubt that, whatever their elites - and their mentors in the North - may assert, not all are hypnoptized by the "marvels" of industrial society. Said one witness to the Berqer Inquiry with a nice sense of irony: "I wonder now people in Toronto would react if the people of Old Crow went down to Toronto and said 'Well, look, we are going to knock down all of these skyscrapers and high rises ... blast a few holes for lakes to make for muskrat trappings. You people are just going to have to move out and stop driving cars and move into cabins . . ." - I11

We need to hear many more such voices as corrective5 to the arrogant assertions of our politicians, of technocrats and our mass media who continually assure us that there is only one real form of development - that represented by the industrial civilisation of the Centre - and that it is somehow our responsibility to sell this model to all those nations we label "underdeveloped". But this is increasingly rejected by the people of the Periphery who say, in effect, "What right have you to tell us what the future must hold for us?" and who regard both Western and Soviet society as incompat- ible with their vision of the Good Society.

The truth is that there are as many forms of "development" as there are human societies for, as Michael Eliot Hurst reminds us: "the 'developedness' of a particular area is a function of the economic organisation and culture held by the people of that area (i.e. is an integral part of that particular socio-economic system) and can be measured only in terms appropriate to that culture". 121

If we accept this viewpoint - and it is difficult to dissent from it - we have to accept also that 'developedness' may take many forms and that a technologically highly-developed society such as our own may be in other respects backward and certainly cannot be taken as some sort of norm against which the 'developedness' of all other societies is measured. Technological development and moral underdevelopment may, we have been reminded, go hand-in-hand and achievements in non-material fields such as poetry or other art forms may be as valid an index of development as proficiency in rock- etry or electronics.. . . It is important that we recognize .the many forms development may take; it is important, too, that we rid ourselves of the assumption that the process of development has only one possible end-product - and that it is the type of society with which we ourselves are familiar. And perhaps, if it is possible, we should try to find alternatives to the very terms 'developed', 'underdeveloped', and 'developing', for these, as commonly used, serve merely to perpetuate the idea that the only yardstick by which a nation's progress can be measured is the machine-civilisation of the North. Such ter- minology mystifies the whole development process and at the same time perpetuates the idea of an international hierarchy in which the Third World is cast in the role of an aspiring but junior partner.

The worlds of different peoples

As Richard Hensman observes ironically: "The assumption that untutored peoples may choose to create a modern world other than Euramerica, an efficient social system conceived and organized in a radically different way, appears to present several problems of understanding". E/

Or.-- r e a s o n f o r th1-3 d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n t h e d i f f e r e n t mean- i - y s w o r d s c z r r y f o r d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e . To t h e m a j o r i t y o f f c i k i n th ' ; Gentr" . t h e i r o n c e p r i v i L e q e d r o l e i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld , t h e i r m o n o p o l i z a t i o L l o f it-s m a j o r r e s o u r c e s a n d t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n t h e r e o f h u n d r e d s of m i l i t a r y b a s e s w a s , a n d s o m e t i m e s a t l . l l i s , ' r e g a r d e d as ' n o r a a i - ' . 141 I t was a l s o ' n o r n a l ' t h a t ':nu T h i r d World n a t i o n s s h o u l d en jc ' y no r e c i p - rocal r i g h t s i n t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e ; t h e d i s m a y c a u s e d D V 0?EC i nves f .v . en t p o l i c i e s L S i n s t r u c t i v e i n t h i s r e s p e c t . S i m i l a r l y , t h e concept-. o f s t a b i l i t y i s , a s Hensman r e m i n d s .'.S, " v i e w e d r i t h e r d i f f e r e n t l y by t h o s e n o r . - v i s i b l e , s u b - merged e1enen t . s i n s o c i e t y a t whose expen ' ie -it i s m a i n t a i n e d From t.he w^.y 1". whi.:h i t : S p r e s e n t e d by s o c i o l c i q i s t s who r e q a r d what a l r e a d y e x i s t s a s s o c i a l o r d e r a n d w h a t t h r e a t - e n s > t as d i z o r i e r " . 1 5 /

A n o t h e r m a j o r source ; of s r i s a n d e r s t a n d i n q b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e a n d t h o s e o f t h e T h i r d World a r i s e s f rom t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h e s t r u g g l e t o err.anci.patp themse lves? t h e peo- .';:,e;i of '?.c So,.it.h h a v e c'r.?atei3 !~ . 'Â¥ forins o f s o c i a l orqa:i:sa- +:.ion, new s o c i a l e n t i t - i e s , b.-ised on t h e i r own d i s t i n c t i : . - e : o n c o p t i c r : s o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y . The n a t i o n s o f t h e C e n t r e h a v e t r i e d t o f i t t h e s e i n t o t h e w o r l d w i t h w h i c h t h e y w e r e f a m i l i a ~ ; t h e w o r l d oE t h e W h i t e N o r t h ( w h e t h e r W e s t e r n o r S o v i e t ) , J i : . r eya idJ - i i j t h a f a c t t h a t t h e o l d c a t e g o r i e s a n d r o r . c e p t s a r e i n a d e q u a t e t o e x p r e s s t n e new r e v o i u t . i o n a r y r e a i i t i e b . The ;-?suit i.s t h a t , e v e n w h e r e t h e r e h a s b e e n no : c i ~ b i p r a f e d i a t o r t i o r . o f r e a l i t y , t h e p i c t u r e v-s r e c e i v i s . )Â£ke a ^ r ? v 2 ? s t y or' r e a l i t y . T h i s i s e s p e c i a l l y s o i n t h e c a s e o f c C > u n t r i e s i l k ? C h i n a w h i c h h a v e b e e n t h r o u g h a l o n g :--(-;ri;id '-if. s o c i a l upheavii-L a n d s o c i a l expe r imen t . ; i n t h e wyrJs (-if i1i:nsman: " t h e ' s e p a r a t i o n o f powers ' i n r e v o l ' - i t i o n - d r y C h i n a , the ' f u n c t i o r ~ s o f t h e People ' . :- ' L i b e r - a t i o n Army o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n f a c t o r i e s i n C h i n a , a r e i n t e l l i g i b l e oi7i.y i f we d e v i s e s o c i o l o g i c a l c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h w i l l t a k e - , U L I ~ I C o f s t r : i nqe i ~ a l i t i e s " . - 1 6 /

Bec..i~?;e o f t h i s u s e i f t h e C e n t r e ' s c o n c e p t s a n d s t e r e o t y p e s t o e x p r e s s t h e new and o f t s r i complex r e a l i t i e s o f T h i r d World s o c i e t - i e s , o u r v i e w of s u c h s o c i e t i e s i s e i t h e r h a z y o r d i s t o r t e d by t1ii.s p r i s n o f l a n g u a g e . Our v i e w i s f u r t h e r A - . . b - t o r t e d , s o m e t i m e s d e l i b e r a t e l y , by t h e c o n t i n u i n g domina- A - < - _ ^ n by t h i Ceritr . ; o f i n ? o r i r . a t i o n c h a n n e l s , r a n g i n g f rom press a q e n c i e s to ihs v a r i o u s i r ' sd i a . Most o f w h a t we l e a r n a b o u t t h e T h i r d W o r l d , m o s t o f w h a t T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s 1 - 2 o t h e r T h i r d K o r l d c o u n t r i e s , c c m s s f rom t h e .. .-

; ; ress agenci'::'. a r d r:.edia o f t h e C e n t r e ; t h e s e beconle, i n t h e , /.. , l.-,7 &... 5; 3 f _;u.i.-L G.~;n-iai-l&, " a r b i t e r s o r e x i s t i n g r e d l ~ ~ y " f o r i t

~ ~ h - , . .. . . . L i -~'i'iat i s news. T h i s t h e y d o i n t n e i i ~ l i t - o f t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c i n t e r e s t s o f t h e C e n t r e an:? t h e r e a l i t y t h e y c l a i m t o p r e s a n t i s f u r t h e r d i s t o r t e d 'r ,\ 7 L' '3 u o u 0: 'I'->i->ei,s, a d j e c t i v e s 2nd p e r s u a s i v e d e f i n i t i o n s t , ~ s t ' l . q m L t ~ z ~ +?arq~ts '3f t h e s y s t e m ' . Wo h e a r much o f ' e x - t r e i r . ~ ~ ~ ' ..ir.,i ' r e b e l s ' b u t l i t t l e o t r e a c t i o n a r i e s ; much

a b o u t ' i r . a r x i s t ' h e a d s o f s t a t e b u t n e v e r a rr-.ention o f t h a t much more numerous t r i b e - t h e ' c a p i t a l i s t ' heeds o f s t a t e . S e m a n t i c s b e c o p e s a p o w e r f u l we.-ipoii - u s e d f o r t h e m o s t p a r t a q a i n s t t h e T h i r d W o r l d . A n d t h r o u g h t h e s u p p r e s s i o : o f f a c t s f a v o u r a b l e t o T h i r d World a s p i r a t i ~ ~ s o r t o t h e f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f N u r t > ~ S o u t h r e l a r i o n s e v e n s i l e n c e c a n b e u s e d .as weapor.. 1 7 1

Mahbub u l Eiaq, s p e a k i n 9 a s a c l t i z c n o f t n e T h i r d i i o r l d , comments o n t h e e m p t i n e s s o f n a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e " u n l e s s p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a t i o n i s f c l l o w ~ d by ecor .o i~l ic a.'-.< i n t e l l e c - t u a l l i b e r a t i o n " . The. need f o r s o c h l i b e r a t i o n a r i s e s f r - > r . t h e f a c t t h a r "nicny o f u s a r e p r i s o n e r s o f r':r own pas t , t r a i n i n g a n d s c r n e b c ~ y e i s p ' s t ~ h o u g h t " . 2-5,' iSe?dA.or , : o v i ~ : c R . Salr?r.qa cor.mfcnt?cl, o f h i s cou,-.try7i'.:-n: "Fi17^' a r ? ;-:ow l i v i n g i m p o r t e d l i v e s " . ) 19,'

I n t h e s e r e m a r k s w e c a n sec ar.ot'. ' iei f a c t o r c o r . t r l h v ! t ~ n c : t c t h e l - i a b i ' i i t y c;: t n e pcc:ilei; of t!ie i n c ~ s t r i . n : ~ i z e d n a t i o n s t o u n d e r s t a n d t.he r i ? ~ ? : ~ r e o f Th-..rd ' / ior ld r e a l i t i e s , F o r r . a n y T h i r d World 'spok>-":smi-;n' a r e , a s Far.on n o t e d Lcnq a q o , t h e p r o d u c t s o f a l o n g programme o f i n t e l l e - c f - i a l c o l o n i s a t i o n . They s e e t h e w o r l d , i n c l u d i n q t h e i r own w o r l d , t h r o u g h t h e d i s t o r t i n g l e n s o f t h e C e n t r e ' s p a t t e r n cf t i i o u q h t . L ' r i t i l s u c h spokesmen b r e a k t i l t h o l d c Â t h i s c o l o n i s a t i o n a n d b e g i n t o l o o k d t t t . e w c r - i c froi,?. t h e s~ :a r ' . apc i , ; t o f T ! i~ r " ; World v a l u e s y s t e m s - o r u n t . i l t h e m a s s e s d i s p l e c e then1 a s i r r e L e - v a n t - we ~ ' h a l ! know 1 i t . t . l ~ o f t h e hope.; and thf ; a s p i r a L i o n s o f t h a ? t t w o - t h i r d s c:? i'.'nma:?ity whor; t a n o n n e s c r i b e c i a s "thi:; w r e t c h e d o f t h e e a r t h " .

The F r e n c h e c o n o m i s t , F r a n c o i s P a r t a n t , conment.ir1g o n t h e e t h n o c e n t r i s m o f mos t e c o n o m i s t s , s a i d " t h e y d o n o t ~5 t h e c o u n t r y whose f u t u r e t h e y a r e g o i n g ko p l a n , t h e y compare i t " . 101 I t i s t e m p t i r . 1 ~ t o d o somewhat t h e same when c o n - f r o n t e d by t h e d i v e r s i t y o f w o r l d s p e r c e i v e d - o r c r e a t e d - by d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s , t o a r r a n g e them i n some s o r t o f h i e r - a r c h y o f excellence ( h o w e v e r t h a t i s d e f i n e d ) . We c a n n o t i n s i s t t o o e m p h a t i c a l l y on t h e u s e l e s s n e s s o f s u c h e x e r c i - s e s ; t h e e x c e l l e n c e o r o t h e r w i s e of a c u l t u r e o r a way o f l i f e , l i k e t h e ' d e v e l o p e c n e s s ' o f a n a r e a o r s o c i e t y , " c a n b e m e a s u r e d o n l y i n t e r m s a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h a t c u l t u r e " .

J e r o m e R o t h e n b e r q , i n h i s a n t h o l o g y o f ' p r i m i t i v e ' p o e t r y , r e m i n d s u s " t h a t t h e r e o r e no p r i m i t i v e l a n g u a g e s ... n o h a l f - f o r m e d l a n g u a g e s , n o u n d e r d e v e l o p e d o r i n f e r i o r l a n - g u a q e s " . He a d d s : "No p e o p l e t o d d y i s newly Dorn . No p e o p l e h a s s a t i n s l o t h f o r t h e t h o u s a n d s of y e a r s of i t s h i s t o r y . M e a s u r e e v e r y t h i n g by t h e T i t a n r o c k e t a n d t h e t r a n s i s t o r r a d i o , a n d t h e w o r l d i s f u l l o f p r i m i t i v e p e o p l e s . B u t o n c e c h a n g e t h e u n i t v a l u e t o t h e poem o r th,: d a n c e - e v e n t o r t h e d r e a m ( a l l c l e a r l y a r t i f a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n s ) and i t becomes

a p p a r e n t what a l l t h e s e p e o p l e have been d o i n g a l l t h e s e y e a r s w i t h a l l t h a t t i m e on t h e i r h a n d s " . G/

Once we have a c c e p t e d t h i s , once we r e j e c t t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e i s some s o r t o f h i e r a r c h y o f c u l t u r e s , we may d e s i s t f rom o u r t e n d e n c y t o t r y t o f o i s t on o t h e r p e o p l e o u r own ( o f t e n u n a c h i e v e d ) i d e a l s , whe ther t h e y want them o r n o t ; d e s i s t a l s o from t h e i d e a t h a t we have some s o r t o f r i g h t t o p l u n d e r t h e l a n d s and d e s t r o y t h e c u l t u r e s o f o t h e r p e o p l e s i n t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e r e s o u r c e s t o m a i n t a i n o u r own way o f l i f e . P e r h a p s we may t h e n , as a wise man from t h e E a s t p u t it, be a b l e t o open t h e windows o f our house s o t h a t t h e winds of a l l t h e wor ld may blow t h r o u g h .

N o t e s

11 S e e , f o r example , some o f P i e r P a e l o ? a s o I 5 n i 9 s e s s a y s i n h i s E c r l t s - c o r s a i r e s ( P a r i s : Flaminar ion, 1976) . 21 C laude J u l i e n comncnts on "une c u l t u r e e t ,.ine n a n i e r e J e v i v r e , uiie - a l t i t u d e devanc l a m o r t , une d i g n i t & que vaut, c e l l e de t o u s l e s 'mis- s i o n a i r e s ' l a l q u e s ou r e l i g i e u x " a s among t h e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e s of T h i r d World s o c i e t i e s . Le Monde D i p l o m a t i q u e , mai 1985 , p . 1 4 . 3 1 See J e a n F o u r a s t i e on t h e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s p r o c e s s i n K a i s s a n c e de - ' E u r o p e d e s r e g i o n s (Geneva: B u l l . C e n t r e Europgen d e l a C u l t u r e , X lL :2 , 1567-68, p . 5 7 ) . 4 1 Foreword t o C a r i o s Castaiieija The T e a c h i n g s of Don J u a n : A Yaqui Way - of Knovl* ( P e n g u i n , Hamondswor th , ! 9 7 0 j . j! S e e , f o r exampie , the ? s s a v s ~ n The C a r e l e s s Teci~r~<,Logy: Ecokogy and - T n t e r n a t J ~ o n a 1 Development-, c d . M . T a g h i F a r v a r and John P. Mi1:on (London: S t n c e y , i 9 7 j ) . 6/ A r t h u r E r i c k s o n "Convoca t ion a d d r e s s a t MeGi l l U n i v e r s i t y , Muntrea1" - 5 November 1975 (mimeo, p . 7 ) . 7 / Lynn Whi t e J r . , "The i i i s t o r i c a i r o o t s o f c u r e ~ u l o g i e a l c r i s i s " - S c i e n c e , Vo l .155 , N03767, 10 March 1967; f o r an e v a l u a t i o n o f Lynr. W h i t e ' s argument s e e Wendel! Be r ry The G i f t o f Good Land (San F r a n c i s c o : Nor th P o i n t P r e s s , 1981) pp.267-281. 8 1 Le roy L j t t i e S e a r ' s s t a t e m e n t is t a k e n f rom The P a s t and F u t u r e Land by Marc in O'Mal ley ( T o r o n t o : P e t e r K. i r? . in , 1976) p.24C. 9 1 K e n d e l l P ,erry o p . c i t , p .277. -. 101 J . Durham "E loheh , o r t h e C o u n c i l o f t h e L 'niverse" IFDA D o s s i e r 6 . - 111 Quoted i n Ci'Pfalley o p . c i t , p . l : j . - 12 / Mizt iael E l i o t H u r s t A Geograp ly ,7f Economic Bet ,aviour ( C a l i f o r n i a : - B e h o n t , 1973) . 131 , fi/, E / , S/ P.ichzrd Hexsnan From Gandk,i t o Guevara: t h e Pc~Lemics - of R e v o l t (London: 1969) pp.34, 7 1 , 65, 6 3 . 171 Juan Somavia, "The D e ~ o c r a r i z a t i o n of Coninunicatic '~' is" i n Development- - - D i a l o g u e (Uppsa la : Dag HanioarskjGld F o u n d a t i o n , 1981:Z) p .130. -- 181 Nahnub u l 1laq The P o v e r t y o r C u r t a i n : C h o ~ c e s f o r t h e 'Third Worid. - 191 C i t e d by Greg Crough and Ted Wheelwright A u s t r a l i a : A C l i e n t S t a t e - ( A u s t r a l i a : P e n g u i n , 1982) p . 7 1 . 201 F r a n c o i s P a r t a n t La g u 6 r i l l a 6conomique: l e s c o c d ~ t i o n s du d s v e l o p - - pement ( P a r i s : 1976) p . 121. 211 .Jeronie Ko the3be rg , e d , ' 7 e c t ~ n i c i a r . s of t h e S a c r ? ~ (Xew York: 1 9 6 8 ) . -

THE MAIN SHORTCOMING OF THE PRESENT INTERNATIONAL ORDER:

THE MARKET AS THE SOLE MASTER

by Martin Huslid Permanent Representdtive of Norway to the United Nations Case postale 274 1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland

In spite of heightened recognition of the growing interde- pendence between the North and the South and in spite of certain changes of policy stances already mentioned, I think it must be admitted that the North/South dial.ogue has been taking place under rather unfavourable circumstances over the last few years. A certain inertia has been noticeable as well as an unwillingness to take concrete actions that in- terfere with what is called the free play of market forces. The term "New International Economic Order", which in the 70s was often held up as a goal, is now heard far less, and one even sees outriqht opposition to the term as such.

Still, when beinq honest with ourselvs I would think we all agree that a need does exist in our disorderly world for a more developed, a more just world economic irdcr.

I mentioned the market and no doubt it is hardly feasible in the long run to go against the market. However, the market alone is a most deficient and imperfect instrument as a req- -- ulator of international economic relations and development. Thus the market does not care about stability but, on the contrary, entails large and sometimes dramatic fluctuations. Neither does the market bother about equality or justice and is rather prone to bring about a distribution of wealth and rcim'uneration that is unjast and unacceptable. Lastly, the market does not consider it to be of its concern whether the long-term development is jeopardized in the short-tor?, economic process, for instance whether the environinent is har- mod or not.

O n the national level all qovermsnts, socialist, liberal or c-onservativ.., h a v e t c i k c - n the conseque:'n:cs of these shortcoir,-

< v * Li, ings ot the market and have suppiunter!LsJ market- f o r c e s quite an array of incentives, rules and regulatory measures to bring about better stability, better equality and, at the same: tine, taking account of long-terrr. economic/ecologic consiitera t ions.

On the international level, however, we have hardly anything of this - and that is probably the main shortcoming of the present international economic order. The so-called free market forces are here more or less the sole masters on the scene, almost without any - or at least very little - stabilizing and moderating action by governments, acting together. It has to be admitted that the results are often less than satisfactory. Sometimes they become outrightly unacceptable and governi?ents feel obliged to step in. A good example in this respect was the concerted action by the Group of 5 last autumn i-n order to bring about a better stability in exchange relations than the market alone had been able to produce. But similar concerted action was, and is, also called for in other areas. The debt problem and the whole fra- gile monetary situation stands out here as an evident chal- lenge. If not attended to in time it no doubt could easily provoke a crisis of far-reaching conseauences.

The grave difficulties in the commodity sector over the last period likewise have demonstrated the need for co-operative and corrective action. UNCTAD's Integrated Programme for Commodities with a Common Commodity Fund constituted a vision for such a comprehensive, stabilizing co-operative action designed to bring about strengthening and- stability in the commodity field, a field still so vital for many Third World countries and highly important for the world economy as a whole. Due to the reticence and inaction of some countries, however, the Integrated Programme for Commodities still mostly remains a dream.

Let me finally underline the plight and misery of the poorest and 'least developed' countries, a situation which certainly cannot be remedied through the market but which simply cries out for concrete solidarity action by the international community.

NOTE TO OUR READERS I N SWITZERLAND

The p r a c t i c e of i n c l u d i n g a ' b u l l e t i n de ve rsement ' i n each i s s u e i s y i e l d i n g p o s i t i v e r e s u l t s and we thank t h o s e who have a l r e a d y used i t . For p r a c t i c a l r e a s o n s , however, i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o be s e l e c t i v e i n en- c l o s i n g t h e ' g r e e n b u l l e t i n * and we a p o l o g i z e t o t h o s e who have a l r e a d y c o n t r i b u t e d f o r i t s c o n t i n u i n g i n c l u s i o n .

NOTE A NOS LECTEURS EN S U I S S E

Le f a i t d ' i n c l u r e un b u l l e t i n d e versement dans chaque l i v r a i s o n du D o s s i e r a donne d e s r6sul :ats p o s i t i f s e t nous remerc ions ceux d ' e n t r e vous q u i l ' o n t u t i l i s e . Cependant , pour des r a i s o n s p r a t i q u e s , il nous e s t i m p o s s i b l e de p roceder 2 c e t t e a d j o n c t i o n d 'une manis re s e l e c t i v e ; a u s s i , nous nous excusons a u p r e s d e ceux q u i , a y a n t d e j S c o n t r i b u e , t r o u v e n t regu l i6 rement un ' b u l l e t i n v e r t ' dans l e u r D c s s i e r .

WORLD M I L I T A R Y AND S O C I A L EXPENDITURES

by Ruth Leqer Sivard (Washinqton: World Priorities, 1385)

In the 10th Anniversary edition of this new classical refer- ence yearbook, nuclear overkill, military repression, wars and the expenditures that make them poss:Lle are compared with progress, and the lack of it, in meeting the health, education, and other needs of people. Packed with statistics and information on 142 countries, the report shows how each country ranks in the global soectrun;. Amonj other points:

. The meqatonnage in the world's stockpile of nuclear weapons is enough to kill 58 billion people, or to kill every person now living 12 times.

. In the Third World military spending has increased fivefold since 1960 and the n~nber of countries rules by military governments has grown from 22 to 57.

. Over 1 billion people live in countries controlled by military governments.

The US and USSR, first in military power, rank 14 and 51 among all nations in their infant mortality rates.

. The budget of the US Air Forces is larger than the total educational budget for 1.2 billion children in Africa, Latin America and Asia, excluding Ja- oan.

. The Soviet Union in one year spends more on military defense than the governments of all the Third World countries spend for education and health care for 3.6 billion people.

. The industrialzed countries on average spend 5.4 percent of their G N P for military purposes, 0.3 percent for development cooperation.

If the price of an automobile had gone up as much since World War I1 as the price of sophisticated weapons, the average car today would cost $300,000.

Only one citizen in four in the Third World countries has un unrestricted right to vote.

It costs $590,000 a day to operate one aircraft carrier and every day in Africa alone 14,000 children die of hunger or hunger-related causes.

(Box 2x0, Washington, DC 20307, U S A ) Prise: USSi.OC

-Tu hijo no puede co- n e r estos cacahuetes sue has cultivado por- aue debemos exportar- OS...

1 -i,Qu& hacen all i con la 1

1 ... La transforman en Ie- 1

. para engordar a las va- cas de Europa de forma aue ~ u e d a n producir mhs

mentar a aquellos pueblos de gente ric

... y la devuelven aqui para que tu puedas alimen- tar a tu ... ioh!

Fuente: Manos Unidas (Enero 1986)

i f d a d o s s i e r 5 5 . september/october 1986 news f r o m t h e t h i r d s y s t e m

ASIA: GRASSROOTS AND TRANSNATIONAL NETWORKING

THE ACFOD E X P E R I E N C E

b y M. Abdus Sabur

G r a s s r o o t s , t h e body of p e o p l e f rom t h e l o w e s t r u n g , who a r e engaged i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s b u t who r ema in below t h e s u b s i s t a n c e l e v e l , a r e d e p r i v e d f rom a l l b a s i c f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d by t h e modern s t a t e n a c h i n - e r y . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e f o r t u n a t e o n e s a s a l l modern f a c i l i - t i e s t o w a r d s deve lopmen t a r e w i t h i n t h e i r r e a c h i n c l u d i n g j e t - s e t com- m u n i c a t i o n i n t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l s p a c e . T h e r e a r e many p e o p l e l i v i n g i n v i l l a g e s who do n o t h a v e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o v i s i t t h e i r n e a r e s t d i s t r i c t town. So i t i s e a s i l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e how d i f f i c u l t i t would b e f o r t h e g r a s s r o o t s t o r e l a t e t h e m s e l v e s t r a n s n a t i o n a l i y .

Ano the r r e a l i t y i s t h a t , w h e t h e r t h e p e o p l e l i v e i n t h e r e m o t e s t v i l l a g e o r on t h e h i l l s , t h e y c a n n o t e s c a p e f rom t h e consequence o f t h e d e c i s i o n o r a c t i o n s t a k e n t r a n s n a t i c n a l l y . F o r example , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s i n a g r i c u l t u r e h a v e b e e n c h a n g i n g t h e m o d e r n i s a t i o n w i t h t r a n s n a t i o n a l p e n e t r a t i o n ; food h a b i t s a r e a l s o c h a n g i n g . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e i s a need t o u n d e r s t a n d what i s h a p p e n i n g e l s e w h e r e , t o l e a r n how o t h e r p e o p l e a r e f a c i n g t h e r e a l i t y , how t o c o o p e r a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r and b u i l d s o l i d a r i - t y t o l i v e w i t h d i g n i t y ,is ntirnan b e i n g s .

ACFOD h a s b e e n w o r k i n g f o r t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s . As a r e g i o n a l movement, i t was i n i t i a t e d by i n t e l l e c t u a l s and s o c i a l c a m p a i g n e r s , n o t t h e g r a s s - r o o t d i r e c t l y . But t h e s e i n i t i a t o r s h a d t h e r e l i g i o u s , c u l t u r a l and con- s c i o u s m o t i v a t i o n t o w a r d s s o c i a l change a n d enpowerment of t h e p e o p l e a t t h e b a s e .

The f i r s t ACFOD p r o g r a n was c a l l e d Development Workers Progran. and i t was meant p r i m a r i l y t o p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r deve lopmen t w o r k e r s i n v o l v e d i n g r a s s r o o t s o r g a n i s i n g f o r t h e i r own s e l f - t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h a m u t u a l p r o c e s s of exchange of e x p e r i e n c e s t h r o u g h v i s i t s t o t h e i r r e s - p e c t i v e work a r e a s a s w e l l a s t h r o u g h r e f l e c t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n s .

3 1 e p r o g r a m ' s g e n e r a l o b j e c t i v e s w e r e :

. t o h e l p deve lopmen t w o r k e r s s e e t h e i r l o c a l p rog rams i n a w i d e r p e r s p e c t i v e arid r e l a t e m i c r o i s s u e s of deve lopmen t and s o c i a l j u s - t i c e t u t h o s e a t macro l e v e 1 ( n a t i o n a l / r e g l c n ; i l / g l u b a l ) ;

. t o promote a c t i v e and p u r p o s e f u l i n t e r a c t i o n o f deve lopmen t w o r k e r s t h r o u g h t r a v e l , m e e t i n g s and s t u d y o f e a c h o t h e r ' s p r o j e c t s ;

. t o h e l p b r o a d e n and d e e p e n t h e i r knowledge 01 methcdb of non - fo rma l e d u c a t i o n ;

t o h e l p s y s t e m a t i z e a n d make m e a n i n g f u l t h i s exchange of e x p e r i e n c - e s f o r more e f f e c t i v e u s e by o t h e r developmcrir >,C.: ;<: , . ,

t o e n a b l e th-i ~ t i r t i c i p a n t s t o b u i l d s t r o n g components o f t h o s e e l e - x c n t s of deve:opment wot-k which t h e y f e e l a r e e s s e n t i a l and wh'.ch hey f e e l a r e l a c k i n g ( e . g . a w a r e r e s s - b u i i d i n g , communica t i ons , t e c h n i c a l how-hcw, e t c . ) i n t o t h e i r wsrL of o r g a n i z i n g ar .d /or sup- p o r t i n g p e o p l e ' s o r g z n i z a t i o r . s ;

I b i s program c o n t i n u e d u p ~c 1 9 7 9 . A Develr 'prr~. 'nt h 'crker? i'.u~-ks!.op was h e l d i n ?en.ing i n J u n e 7 % . Acco rd ing t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' r e f1ec t i c ' " i and ev3 i ' . i a t i o rL , t h i s p r o g r a a hc:peii b r e a d e n t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g on m i c r o and macro deve lopmen t i s s u e s and i n i t i a t e d c o n t a c t s w i t h s i m i l a r g r o u p s i n t h e r e g i o n .

Aciung t h e b e a k p o i n t s , p a r t i c i p a n t s men t ionnd t h a t i n s0r.e c a s e s a f t e r b e i n g t r a i n e d . deve1oprr:eni: w o r k e r s c a n ' t co r : t i nue t h e i r wc rk . Some o f thcm arc- p r o a o t e u tc ruanaceriial wc:k, arid i n s o ~ e c a s e s t h e y chringe ; ( ; O S . Some d o n ' t r ece ive - e n o ~ g l . s u p p o r t t o i r - i p l~ ruen t t h e i r new i d e a s ail'i f-J.i:'c ri.e:!.e.^.

Therefore t h e Workshop reconiniended iricl ' . tding one g r a s s r t z o t p a r t i c i p ~ : i t who l i v e s i n t h e v i l l a g e and i s engaged i n t h e o r b a n i s i n g p r o c e s s . One development ' worke r would p a r t i c i p a t e a s t r a n s l a t o r .

Two y e a r s l a t e r , a n o t i i e r G r a s s r o o t workshcp w ~ i s o ' cpan i sed i n S r i ! a r i k i . L: w . 1 ~ men t ioned t h e n t h a t t h e p a r t i c i t d r . c t , iii'u? i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t t c m a i n t a i n f a r t h e r cor:.municciriori becacse- of l a n g u a g e b a r r i e r s . They c a n ' t p u t s u e folit iw-tip p rug rams due t o t h e 1ac:'ic i-.f o r g a n i s a t i c n a ~ s u p p o r t . S o x e t i n i e s , t<GOfÂ¥ pr io r? :Les a r e d i f f e ~ s n t l.'r.)i1] v i i a t t h e p e a s a n t 3 o r wo-. men o r g a n i b d t i o n s . sec a s a p r i c c i t y .

The Workshop f i n a l l y s u g g e s ~ e d g i v i n g e m p h a s i s t o b u i l d i n g a g r a s s r o o t s e c t o r a l b a s e ( p e a s a n t s , v o i ~ e r s , women and f i s h w o r k e r s j und n e t w o r k i n g w i t h i n t h e c o u n L r y , R e g i u n a i exchange s h o u l d take- r l a c e anong t h e s e c t o - r a l p e o p l e s ' o r g a n i f a t i o n , w h e t e t h e v c a n e a s i l y i d e n t i t y , r e l a t e and exchange e x p e r i e n c e s more p r a c t i c a l 1 . y arid e f f e c t i v e l y . I t was a l s o s t r e s s e d t h a t e f f o r t sl-.culd b e made t o w a r d s i n t e r a c t i o n among d i f f e r e n t s e c t o r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s s o t h a t , f r om t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e , t h e y c a n s e e t h e v a l u e of c o o p e r a t i o n and s o l i d a r i t y . The p r o b l e m o f p e a s a n t s , f i s h - ermen, women a n d w o r k e r s n a y b e d i f f e r e n t b u t t h e y a r e a l l a f f e c t e d by n a t i o n a l p o l i c y - p l a n n i n g , g l o b a l economic r e l a t i o n s e t c . S e c o n d l y , t h e y s h a r e t h e same s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l and c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e .

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e above r ecommenda t ions , ACFOD a d o p t e d a p rog ram c a l l e d I n t e g r a t e d A c t i o n P rog ram (IAP) and g r a s s r o o t s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n d e c i s i o n making p r o c e s s wh ich s t a r t e d i n 1981.

Whi l e ACFOD s t r i v e s t o w a r d s g e n u i n e g r a s s r o o t o r i e n t a t i o n , a t t h e same t i d e i t v a l u e s t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s , r e s e a r c h e r s and u ! t e r - m e d i a r i e s t o t h e p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l change .

A s a n a c t i o n o r i e n t e d o r g a n i s a t i o n , ACFOU h a s r e g i o n a l p rog rams a s w e l l a s n a t i o n a l a n d l o c a l p rog rams of i t s members and p a r t n e r s . ACFOD func -

t i o n s a s a s u p p o r t group on t h e b a s i s of r e q u e s t s e . g . p o l i t i c a l , f i n a n - c i a l , l i n k a g e s , e t c .

I n 1 9 8 2 , ACFOD i n v i t e d peop le exper ienced i n t r a i n i n g t o come up w i t n a common a n a l y s i s and u n d e r s t a n d i n g on awareness b u i l d i n g , t r a i n i n g , o r - g a n i s a t i o n and m o b i l i s a t i o n (ATOM). Th is was d i s c u s s e d n i i t i o n a l l y .

Regarding s i o n a l programs, ACFOD f u n c t i o n s a s b o t h i r . i t i d t o r and sus - t a i n e r , w i t h t h e suppor t of i t s members and p a r t n e r s .

Development i n i t i a t i v e s and democra t i c space v a r i e s from c i , ~ n : r y t o c o u n t r y . I n t h e c a s e of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , peop le have been s t r u g g l i n g and a r e a b l e t o c r e a t e t h e i r own s p a c e , where awareness l e v e l i s q u i t e h i g h ; on t h e o t h e r hand, i n I n d o n e s i a , s t r a t e g i e s adopted by t h e a c t i o n groups a r e d i f f e r e n t .

I n Nepal and P a k i s t a n , t h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e i r involvement w i t h g r a s s r o o t s , whereas i n I n d i a , Bangladesh and S r i Lanka, t h e h e r i t a g e of p e o p l e s ' movements i s w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d .

So when we t a l k about l a n d l e s s p e a s a n t s ' networks i n A s i a , jn seme coun- t r i e s i t i s j u s t s t a r t i n g i n f o r m a l l y whereas i n o t h e r s t h e r e a r e e s t a b - l i s h e d p e a s a n t s ' networks and i n some o t h e r c a s e s t r a d e un ions . Some c o u n t r i e s do n o t a l low t r a d e o r g a n i s e d un ions excep t t h e o f f i c i a l one, and i n some c a s e s t h e r e i s more t h a n one c e n t r e .

Wi th in t h i s d i v e r s i t y , ACFOD p r o v i d e s a forum where one can s h a r e expe-. r i e n c e s and a t t h e same t ime car. l e a r n a~"i a p p r e c i a t e how :he f i t h e r s a r e f a c i n g r e a l i t y .

The major problem i n networking i n some c o u n t r i e s i s t h a t p e a s a n t s ' o r - g a n i s a t i o n t r a d e un ions a r e d i v i d e d owing t o p o l i t i c a l and h i s r o r i c a l r e a s o n s . Secondly , when i n i t i a t i v e s come from a [orurn l i k e ACFCD, they a r e always s u s p a c t e d by t h e p a r t y a f f i l i a t e d u n i o n / o r g a n i s a t i o n .

However, th rough members and p a r t n e r s , ACFOD t r i e s t o i d e n t i f y t h e gen- u i n e o r g a n i z a t i o n s (g roup /un ion of p e a s a n t s , workers , f i she rmen , women, c u l t u r a l ) and g r a d u a l l y tr:.es t o i n v o l v e o t h e r s th rough a common program which d e a l s w i t n p rob lems , i s s u e s and a n a l y s i s , moving towards comon u n d e r s t a n d i n g . For example, when f a c t o r y workers of t h e same company i n d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s working under d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s v i s i t each o t h e r , they l e a r n abou t :lie double s t a n d a r d and e s t a b l i s h i n t r a - f i r m Links wi th f e l l o w workers t o f i g h t a g a i n s t t h e common enemy. So, d e s p i t e d i f f e r e n - c e s they a r e a b l e t o c o o p e r a t e an c o n c r e t e i s s u e s of mutual i n t e r e s t .

T h i s p r o c e s s has succeeded CO S-JGIC e x t e n t t o b r i n g bo:h pe;,p-i.e oricin:ed NGO i n i t i a t i v e s , a s w e l l a s genu ine p o l i t i c a l i n i t i a t i v e s t-'J i n t e r a c t w i t h e a c h -thei.-.

Another a s p e c t of networking i s t o promote t h e exchange o i t e c h n i c a l s k i l l s among t h e r e l e v a n t and i n t e r e s t e d g roups . For example, f i shermen from Tha i land o r t h e P h i l i p ~ i n e s l e a r n t about cock le c u l t i v s t i i - n t rcm Y-alaysian f i shermen . From t h e P h i l i p p i n e " ana ThaiLani., pr imarv h e a l t i i workers came t u Eangladesh t o l e a r n abou t pa ramea ica l s e r v i c e s i n t h e

v i l l a g e s . S i m i l a r e x c h a n g e s a r e t a k i n g p l a c e on h e r b a l m e d i c i n e , a cu - p u n c t u r e and b i o g a s .

I n t h e f i e l d o f p e o p l e ' s t h e a t r e , r u r a l d r ama , ACFOD i s e n c o u r a g i n g exchange a n d n e t w o r k i n g among t h o s e g r o u p s which engage i n r e f l e c t i n g t h e r e a l i t y and c o n s c i e n t i s i n g p e o p l e .

I n t h e a r e a o f i n d i g e n o u s , e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s a n d human r i g h t s , t h e ACFOD n e t w o r k was a b l e t o e x p o s e t h e s i t u a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r c o u n t r y t o ano- t h e r a n d m o b i l i s e p e o p l e ' s o p i n i o n and s u p p o r t . F o r i n s t a n c e , ACFOD New Z e a l a n d o r g a n i s e d a 3-day m e e t i n g o f Maor i p e o p l e whe re w h i t e New Zea- l a n d e r s w e r e a l s o p r e s e n t t o l i s t e n , s h a r e and e x p r e s s t h e i r s o l i d a r i t y t o w a r d s t h e g e n u i n e s t r u g g l e o f t h e Maor i f o r t h e i r s e l f d e t e r m i n a t i o n . T h i s m e e t i n g h e l p e d Maor i who had n e v e r met b e f o r e , coming f rom d i f f e r - e n t p a r t s of A t e a r a o , t o know e a c h o t h e r .

ACFOD i s making e f f o r t s a n d c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h o t h e r o r g a n i s a t i o n s i n t h e r e g i o n on T a m i l - S i n g h a l e s e i s s u e , h i l l t r i b e s i n B a n g l a d e s h . I t p a r - t i c i p a t e d i n t h e campaign a g a i n s t human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n i n many coun- t r i e s i n t h i s r e g i o n .

The f e e d - b a c k ACFOD r e c e i v e s f rom members a n d p a r t n e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t h e g r a s s r o o t s , is t h a t t h i s n e t w o r k i n l o c a l , n a t i o n a l a n d t r a n s n a t i o n - a 1 s p a c e s t a k e s away t h e r e m o t e n e s s , l o n e l i n e s s and l a c k of c o n f i d e n c e and g i v e s a s e n s e of b e l o n g i n g n e s s and s o l i d a r i t y . To c o n t i n u e t h e on- g o i n g p r o c e s s o f n e t w o r k i n g i n t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l s p a c e , t h e g e n u i n e i n - t e r m e d i a r i e s h a v e a r o l e t o p l a y a s a l l i e s .

( c o n t i n u e d from page 103)

GLOBAL SPACE

. Tom Dra i sma , E E C s u p p o r t f o r a p a r t h e i d unde rmines t h e c r e d i b i l i t y of t h e Lome C o n v e n t i o n s and of EEC a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e SADCC Group of Sou- t h e m A f r i c a n S t a t e s ( B u i t e n p e p e r s d r e e f 2 2 4 , 5231 HL Den Bosch, The N e t h e r l a n d s ) 8 p p .

. Rolando G a b r i e l l i , The l a n g u a g e o f t h e mo the r s t a t e : A c a s e o f i n - f o r m a t i o n monopoly ( U P L B , A p a r t a d o 4 2 7 3 , Panama 5 , R.P. ) 9pp .

. Syed S i k a n d e r X e l ~ d i , N u c l e a r weapons and human i n 5 e c u r i t y (A-855, Block-H, N o r t h Nazimabad, K a r a c h i - 3 3 , P a k i s t a n ) 22pp.

AFRIQUE: UN ECHO DE L'AFARD 'Assos ia t - ion des fern%.$ afr icgines pour l a rsc'herc'ne e t Is dt'xLo-pue- ment, dont La presidente e s t Kc~ ie -Aqe1 iqke Savard, ,~sr-.brs 5 C o r . i t i de La FIPAD, v'ienc de p l i b t i e ~ to Ie? n^.^i=o de s:r. t u Z l @ + Â ¥ i ? t r i f l e s t ree t . . b'l'^.'ir.pe. P o u r saT-uer ce t Sveneren5, nous er. rep~>od~tisor.s c",-csssc'~.s

2 i t o r i . a L.

A Nairobi, nous n'etions ni des invitees ni des observatrices, encore moins une minorite. Nous etions chez nous, sur notre propre sol.

A la difference des autres conferences mondiales, aucun groupe n'avait Ie monopole de la parole, aucun groupe tie pouvait imposer ses vues sur 1es formes de lutte et sur les visions alternatives.

Nairobi a temoigne de la maturite du mouvement international de la fem- me. Indeniablement, 11 s'est agi d'un mouvement social sans precedent.

L'apogee de cette dgcennie a consist6 en la demythification de trois S-pboles dominants et de leurs corollaires de prGjug6s secondsires qui ont souvent alimente les discours du mouvement international des femes et des agences internationales de developpement. Ces mythes concernent Ie concept meme de "Fernme", sa compartimentation en "ferarnes occidenta- les" et "femmes du Tiers Monde" de meme que la notion de "question feminine.

Ironiquement, la multitude des groupes de travail, allant de la technologie appropriee 2 la presente crise 6ccnomique mondiale, etait l'illus- tration convaincante qufil n'existe pas de ph6nomSne appeic "la question f 6minine".

En effet, toutes les questions d'importance ayant trait aux classes so- dales, aux nations, aux regions et au monde en general, demeurent ega- lament des preoccupations majeures pour les femes, do; qu'elles vien- nent.

C'est precisement 3 cause des responsabilitgs assignees aux femes dans la gestion quotidienne de la soci6t6 que les questions socio-6conom:ques et politiques occupent une place preponderance dans leur existence.

I1 doit Stre clair qu'on ne peut plus entretenir cette notion de question feminine", de meme que celle globalisante de "femmes du Tiers Mon- de", fruit de 1' imagination de certains.

C'est la base populaire, dans sa dimension 1.a plus representative, qui etait presence au forum de Nairobi. I1 n'etalt plus question de parler au nom des autres comme 2 l'accoutum6e.

Sous e~ions dans l'embarras; nous devions mettre de cote nos "techniques de communication globale", que nous avions pourtant affinges pour l'occasion.

Pouvions-nous encore parler en leur nom comme par Ie passe, oii il etait facile de se faire entendre et de faire des recommendations? Meme si

' c e l l e s q u ' o n a v a i t e m e n 6 e s 1 ' a u Forum d e N a i r o b i n e r e p r e s e n t a i e n t p a s l e s "fercmes l e s p l u s p a u v r e s " , il demeure q u e I e d e b a t s u r l e s c l a s s e s s o c i a l e s a v a i t e t 6 l o i n d l Z t r e o c c u l t 6 .

N a i r o b i a u r a c o n s a s r 6 6 g a l e m e n t l a f i n d ' u n e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n a b u s i v e s u r l e s females, en l ' o c c u r r e n c e l a n o t i o n d e "femmes o c c i d e n t a l e s " . La p r 6 - s e n c e d ' u n g r a n d nombre d e f e r m e s d e c o u l e u r , o r i g i n a i r e s ou r e s i d e n t e s d ' E u r o p e , d 'AmCrique du Nord, a c o n t r i b u e 2 d e p l a c e r l e s e m p i t e r n e l con- f l i t e n t r e "femmes du T i e r s Monde" e t "femmes o c c i d e n t a l e s " s u r s o n v6- r i t a b l e t e r r a i n , c e l u i d e l ' a p p a r t e n a n c e d e c l a s s e , d e g e n r e e t d e r a c e .

Ce f u r I e d 6 f i a u Ferninisme. P o u v a i t - o n r a t i o n n e l l e m e n t t r a i t e r t o u t e s c e s q u e s t i o " i s s a n s l e u r a c c o r d e r u n o r d r e h i e r a r c h i q u e e t une p r i o r i t 6 th t" :n . i t ique? V o i l a I e g e n r e d e " c o n f l i t s " s u r l e s q u e l s l a p r e s s e i n c e r n a - t i o i ' i ~ l e s ' e s t r noh i l i sGe , e t q u i n e s o n t r i e n d ' a u t r e que ] ' e n t r e e l 6 g i - t i m e , c e t t e f o i s - c i p a r l a g r a n d e p o r t e , d e s f e m e s d a n s l ' a r e n e p u b l i - q u e , d 'oG e l l e s one t o u j o u r s e t 6 s y s t 6 m a t i q u e m e n t e x c l u e s .

Ces " c o r . f l i t s " G t a i e n t e n f a i t J e s d 6 b a t s paas ior .nCs s u r 1 ' i m p G r i a l i s m e e t l a r g b i s t a n e e d o n t l e s occupa t i . ons i 1 1 6 g a l e s e t l e s g u e r r e s d e l i b & - r a t i o n n a t i o n a I e c o n s r i t - u e n t d e s i i l u s t r a t i o n s m a n i f e s t e s . Us s ' a r t i c u - l a i e n t a u t o u r du m i l i t a r ~ s m e , d e s g u e r r e s , d e s d i c c a t u r e s e t d e l e u r s i m c l i c a t i o n s d a n s I e T i e r s Monde. Pou r n e c i t e r q u ' u n exemple c o n c r e c d e S c o n f l i t s , n o u s m e n t i o n n e r o n s l a " q u e s t i o n d e s r e f u g i e s " .

U s s ' a r t - i c i - i l a i - e n t G g a l e n e n t , c e s " c o n f l i t s " , a u t o u r d e l a menace deve - ?ue a~..joo'drdrriui- p l u s z r a n d e que j a m a i s dc. L ' ~ p o c a l y p s ^ ; z u c l 6 a i 1 e .

1 1 s e r a i t p J s l i o r s d e p r o p o s d e z e n t i o n n e r qiie ces J G b a t s se t c n a i e n t d a a s u n e r eg ion , 0% 1'07. t r o u v e l e p1,'is g r a n d nombre d e p e r s o n n e s dr ip la- tees, e n m a j o r i t 6 d e s temmes e t d e s e n f a n t s . Face 5 c e t t e sombre r e a l i t 6 s e d e s s i n a i : copendan t un t a b l e a u d e v i t a l i t 6 e t d e v o l o n t e i n d o m p t a b l e s chez Les c o m b a t t a n t e s d e I ' ~ f r i q u e du Slid, d e l a Namlbie . de l a P a l e s - t i n e , i-le I ' L r y t h r G e , du Nicar ,?gua, de 11Am6riqoe c e n t r i i ~ e , e t c .

P a r - d e l 2 l a pr,,sjmic-& p h y s i q u e d e c e s 6vSnerr.e':ts, d e s ferames d e I ' A f r i - que d u Sud e t d e l a Namibie , ant s u t 6 m o i g n e r d e s a t r o c i t e s e t d c s e5- p o i r s d ' i :ne l u t t e q u i n e c e s s e d e s ' i n t e n s i f i e r .

S a n s a m b i g u i t e a u c u n e , e l l e s o n t s u m e t t r e eri v a l e u r Id po r t ;@ d e l i i u r C , s o n impac t s p 6 c i f i q u e s u r l e s femines e t d6montre' dloc.uer.ment c e 3,ue p e n v e n t f x c e d e s femmes scngag6es d a n s l e combat p o u r l a l i b e r t C e t c c n t r e i ' o p r r r i s ~ i o n .

. . ? c u r q ' ~ c i d l o r s , '!ea t e m e s ne s ' a r -e l le ra i i r - " i t -e i :es as J l a m i s e s u r ?-e:! d ' c n r e ~ c a i ; g loba l . J e s o H d a r i r t f poui- i - oc .oa t t r e : ' o p p r e s s i o n e r l a a^ rnna : ion s o u s t o u t e s s e s f o r n e s ? Des appc ' l s p r e s a a n t ~ ' ians c e s e n s I - ' n t vgaI+!'!f.n: ~ a r v e - . u c cies f ee r i ec .ie l a P a ! e s c i n e , d'1 Nl-caraaua e t d 'a1: r re . : - r g i o n s d'An4r:q,-ie . ' :antrala.

Assurement , il y a v a i t des c o n f l i t s , mais l a m a j o r i t e e c r a s a n t e des femmes 2 N a i r o b i one a f f i r m 6 l e u r s o l i d a r i t 6 avec c e s c a u s e s j u s t e s de l u t t e .

P a r a i l l e u r s , c e l a a permis d e p a s s e r o u t r e i e s menaces q u i p e s a i e n t s u r une G v e n t u e l l e p o l i t i s a t i o n du rassemblement d e s femmes. Encore une f o i s , c e l a a e t 6 l ' o c c a s i o n d e d6montrer que l a l u t t e d e s femnes, d e p a r s a n a t u r e , e s t fondamentalement p o l i t i q u e . En e l a r g i s s a n t I e t e r r a i n p o l i t i q u e , I e mouvement des femmes a confirm6 I f a d a g e s e l o n i e q u e l ii n ' y a v a i t de r a c c o u r c i au chemin v e r s l a l i h e r t 6 .

Pour nous a u t r e s d e I'AFARD, Nai rob i a c o n f i r & l a 16a i t imi t fe d e nos o b j e c t i f s . Les femmes a f r i c a i n e s d o i v e n t 5 l a f o i s c r g a n i s e r , a n a l y s e r e t engager d i v e r s e s formes d e l u t t e .

L'AFARD, ii s e s d e b u t s , a a t 6 l ' o b j e t du s u s p i c i o n . L'argument 6 t i i t que l e s femmes a v a i e n t b e s o i n d * " a c t i o n c o n c r e t e " , i a r echerche e t a n t a i n s i r e lggu6e 2 l ' a r r i s r e - p l a n . Nous 6 t i o n s s u r l a d e f e n s i v e e t d i s i o n s que s a n s " recherche" il ne p o u v a i t y a v o i r d ' " a c t i o n n e c l a i r e e . Aujourd 'hu i , nous savons que l l " a c t i o n " d o i t S t r e concue au n iveau du p r o c e s s u s de l a r e c h e r c h e , d e s a c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n p remiere 2 s a d e s t i n a t i o n f i n a l e .

A i n s i , devons-nous non seulement @ l a b o r e r d e s m6thodologies adequate;, mais e n c o r e m a l t r i s e r l e s t e c h n i q u e s q u i nous p e r n e t f r o n t de d i f f u s e r l e s c o n c l u s i o n s de nos t r avaux d e recherche de d i v e r s e s manie res e t a d i f f s r e n t s n iveaux .

Le ?oriim mondial de N a i r o b i a tfgalemeni: c o n f i m e 1 ' i n : o o r t a n ~ de e o t r s engagement 2 e l a r g i r nos r6seaux de c o n t a c t a f i n de p a r t a g e r nos expe- r i e n c e s . Not re t e n t a t i v e p r e c e d e n t e a e t & f a i t e 2 i ' a v e u g l e t t o . Nous avons done d e c i d e d e p r e n d r e l e s mesures n e c e s s a i r e s au renforcement de nos rgseaux .

Eu 6gard ii c e t t e s i t u a t i o n , nous avons a p p o r t e d e s cnangements dans Le form,=.! d e n o t r e b u l l e t i n d ' i n f o r r n a t i o n e t nous espSrcr'.s l? d i f f u s e r aus- s i largement que p o s s i b l e .

Nous esp6rons q u ' i l s e r a pour 12s famines 1 ' E C t i O .L25 i u t t e s , d e s v i s i o n s e t de t o u t e s l e s v o i x emergen tes q u i aspirenc" 2 un monde m e i i l t u i . .

I n f o r m a t i o n e t t a r i f d e s ahcnnements: AFARJ), BP 3 3 0 4 , Dakar, Senega l .

ARGENTINA; CENTRO DE ESTUDIOS PARA EL DESARROLLO DE PROYECTOS AMBIENTALES

Estimados amigos,

Es motivo de l a p r e s e n c e , l l e g a r a u s t e d e s , p a r a p r e s e n t a r n o s y d a r z conocer e l t r a b a j o que estdmos r e d l i z a n d o , y e n u n c i a r l e s a lgunos de n u e s t r o s o b j e t i v o s .

Hace aproximadamente dos a?tos, nos conformaacs en CEDEFA, Cen t ro de Es- t u d i o s p a r a e l D e s a r r o l l o de P r o y e c t o s Ambien ta les . Una Organ izac i6n no Gubernamental , con una a c c i o n y un f i n determinado a t r a v e z de l a c u a l d e s a r r o l l a m o s una v a s t a t a r e a , en e l Zmbito d e l a p r o y e c t a c i o n amtien- t a l , e c o l o g l a urbana y p l a n i f i c a c i o n r e g i o n a l . Nues t ro Cen t ro e s t Z con- formado por p r o f e s i o n a l e s de d i s t i n t a s d i s c i p l i n a s , y e n t r e s u s o b j e t i - vos b z s i c o s f i g u r a n :

. c a n a l i z a r e l d i z l o g o con l a a u t o r i d a d p e r t i n e n t e , que s e e n c u e n t r e abocada a a lgun t i p 0 de p royec to urbano-ambiental ;

. e l a b o r a r l a s s o l u c i o n e s r e s p e c t i v a s a d i c h o s p r o y e c t o s , en s u s f a c e s d e e s t u d i o , p r o y e c t o y c o n c r e s i 6 n ;

. impulsa r l a cooperation y c o p a r t i c i p a c i o n de I n s t i t u c i o n e s y / u Or- ganismos n a c i o n a l e s e i n t e r n a c i o n a l e s , y e s t a b l e c e r i o s c a n a l e s p a r a l o g r a r e l f i n a n c i a m i e n t o economic0 de d i c h o s p r o y e c t o s .

Nues t ro o b j e t i v o e s una nueva forma d e c o n c e b i r 1 0 s p r o y e c t o s ambienta- l e s , e c o l 6 g i c o s , r e g i o n a l e s y u rbanos . con l a d i r e c t s p d r t l c i p a c i 6 n d e l a pob lac ion en 10s mismos, buscando una s o l u c i 6 n a l t e r n a t i v a a l d s con- cepc iones h a b i t u a t e s .

Asimismo CEDEPA e d i t a l a R e v i s t a Argen t ina de Eco log ia y Medio Ambiente (RAEMA). E s t a Publication t r a t a de in fo rmar en una forma m2s g l o b a l , abarcando l a t e m z t i c a e c o l o g i c a . Es ta publication r e q u i e r e dc un s i g - n i f i c a t i v o e s f u e r z o economico p a r a l l e v a r l a a d e l a n t e , y deb ido a 10s s e r i e s problemas econ6nicos que transits e l p a z s , y dfc 1 0 s c u a l e s no estamos e x e n t o s , provocan una i r r e g u l a r i d a d en l a a p a r i c i o n d e l a miama.

Hasta a q u i un d e t a l l e s o b r e n u e s t r o s o b j e t i v c s y n u e s t r o t r a b a j o . Ac- tua lmente estamos d e s a r r o l l a n d o concepr-os de t r a b a j o , e n regior .es d e n u e s t r o p a l s . Nos encontramos en p e r i o d 0 d e expans ion . De a l l : que nece- s i t emos r e l a c i o n a r n o s con Organismos I n t e r n a c i o n a l e s . Necesi tamos mayor in formac ion s o b r e Congresos, Seminar ies , Comis ionc :~ de t r a b a j o que t a n t o v u e s t r o Organism0 u o t r o s de vue-stro conocimiento o r g a n i c e n , y s o b r e I d s p o s i b i l i d a d e s d e p a r t i c i p a r en 1 0 s misraos.

"Para n o s o t r o s l a e c o l o g i a y e l ambien ta l i smo, s i g n i f i c a a l g o m5s que l a e x t i n c i o n de fauna y f l o r a . T iene que v e r con l a preservation de l a es - p e c i e humana. Por e l l o i m p l i c a una conception de v i d a t o t a l m e n t e d i s t i n - t a a l a que estamos v i v i e n d o . La Ecolog:a y e l ambien t a l i s m o son e l hom- b r e e n toda s u m a l t r a t a d a dimension. T iene que v e r con i a pGsima explo- t a c i o n d e 1 0 s r e c u r s c s n a t u r a l e s , ccn c l desguarnec imien to d e o h j e t i v o s v i t a l e s de nuestrci s i ~ c i e d a d , p a r s 11na h a - a n i d a d qxde s i g u e acunis !dndn absurdos d i a a d f a . Recordamos que l a t i e r r a no e s p a t r i m o n i o n u e s t r o , y nos ha s i d o e n t r e g a d a a prestamo, p a r a n o s o t r o s luego e n t r e g a r s e l a a n u e s t r a s f u t u r a s g e n e r a c i o n e s . " s i c E d i t o r i a l Nr. 1 de RAEMA.

soc IAL E EDUCAC

FASE - Federation d'organismes dlAssistance Sociale et d1Education, est une sociGt6 civile, sans buts lucratifs, de droit prive, 5 caractere educatif, de bienfaisance et d'assistance sociale, qui, sans distinction de nationalit&, de race et de religion, developpe des activit6s educa- tives, travaille au dgveloppement des secteurs pauvres de la population et peut agir sur tout le territoire national.

Objectifs

. promouvoir, dans les secteurs de la population avec lesquels elle travaille, la participation, l'organisation et la solidaritg, pou- vant creer ou stimuler dans ce but des activites, des mouvements, des organismes et des associations;

. creer, perfectionner et transmettre une m6thodologie qui donne vie 5 ses objectifs, ainsi que divulguer les rgsultats d'etudes, ana- lyses et evaluations.

Projet Technologie Alternative

Naissance du projet - Le projet Technologie Alternative est n6 des besoins et revendications des petits producteurs ruraux ainsi que de la preoccupation de techniciens et Gducateurs travaillant dans des organisations de soutien de leur lutte. Le manque d'informations et de connaissances dans le secteur technique applique 2 defendre les interzts des petits producteurs ruraux a suscite diverses initiatives et prises de contact qui ont abouti ii la realisation d'un scminaire qui a reunit 2 Campinas en dgcembre 83, une centaine de representants d'organismes de base et de soutien aux petits producteurs ruraux.

Pourquoi ce projet - Le projet TA est un instrument de lutte pour le maintien des petits producteurs sur leurs terres et un support au mouvement pour la rGforme agraire. I1 s'agit d'un outil de soutien aux mouvements populaires ruraux.

La modernisation de l'agriculture, imposee par I'Etat durant ces 20 der- nisres annees, a Gtouffg la petite propriGte dans un &tau econoraique et politique. Cet 6touffement a signifig, pour un nombre toujours plus grand d'agriculteurs: appauvrissement, intensification du rythme de travail, augmentation des risques, manque de moyens techniques et finan- ciers, epuisement des sols, diminution de La production, d' impossibles conditions de cormercialisation et une dramatique reduction des revenus. Pour un nombre croissant de paysans, ce processus a abouti 3 leur dis- parition en tant que producteurs, 5 leur expulsion de la terre, la mi- sere 6conomique et leur transformat ion en travailleurs journaliers, en migrant S.

Dans ce cadre, Ie maintien des paysans sur leurs terres depend de l'ar- ticulation entre la lutte pour la possession de la terre er la nfcessite

d e ~ r o d u i r e p l u s e t midux. C ' e s t I e d 6 f i a u q u e l d o i v e n t f a i r e f a c e l e s EO' ~ e w e n t s p o p u l a i r e s de r e s i s t a n c e des p e t i t s p r o d u c t e u r s dans l ' e n - semble du pays.

Le p r o j e t TA p a r t de ce d e f i e t s ' e f f o r c e de t r o u v e r une reponse 2 l a q u e s t i o n s u i v a n t e : j u s q u ' z q u e l p o i n t e t dans q u e l l e s c o n d i t i o n s l ' u t i - l i s ~ t i o n d e t e c h n o l o g i e s a l t e r n a t i v e s , a d a p t e e s 2 l a p e t i t e p r o d u c t i o n a g r i c o l e , p e u v e n t - e l l e s c o n t r i b u e r 2 r e n f o r c e r l a c a p a c i t e d e r e s i s t a n c e des paysans s u r l e u r s t e r r e s , a m 6 l i o r e r l e s moyens don t i l s d i s p o s e n t p0i.r f a i r e f a c e col1ec:ivemer.t aux p r e s s i o n s e t rompre l ' e n c e r c l e m e n t "impose p a r I e systgme dominant?

7 .e~ paysans on t e t ; , au c o u r s des s i e c l e s , l e s p r i n c i p a u x c r e a t e u r s de t e c h n o l o g i e e t de systGmes de p r o d u c t i o n , i r ;ven t&s 2 p a r t i r d e s moyens q u i e t a i e n t i l e u r p o r t e e , c ' e s t - S - d i r e l e u r c r e a t i v i t 6 e t l e u r e s p r i t d ' i n i t i a t i v e , l e u r s n a i n s e t l e u r s i n s t r u m e n t s c o u r a n t s de t r a v a i l .

C ' e s t pour repondre a c e t t e q u e s t i o n que l e p r o j e t T A s ' e f f o r c e de deve- lopper e t d e c o n s o l i d e r l a p r a t i q u e d e l a s o l i d a r i t g ec du s o u c i e n nu- t u e l e n t r e l e s producte- i . rs e t l e u r s organismes de l u t t e . Le p r o j e t TA s ' a t t a c h e 2 rompre 1 ' i s o l e r a e n t d e s p e t i t s p r o d u c t e u r s , 2 dynamiser 1 '6change e t l ' a p p r 6 c i d t i o n d e s e x p e r i e n c e s e x i s t a n t e s e t 2 d i v u l g e r l e p l u s ampleraent p o s s i b l e l e s t r o u v a i l l e s e t i n n o v a t i o n s t e c h n o l o g i q u e s r G a l i s 6 e s p a t l e s a g r ~ c u l t e u r s e t l e s communaut6s paysannes.

Ses o b l e c t i f s s e n t --

. 6 t ' ~ d i e r . systSm.+:iser e t & v a l u e r du p o i n t dc vue s o c i a l , Sconomique e t agronomique, d e s e x p e r i e n c e s de p r o d u c t i o n , a d a p t a t i o n e t u t i l i - s a t i o n de t e c h n o l o g i e s a p p r o p r i S e s , r 6 a l i s 6 e s p a r de p e t i t s produc- t e u r s ;

. Lancer i e s b a s e s d ' u n rgseau n a t i o n a l d ' i n f o m a t i o n , d ' echange e t d ' e n t r a i d e , q u i englobe l e s mouvements de p e t i t s p r o d u c t e u r s (syn- d i c a t s , p a s t o r a l e s , a s s o c i a t i o n s , e t c . ) e t de t e c h n i c i e n s a y a n t op t6 pour I e renforcemenc d ' u n modele a l t e r n a t i f d e d6veloppement a g r i c o l e . L'ne f o i s m l s en p l a c e , c e r6seau devra a c q u 6 r i r une dynamique p ropre e t s ' e ' t endre s u r une b a s e d ' au tonomie , en l i b r e c o l l a - b o r a t i o n avec i e p r o j e t TA;

. a s s u r e r d e s s e r v i c e s d e c o n s u l t a t i o n d e s t i n e s dux o rgan i smes e t aux conimunaut&s a e p e t i t s p r o d u c t e u r s a g i i c o l e s , p l u s sp6cialemenc dans l e domaine de la p r o d u c t i o n , c o m m e r c i a l i s a t i o n , fo rmat ion e t orga- n i s a t i o n du C r a v a i i .

~ ~ ~ ' n o d o l o g i e - Dans ce b u t , l e p r o j e t a E I S en oeuvre l e s a c t i v i t 6 s suivante:;: arni lyse e t s y s t & m a t i s a t i o n de 5 e x p e r i e n c e s de base u t i l i s a r i c des t e c h n o l o g i e s al ternai . :ves; re:e-isement e t b i l a n d e s e x p e r i e n c e s ; d^-iLuiiten:t*Li-un; comu: . i ca t ion ; a.&e e n p l a c e d ' u n systeme d ' a i d e rautue"Le et f i n d n c - ~ t - r e : cent.rfc? exper imer~ taux PI: d e fo rmat ion .

WOMEN L I V I N G UNDER MUSLIM LAWS

Women L i v i n g Under Muslim Laws i s a network of women whose l i v e s a r e shaped , c o n d i t i o n e d o r governed by laws, b o t h w r i t t e n and u n w r i t t e n , drawn from i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e Koran t i e d up w i t h l o c a l t r a d i t i o n s . Genera l ly s p e a k i n g , men and t h e S t a t e u s e t h e s e a g a i n s r women, and they have done s o under v a r i o u s p o l i t i c a l regimes.

Women L i v i n g Under Muslim Laws a d d r e s s e s i t s e l f " t o womn l i v i n g where I s l a m is t h e r e l i g i o n of t h e S t a t e , a s w e l l a s t o women who be long t o muslim communities r u l e d by m i n o r i t y r e l i g i o u s l aws , " t o women i n secu- l a r s t a t e s where I s l a m i s r a p i d l y expanding and where f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s demand a m i n o r i t y r e l i g i o u s law, a s w e l l a s t o women i n migran t muslim communiti.es i n Europe and t h e Americas , and " t o non-muslim women, e i t h e r n a t i o n a l s o r f o r e i g n e r s , l i v i n g i n muslim c o u n t r i e s and communit ies , where muslim laws a r e a p p l i e d t o them and t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n " .

Women L i v i n g Under Muslim Laws was i o m e d i n response t o s i t u a t i o n s which r e q u i r e d u r g e n t a c t i o n , d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1984-85.

. The c a s e of t h r e e f e m i n i s t s a r r e s t e d and j a i l e d w i t h o u t t r i a l , k e p t incommunicado f o r seven months, i n A l g e r i a , f o r hav ing d i s c u s s e d w i t h o t h e r women t h e p r o j e c t of law known a s "Family Code" which was h i g h l y unfavourab le t o women.

. The c a s e of an I n d i a n s u n n i woman who f i l e d a p e t i t i o n i n t h e Sup- reme Court a r g u i n g t h a t t h e m u s l i n m i n o r i t y law a p p l i e d t o h e r i n h e r d i v o r c e den ied h e r t h e r i g h t s o t h e r w i s e guaran teed by t h e Con- s t i t u t i o n of I n d i a t o a l l c i t i z e n s , and c a l l e d f o r s u p p o r t .

. The c a s e of a woman i n Abu Dhabi , charged w i t h a d u l t e r y and sen- t enced t o b e s t o n e d t o d e a t h a f t e r d e l i v e r i n g and f e e d i n g h e r c h i l d f o r two months, amongst o t h e r s . . . .

The campaigns t h a t have been launched on t h e s e o c c a s i o n s rece ived f u l l s u p p o r t b o t h from women w i t h i n muslim c o u n t r i e s and communit ies , and from p r o g r e s s i v e and f e m i n i s t s g roups abroad .

Taking t h e o p p o r t u n i t y of mee t ing a t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l f e m i n i s t g a t h e r - i n g " T r i b u n a l on Reproduc t ive Righ t s" h e l d i n Amsterdam, Hol land , J u l y 1984, n i n e women from muslim c o u n t r i e s and communities: A l g e r i a , Moroc- co , Sudan, I r a n , M a u r i t i u s , Tanzan ia , Bangladesh and P a k i s t a n , came to- g e t h e r and formed t h e Act ion Committee of Women L i v i n g Under Muslim Laws, i n s u p p o r t of women's s t r u g g l e s i n t h e concerned c o n t e x t s . T h i s Committee l a t e r evo lved i n t o t h e p r e s e n t network.

The o b j e c t i v e s of Women Liv ing Under Muslim Laws a r e :

. t o c r e a t e l i n k s among women's g roups ( a l s o women preven ted from o r g a n i s i n g o r f a c i n g r e p r e s s i o n i f they a t t e c p t t o do s o ) w i t h i n muslim c o u n t r i e s and conununiLies;

. t o i n c r e a s e knowledge about t h e i r common s i t u a t i o n i n v a r i o u s con- t e x t s ;

, t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e s t r u g g l e s and c r e a t e t h r means t o s u p p o r t them i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y from w i t h i n t h e mus l in world and o u t s i d e .

In each of these countries till now women have been waging their struggle in isolation.

Women Living Under Muslim Laws aims at:

, providing information for women and women's groups from muslim countries and communities;

disseminating this information to other women from muslim countries and communities;

supporting their struggles from within the muslim countries and communities, and make them known outside;

. providing a channel of communication amongst women from muslim countries and communities.

(Further informat ion from: International Soiidarity Kework, 34SoO Cornbai ZZaux (!Vcn$peLZier) France).

BELGIQUE: CENTRE D'INFORMATION ET D'ANIMATION TIERS MONDE Le Centre "Wereldwijd" (A la dimension du monde) a Cite constitus par la collaboration d'un groupe d'organisations catholiques, actives dans Ie domaine de la mission et de la cooperation au developpement. I1 a c o m e but l'information et l'aniiaation, au sujet des problsmes du Tiers Monde et des activitgs chretiennes en fonction du dgveloppement.

Le Centre dispose des services suivants:

. Wereldwijd: revue mensuelle, illustrse, quatre couleurs, 48 pages; la revue est destinee au grand public; tirage actuel: 80.000 ex.

. Tijdschrift voor ontwikkelingssamenwerking: revue pour la cooperation au d6veloppement; publication trimestrielle de haute vulgarisation, concernant les problsmes du Tiers Monde et de la cooperation au developpement; tirage actuel: 3.000 ex.

. Service de documentation: Ie Centre dispose d'une bibliothsque de 270 revues, ouverte aux organisations et aux personnes intsressges.

. Service audiovisuel: ce service tient i la disposition des groupes d'action une serie de montages audiovisuels, des films, des diapositi- ves, des photos, des posters.

. Service d'animation: Ie Centre collabore 2 l'organisation de conferences, de seminaires. de voyages &ducatifs dans Ie Tiers Monde.

ARABIE: CENTRE D'ETUDES ET DE RECHERCHE SUR L'ECONOMIE ISLAMIQUE (CEREI

i f 6 c o n o m i e e t La ges t io r . des a f f a i r e s dev iennen t de p l u s en p l u s I e cen- t r e n e v r a l g i q u e de t o u t e l ' a c t i v i t e m a t 6 r i e i l e de 1 ' S t r e humain s u r t e r - r e . Le pouvoi r 6conomique d e v i e n t a i n s i p a r f o i s p l u s de te rminan t que I e pouvoi r p o l i t i q u e dans son essence .

Cependant , e t malgr6 I ' i n t g r S t p o r t 6 p a r i f i s l a m 5 ce genre de preoccu- p a t i o n s , 1'Cconomie e t i a g e s t i o n d e s a f f a i r e s demeurent parmi l e s ma- titres l e s moins GtudiCes dans l a l i t t e r a t u r e i s l a m i q u e .

C f e s t pour c e t t e r a i s o n , e t egalement en r a i s o n de l a n C c e s s i t e de v o i r n a l t r e de v e r i t a b l e s a c t i v i t g s f i n a n c i g r e s e t i n d u s t r i e l l e s i s l a m i q u e s q u ' e s t ne I e CEREI, Cen t re d V E t u d e s e t de Recherche s u r I 'Economie I s i a - mique.

Buts : deve lopper eC promouvoir l e s e t u d e s e t l a r echerche a p p l i q u g e s - dans l e s domaines d e l ' gconomie , de l a g e s t i o n e t d e l a f i n a n c e i s l a m i - q u e s , a i n s i que dans c e r t a i n s domaines connexes comme l e s s c i e n c e s d e l a s o c i o i o g i e , d e l a p o l i t i q u e e t de l ' h i s t o i r e .

Dans c e t t e p e r s p e c t i v e , I e CEREI s ' e s t f i x 6 egalement une s e r i e d ' o b j e c - t i f s h i 6 r a r c h i s e s :

. r a s s e m b l e r une bibliographic e x h a u s t i v e s u r l ' economie i s l a m i q u e en c o n s t i t u a n t un f i c h i e r t r i l i n g u e ( a r a b e , E r a n c a i s , a n g l a i s ) ;

. crCer une b i b l i o t h g q u e comprenant I e p l u s grand nombre d 'ouvrages en t r o i s l angues t r a l t a n t des s u j e t s s u i v a n t s : Banque i s l a n i q u e , economic i s l a m i q u e e t g e s t i o n , Cconomie du dCveloppement, r evues d'6conomie i s l a m i q u e ;

f a v o r i s e r l e s r e n c o n t r e s f o n n e l l e s e t i n f o n n e l l e s e n t r e G t u d i a n t s e t c h e r c h e u r s en 6conomie, h i s t o i r e , g e s t i o n , p o l i t i q u e e t s o c i o - l o g i e en Europe;

o r g a n i s e r d e s c o n f e r e n c e s e t c o l l o q u e s s u r I e theme d e 1'6conomie i s l a m i q u e t r a v e r s 1 'Europe ;

c o n t r a c t e r des abonnements 5 t o u t e s l e s r e v u e s i s l a m i q u e s t r a i t a n t d e s s u j e t s p r e c i t C s dans l e s t r o i s l angues p rCc i tCes ;

p u b l i c a t i o n de l a Revue d 'economie i s l a m i q u e ;

f a v o r i s e r l e s r e c h e r c h e s dans t o u s l e s domaines p r e c i t e s p a r un s o u t i e n l o g i s t i q u e ( b i b l i o g r a p h i e s , c o p i e s de documents, c o n s e i l s e t o r i e n t a t i o n s d e r e c h e r c h e s ) e t p a r un s o u t i e n f i n a n c i e r symbo- l i q u e ;

e t a b l i r l e s b a s e s d ' u n e c o o p e r a t i o n avec l e s organismes s c i e n t i - f i q u e s e t c u l t u r e l s connus pour l e u r p r o b i t e pour deve lopper l a r e c h e r c h e s u r 1'Cconomie i s l a m i q u e dans c e s m i l i e u x ;

mener d e s e t u d e s e t t r a v a u x rCmunCres i n t 6 r e s s a n t d e s o rgan i smes p a r t i c u l i e r s comme l e s banques i s l a m i q u e s e t l e s e n t r e p r i s e s dans l e s pays musulmans ( e t u d e s d e marche, o r g a n i s a t i o n s , e t u d e s d e f a i - s a b i l i t e ) .

(Correspondance: 27 rue A . Blanqui, 38400 St -Mar t in d'Reres, France!.

7 9

NEEDED: A NEW COMMUNICATIONS MODEL FOR A NEW WORKING-CLASS

INTERNATIONALISM *

Summary of a paper by Peter Waterman

The paper examines both the extent and variety of the communications media whose dramatic expansion has accompanied the rebirth of working class militancy and internationalism recently, contrasts these with the traditional media, and makes proposals based on such a contrast. The problem with the old media - whether of the International Labour Organi- sation, the international socialist or union organisations - is, it is argued: 1) control in the hands of an elite, professional or political, whether appointed or elected; 2) vertical flow of communication from base to peak to base (an A-shaped flow); 3) a flow of information and ideology or interpretation M; 4 ) inevitable manipulation of data at any political or bureaucratic level up or down the hierarchy.

The paper lists and describes a large number of different sources and types of the "new" media currently in existence (including newsletters, teaching aids, audiovisuals) and argues that these products tend to show the following characteristics: autonomy from capital, state and traditional labour organisations; rejection of statism; a combination of an orientation to the shopfloor or grassroots & internationalism; non- hierarchical networking relationships, stimulation of audiovisual forms, and encouragement of debate. The paper considers what theory is available for the understanding of 1) international working-class solidarity, and 2) international worker communications.

1) Most of the recent socialist writing on international working-class solidarity has, in fact, been about international trade union solidarity, and this within transnationals. IL seems that whilst TNC workers may be the most conscious of the need for common action, the TNCs pro- vide an inadequate base for this. The bases for a new internationalism must be found rather in the impact of TNCs throughout the economy and society (not just within TNCs), and in a new kind of popular politics that combines a grassroots focus with an international consciousness (new worker movements, women's, minority, environmental movements, etc).

2) Recent radical writing on communications has recognised the problem of overcoming hierarchy, but without recognising the most dynamic sources of this (the TNC and nation-state) and without recognising the necessity for the democratisation of international communication. There is, however, some theorising on "alternative" communication with the Third World, which recognises "transnationalisation" as the main problem and develops categories useful for analysing international communication also. This helps us understand both the extent and limitations of the current attempts to democratise international labour communications.

The paper ends by identifying a series of problems to be overcome and reposes a number of activities including a research-action project, to further the progress of international labour communication.

ESPANA : EL I N S T I T U T O I N T E R C U L T U R A L PARA L A A U T O G E S T I O N Y L A A C C I O N C O M U N A L ( I N A U C O )

Los a n t e c e d e n t e s remotos de e s t e Cen t re s e encuen t ran en l a p r imera m i - t a d d e 1 0 s aiios s e s e n t a . La r e l a c i o n con v a r i e s s i n d i c a l i s t a s l i b e r t a - r i o s , v i n c u l a d o s a l a s e x p e r i e n c i a s de l a s c o l e c t i v i d a d e s i n d u s t r i a l e s y campesinas d u r a n t e l a g u e r r a c i v i l e s p a h l a - s o b r e todo en Valenc ia y Ca ta luna -, nos h i z o v e r l a neces idad de que no s e p e r d i e r a a q u e l c a u d a l de conoc imien tos v i v o s y p r a c t i c e s de l a que, t a l v e z , haya s i d o l a r e a - l i z a c i 6 n a ~ t o g e s t i o r ~ a r i a mss profunda y e x t e n s a de l a H i s t o r i a .

E l a n t e c e d e n t s inmedia to d e e s t e I n s t i t u t o e s l a Escue la de Formacion Empresa r ia l y Comunitar ia (EFEC), que s e fund6 en Valenc ia en 1973, y en cuya a r e a c o m u n i t a r i a s e o r g a n i z e e l seminar io s o b r e " H i s t o r i a y f u t u r o de l a s i d e a s , d o c t r i n a s y e x p e r i e n c i a s comuni ta r i as" .

En marzo d e 1974, e l D i r e c t o r de EFEC - y a c t u a l d i r e c t o r de n u e s t r a r e v i s t a - a s i s t i 6 a 1 X X I V Congreso d e l I n s t i t u t o I n t e r n a c i o n a l de Socio- l o g i a , que s e c e l e b r 6 e n Arge, s o b r e e l tema "El d e s a r r o l l o d e l T e r c e r Mundo". P r e s e n t 6 una comunicaci6n t i t u l a d a "Las empresas a u t o g c s t i o n a d a s en e l p roceso d e industrialization de i o s p a r s e s en vÂ£a de d e s a r r o l l o " . Las s u g e r e n c i a s d e cooperac i6n e n t r e g rupos de e s t o s p . i i ses , preocupados por un mode10 nuevo de d e s a r r o l l o , nos animaban a c r e a r en Espaca un c e n t r e d e e s t u d i o s y cooperation que d i f u n d i e r a l a e x p e r i e n c i a y t r a d i - c i 6 n comunal e s p a c o l a , l a c u a i , segGn n u e s t r o s dmigos d e l a Conterencia , de Arge, e r a e s p e c i a l m e n t e adecuada p a r a e l T e r c e r Mundo.

A r a l z de t a l e s s u g e r e n c i a s , en e i marco de l a s a c t i v i d a d e s de l a Escue- l a , s e c e l e b r a r o n en j u n i o de 1975 l a s 1 J o r n a d a s s o b r e l a Empreaa, l a A u t o g e s t i 6 n y l a Sociedad Fu tura . De e s t a r e u n i o n - y aur. lass de l a s I 1 J o r n a d a s c e l e b r a d a s e l aiio s i g u l e n t e - s u r g i o e l p royec to de un I n s t i t u - t o permanence s o b r e l a Autoges t i6n .

Antes d e que s e f o r m a l i z a r a INAUCO, habiamos t e n i d o u:ia p royecc i6n i n - t e r n a c i o n a l a 1 a s i s t i r a l a I 1 Confe renc ia I n t e t n a c i o n a l de Autoges t i6n . que tuvo l u g a r e n C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y , I t h a c a , New York, b a j o l a o r g a n i - z a c i 6 n d e l equ ipo d e l P r o f e s o r J a r o s l a v Vanek. Es ta C o n i e r e n c i a , as: como l a s i g ~ i i e n t e c e l e b r a d a en j u n i o de 1976 en American U n i v e r s i t y , Washington D C , p e r m i t i 6 l a r e l a c i o n con i n v e s t i g a d o r e s y g rupos hispar.0- amer icanos con 10s que e n e l f u t u r o s e c o l a b o r a r i a .

En a g o s t o d e 1975 , c o n s t i t u i m o s l a Fundaci6n Labora l de Asesoramiento y PromociOn d e Empresas (FLAPE) . Quisimos acogernos a e s t a t i g u r a j u r i d i c a p i c a a s f r e s a l c a r m5s e l ca- ratter de t r a b a j a d o r e s o r g a n i z a d o s comuni ta r i amente de 1 0 s i n v e s t i g a - d o r e s s o c i a l e s d e d i f e r e n t e s a r e a s clue c o n s t i t u i m o s e l nuc leo i n i c i a l .

Por acuerdo de a b r i l de 1978, s e e s t a b l e c i 6 , como marco de n u e s t r o s t r a - b a j o s y cons iderado como s e r v i c i o de l a Fundacion, e l I n s t i t u t o I n t e r - c u l t u r a l pa ra l a Autoges t i6n y l a Acci6n Comunal (INAUCO).

E l I n s t i t u t e asumi6 e l c a l i f i c a t i v o de " i n t e r c u l . t u r a l " en e l s e n c i d o que I e da F r i e d r i c h como m a s a u t e n t i c o y profundo que e l a l t e r n a t - i v o dc " in- t e r n a c i o n a l " . Se t r a t a de r a s t r e a r en l a s d i f e r e n t e s c u l t u r a s i a s con- s t a n c e s h i s t 6 r i c a s de e x p e r i e n c i a s y c o r r i e n t e s comunales de a f i r m a c i o n d e l a u t o g o b i e r n o s o c i a l , d e suyo l i b e r t a d o r y expansivamente c r e a t i v a s ,

frente a otras constantes culturales de signo autoritario y rigidamente jerarquizadas.

La sxpresi6n Acci5n Comunal - junto a la palabra Autogestion, de acepta- ci6n universal - tiene un doble objetivo: de una parte, el reencuentro con secas de identidad de nuestra propia cultura y tradition, y dd otra, destacar el interes por 10s diferentes movimientos y actuaciones, en las ffizs diversas areas. De ahi que no nos quedemos solo en el analisis de experiencias concretas y de teorias de organizaci6n socioecon6mica, sino que nuestra biisqueda se proyecta en 10s pianos social, educative, poll- tico, cultural y festivo, como una exigencia radical del humanism0 en evo luci6n.

El10 nos lleva a destacar un rasgo de nuestras investigaciones y trabajos: el caracter interdisciplinar. Desde las autonomlas politicas y la profundizacion participatoria en democracia hasta 10s modelos coopera- :ivos y comunitarios de empresa, desde la reconversion econ6mica hasta la ecologid, desde la pedagogia participatoria a la animaci6n cultural autogestionaria ... Nuestros trabajos de investigacion se han hecho por iniciativa propia o per encargo de otras instituciones: el Instituto Nacional de FormaciGn Cooperativa (INFOC) nos solicit6 estudios sobre las S. A. Laborales en Espana y 10s modelos de empresas autogestionadas en el mundo accidental; para el Consejo Latinoamericano de Autogestion (CLA) y en su I1 Confe- rencia en San Jose, Costa Rica, en julio de 1980, sobre "AutogestiSn cientlfico-tecnologica y desarrollo integrado"; para la Sociedad Espa- sola dc Sistemas Generates, el "Proyecto Experimental de Aceion Comu- nalUt Sobre "~uto~e?ti6n~ Cultura y Animation Sociocultural", para el Congreso sobre Animation Sociocultural y Municipios organizado por la Diputaci6n Provincial de Madrid.

En el piano ducente, y a nivel de posgraduados universitarios y en el marco de la Uxiversidad Aut5noma de Madrid, hemos impartido cursos de doctorado en 10s que han Intervenido colaboradores del Instituto. Los dos iiltimos cursos han tenido como materia "Las sociedades sin Estado. Organization y autoridad politica" y "La teoria polftica y la autoges- t i5nW.

Sin embargo, es en el campo de la formacion basics de tip0 comunitaria, sea en el area empresarial o social, donde resulta imprescindible el area docente para la formacion de dirigentes y cuadros. Contamos para ello con 10s programas muy completos que se disesaron en las distintas areas de formacion empresarial y comunitaria durante la vida de EFEC.

El Instituto ha gestionado su integration, como Instituto Universitario asociado, a la Universidad Autonoma de Madrid.

A partir de 1983 el Instituto comienza a publicar una revista cuatrimes- tral, en convenio con ALTALENA EDITORES, SA y con la colaboraci6n de institutes y centros de investigacion de America y Espasa, bajo el nom- bra de Revista Iberoamericana de Autogestion y Acci6n Comunal.

I N A U C O , a/ Marfa Jesus Vara, Paseo Ermita del Santo 22, 28011 Madrid, Espanai .

C A N A D A ; T H E L A T I N A M E R I C A N W O R K I N G GROUP ( L A W G )

;g86 marks the 2Jth Anniversary of the '-.a'cin Amer'.aan fiork'ir.g G2~oup [LA'M'G). In prepar- t o ce lebrate t h i s e ven t , LA'Ãˆ' " h z d t c r i ~ z s " poolea. t h e i r r e c o l l e c t i o n s of 2; years of uork ar.2 cormitalent i n support o f the struggles of t h e L a t i n Anerisan people. Yere are some of these .

LAC JOSEPH, QUEBEC, AUGUST, 1966: Young peop le , Anglican you th , Uni ted Church, "Kairos", meet on an i s l a n d sur rounded by t h e L a u r e n t i a n s . Sun- deck and l a t e - n i g h t c o n v e r s a t i o n s r e v e r b e r a t e w i t h news, i m p r e s s i o n s of t h e Sou th . R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e s e C h r i s t i a n you th movements have j u s t r e t u r n e d from P u e r t o Rico . There they met w i t h L a t i n American e v a n g e l i - c a l p r o t e s t a n t you th .

Cons ider t h e t i m e s . The s t r e e t s of Santo Domingo had been f i l l e d w i t h a p o p u l a r r e v o l u t i o n i n A p r i l 1965. I n Washington, massive armed i n t e r v e n - t i o n was u rged on P r e s i d e n t Johnson. By mid-May 40,000 American s e r v i c e - men were invo lved i n t h e o p e r a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t government. The m i l i t a r y s t r u g g l e l a s t e d t i l l September.

Added t o t h e B r a z i l i a n coup of 1964 and t h e smouldering g u e r i l l a s t r u g - g l e s i n C e n t r a l America and t h e Andean s t a t e s , t h e massive d e m o n s t r a t i o n of armed i m p e r i a l power symbolized t h e f a i l u r e of t h e s o - c a l l e d " A l l i - ance f o r Progress" . L a t i n Americans found t h e i m p e r i a l f i s t p l a n t e d f i r m l y i n t h e i r stomach. Canadians w i t h f r i e n d s i n L a t i n America were h a r d l y immune t o t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s (...)

Some of t h e you th banded t o g e t h e r and began r e c r u i t i n g o t h e r s t o j o i n them i n forming t h e LAWG. (...) Members of t h e Group s p r e a d o u t t o major O n t a r i o c i t i e s , M o n t r e a l , t h e i n t e r i o r of Venezuela and t h e Dominican Republ ic . L inks were b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h American s i s t e r o r g a n i z a - t i o n s and independen t r e s e a r c h e r s th roughout North America ( . . . )

Study/Work p r o j e c t s were o rgan ized i n Mexico and t h e Dominican Republ ic and more young Canadians were exposed t o t h e r e a l i t y of p o v e r t y . Cr i - t i q u e s of t h i s t y p e of p r o j e c t by F r . Ivan I l l i c h and o t h e r s l e d LAWG t o r e - e v a l u a t e i t s work. I n d i v i d u a l s t u d y and q u i e t s u p p o r t of L a t i n Ameri- can community p r o j e c t s i n a s m a l l b u t long-term way took over t h e a t t e n - t i o n s of t h e g roup . S i x o r e i g h t s t u d e n t r e s e a r c h e r s l i v i n g i n and wor- k i n g o u t of a church basement began u n v e i l i n g Canadian c o r p o r a t e r e l a - t i o n s w i t h L a t i n America. Canadian a i d , p o l i c y and governmental a c t i v i t y were i n v e s t i g a t e d . M a t e r i a l s were p repared f o r development seminars . P a p e r s were p u b l i s h e d and c i r c u l a t e d .

The i n f l u e n c e o f L a t i n Americans t e l l i n g t h e i r s t o r i e s of o p p r e s s i o n was f e l t . A campaign was mounted f o c u s i n g on Brascan and L a b a t t s ' i n t e r e s t s i n B r a z i l . "I1 y a sang au fond" ( t h e r e is blood a t t h e bot tom) s t i c k e r s began t o appear on b o t t l e s of L a b a t t s i n Mont rea l . A t B r a z i l t o u r i s t promotion movies i n Toronto l e a f l e t s w i t h a s i m i l a r message were handed o u t .

The r e v o l u t i o n w i t h i n t h e Church i n L a t i n America was t e l e g r a p h e d i n t o t h e m i d s t of LAWG because of t h e s t r o n g church connec t ion o f a number of i t s members. At t h e same t i m e , t h e need f o r t h e group LJ re . c n o u t t o

Catholic youth who had their own unique relations and experience in the hemisphere was felt. Coming together to discuss and lead workshops on events in Third World countries, it became evident that joining together in LAWG provided a way to continue work at a deeper level on the causes of under-development and the roots of oppression. (...)

Events in Chile drew several members of LAWG to visit the country. By early 1973 LAKG was planning a study tour to the southern republic. Ap- peals for assistance from contacts in Chile began pouring in. An economic blockade of Allende's reforming democracy was on. The Trudeau government seemed complicit in the international corporate conspiracy. Letters and statements from Canadian missionaries prompted LAWG, in cooperation with DEC, to publish research on Canadian involvement in the economic strangulation of Chile, Chile Vs. the Corporations went into three prin- cings with more than 8,000 copies within a year.

The bloody military coup in Chile in September 1973 triggered an explo- sion of energy. Contacts were established with friends in Chile and with the media. Information was fundamental to LAWG's contribution in those days of crisis. Electronic links with American progressive new agencies were established, as were close liaison with the few investigative re- porters in the southern cone and with British and European sources. When the Canadian media called there were LAWG staff and volunteers to ans- xer, and the answers were to the point, well-informed and accurate (...)

Further, the arrival in Canada of Latin American exiles stimulated new levels of political discussion and understanding. LAWG came to a new understanding of the simple word Solidarity. It was not simply a matter of Canadians, sympathetic to the objectives of Latin American trade unionists, popular parties or community groups, donating their efforts to support friends far away. Instead, Canadians affected by the Latin American experience came to anew awareness of their own history, and their own struggles in the broader context of the hemisphere. If Chi- leans had attempted to turn their copper wealth to the purpose of improving life for all in their community, did this not have something to do with Canadian potash or oil? (...)

The Lat in American Working Group i s an independent, non-prof i t research and educational i n s t i t u t e . Founded i n 1966 , XM'G s t r i v e s t o create a broader understanding u i t h i n t he Canadian community o f t he c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l and economic r e a l i t y o f Lat in America. Based i n Toronto, LAWG s t a f f and a s soc ia t e s carry out research and education programmes designed t o s t rengthen t i e s between Canadiar. and Lat in American peoples. M ' G uorks u i t h the Canadian t rade union movement t o extend l inkages betueen Canadian and Lat in American trade union concerns. I nves t i ga t ions i n t o the a c t i v i t i e s arid operations o f "Canadian" t ransnat ional corporations i n Llatir. America praovides valuable rbeseareh mater ia l . LAVG a l s o uorks u k h t he Cana3i.m churches through par t i c ipa t ion i n ec7menicat church p ro j ec t s . LAVG maintains tke Canada-Latin American Resource Centre uh&h houses an ex t ens i ve range o f Eng l i sh and Spanish per iodicals , sub j ec t and country f i l e s , c l ippzng f",les, re ference sources and a spec ia l i s ed book c o l l e c t i o n . For i n q u i r i e s : LAWG, Box 2207 S t a t i o n P, Toronto, Canada M5S ST2. ( E x c e p t e d from LAUG a a r t e r l y Report, S m e r 1986).

FOR THE RIGhTS OF THREATENED T R I B A L PEOPLE

S U R V I V A L INTERNATIONAL

T r i b a l p e o p l e s number" scr:.e 2CU n- . t l l i on p e o p l e - j u s t fu'-ir p e r c e n t of ti-.e i - c r l d ' s ? o p u h t i o n . Tco of cen t r e i t d d a s , j b s : ~ ~ i e s L O p r o g r e s s , ob-- ;ec i : - : X s t u d y , i . i ;c 6:::or:ic showpieces o r tou . r ' i sn o r p o t e p . c i a i c o n v e r t s t a i - . ~ t h t , : ~ religi-!>:I t h z ~ r e , I n f a c t , member-f complex and v i a b l e SJc i e : i c , s T ~ : - - , ' .-., a sep.,'e o r p u r p o s e , f ~ ~ I f i l m e n t a n d co~xunity t h a t xany i n

o u r "moderri" socit;c:e:- fright envy .

O f t e n t h o u g h t of J S py , imi t i ve r emnan t s of a r emo te p a s t , d e s t i n e d t o p e r i s h i n d i e name ^ L p r o g r e s s " , t r i b c i l p e o p l e s a r e , i n , r e a l i t y , n e i - t h e r backward n o r i g n o r a n t . T h e i r a p p a r e n t l y s i m p l e t e c h n o l o g y e n a b l e s them t o l i v e wcU i n s u p p o s e d l y i n h o s p i t a b I e a r e s s which d e f e a t o u r own ' l i ig i l " t e ~ i : n o l o < ; y . Through t h e i r i n t i m a t e r e l a ; : i c n s ~ , i p w i t h the!': e n v i - r onmen t , r h e i r " ' -~ j~evidence upon i t s r e s o u r c e s ar.2 chc.ir i d e n t i f i c a t i u i i w i r h it, t h e y a r e i r -desd t h e b e s t c u s t o d i a n s of c':,? n a t u r a l w o r l d . Mean- w h i l e , we ridki? ' J e f f r t s JI' t h e i r homelands and c a 2 l i t "deve lopmen t " ,

1 1 - c o n c e i v e d ecnnei:nic d e v e l o p m e n t , m i n i n g , o i l e x p l o r a t i o n , h ighways , daics, t i m b e r e x t r a c t i o n and c a t t l e r a n c h i n g , now t ' r . r e a t t ?n t h e l a s t t r i - b a l $ u r v i v o r s . T h e i r l a n d s a r e b e i n g i n v a d e d . Such deveLo?ments a r e o f - - t o n j u s t i f i e d by t h e supposed b e n e f i t s t h e y c o n f e r on e v e r y o n e , i n c i u c - rug t h e t r i b a l i i e o p l e s themselves. I n p r a c t i c e , t h e b e n e f i c i a r i e s - i r e r s r e l y t h e c o u n t r i e s whe re t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e t a k i n g p l a c e , and n e v e r t h e t r i b a l p e o p l e s who a r e b e i n g swep t a s i d e i n t h e i r waks .

for e x a n p l e , o n l y two p e r c e n t of Amazonid can s u s t a i n "Long-term a g r i - c u l t u r e , y e t U - , r e l . e i ~ t i n g c o l o n i s a t i o n o f [.he t r o p i c a l f o r e s t c o n t i n u e s a t a n a l d r m i n g r a t e and t h e I n d i a n s a r e t h e p r i n c i p a l . v i c t i m s . Le.-is t h a n s i x p e r c e n t o f t h e I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n h a s s u r v i v e d t h e " d i s c o v e r y " of Amazonia by t h e " c i v i l i s e d " w o r l d . I n A u s t r a l i a , A b o r i g i n a l a e o p l e s h a v e been e x p e l l e e f rom t h e i r a n c e s t r a l l a n d s t o make way f o r n u c l e a r t e s t s . I n B a n g l a d e s h , t h e army d i s m i s s e s i t s g e n o c i d a l a t t a c k s on t r i b a l peo- p l e s by s t a t i n g , "we w.ant t h e l a n d b u t n o t t h e peop le" .

The d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e p e o p l e s s t e m s f rom o u r con tempt f o r ways o f l i v i n g which we do n o t u n d e r s t a n d . U n d e r l y i n g t h i s con t empt i s p r e j u - d i c e , c u l t u r a l a r r o g a n c e , r a c i s m , p o l i t i c a l and e c o ~ o n ' i i c e x p e d i e n c y a n d a t o t a l d i s r e g a r d o f t h e human G O S ~ . U l t i m a t e l y , we a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e des t . r ucc i i . n n t t ~ i e s e s o c i e t i e s and t h e r e s u l t i n g impove r i shmen t o f human i ty a s a who le . And y e t t r i b a l p e o p l e s , w i t h t h e i r u n i q u e and i r r e - p e a c e a b l e knowledge of good management o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , may h o l d a key t o o u r c o l l e c t i v e s u r v i v a l .

Many t r i b a l p e o p l e s a r e becoming inc rea s ing1 .y a c t i v e i n d e f e n c e <-'f t h e i r Live:, l a n d s am1 c u l t u r r i ~ . H&>wev~ . r , r h e p r c b l e n s w h i c h chcv c o n f r o n t : ~ P . P o ~ be ::olved w i - t f t ou~ e f i e e t i v c suppor t ; . J i i i n S u r v i v a l T n t e r n a t l " ; n a l now a n d i n s t e a d of b e i n g paf- of t b e p rob l em, become p a r t of t h e s o l u - t i o n .

S u r v i v a l 1n:ernacLonal ' . i tr lks t o r t h e r l r h t s o f t i ~ r e a t e n e a t r i b a l peo-- p l e s . I t does no: keek C J p r e s e r v e them ,is though i n a zoo o r muse'.!m,

but to ensure nhat they have a future in which they can adapt to outside society in thcir own wdy and at; their nwr pace. Tribal peoples c ~ n n o t achieve this unl-:S they retain con-mina1 ownership of their lands, rhey must have educa::. -ial and rr.edica1 s;~ster-.s whizit r.eet their real needs and which are under their o'dn control, freedom from exploitation, recognition of their own apokrspeople and protection i r o n newly i n t r o d u c d u diseases.

Education and publications: Survival Internatinnal prorotes awarer.ess of the value of tribal societies as well as ~'~b'icisLng their current plight. Educational work ranges from particip,C~~n in ~nternational conferences and the organisation of public meetings, :- ,chuol talks and drama projects. Resources include films, videos, slide sets, photo exhi- bitions and a library. Publications include a quarterly ~iewslatter and an authoritative annual review as well as more specialised boLkk3 and reports.

ANTI-ATOMIC INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON NUCLEAR UNSAFETY AND WAYS OUT

An inter-governmental conference on reactor safety is co take place in September under the auspices of the International Atomic energy Agency (IAEA). Especially after Cliernobyl (cf. IFDA Dossier 5 6 , editorial) it is self-evident that nuclear energy is much too serious an affair to be left to governments and their experts. This led a coalition of third system associations to organize a parallel conference which will be held in Vienna from 24 to 26 September.

Alternative reports will be presented by counter experts in five areas: safety after Chernobyl; the civilian/military connection and the Third World; scenarios for a way out; nuclear energy and us; international law.

The parallel conference is sponsored by, among others. Friends of the Earth Int., Greenpeace tnt., the German Conference of anti-nuclear raove- ments, Italy's Lega per L'ambiente, ECORJPA, European Nuclear Disama- ment (END) and Austrian anti-nuclear groups. IFDA is examining how i L

could participate in the conference.

Leelananda de S i l v a has read f o r you

GETTING AHEAD COLLECTIVELY ; GRASSROOTS EXPERIENCES

I N L A T I N AMERICA

by A l b e r t 0 . Hirschman, (Oxford: Pergancn P r e s s , 1984) 101pp.

'Son-governmental o r g a n i z a t i o n s ' a r e t h e c u r r e n t f a s h i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n - a l development . NGOs have been around f o r s e v e r a l m i l l e n i a , p r o v i d i n g s e c u r i t y and s u s t e n a n c e f o r k i t h and k i n and i n t h e l a s t f o u r decades when i n t e r n a t i o n a l development was very much i n vogue, they have been q u i e t l y a c t i v e , b u t away from t h e h e a d l i n e s , i n t h e same f i e l d . Recen t ly i n s t i t u t i o n s l i k e t h e World Bank have d i s c o v e r e d them. A r t i c u l a t e p u b l i c o p i n i o n i n t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s b e l i e v e more i n NGOs than i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l b u r e a u c r a c i e s , and i t is impor tan t f o r t h e l a t t e r t o be s e e n i n NGO company i f they a r e t o m o b i l i s e c o n t i n u i n g s u p p o r t f o r t h e i r programmes. Two r e c e n t e v e n t s make f o r a t e l l i n g c o n t r a s t . S p o r t Aid b rought 30 mi l - l i o n peop le on t o t h e s t r e e t s i n s u p p o r t and i s e s t i m a t e d r a i s e t o near - l y $100 m i l l i o n . The L'N S p e c i a l Assembly on t h e A f r i c a n c r i s i s , on t h e o t h e r hand, d i s c u s s e d t h e s i t u a t i o n , b u t d i d n o t p ledge .

What has a l l t h i s t o do wi th t h e book under review? A l b e r t Hirschman, one of t h e most d i s t i n g u i s h e d economis t s and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s a l i v e , has t aken t ime o f f t o v i s i t a huge number of s m a l l p r o j e c t s o r g a n i s e d by t h o s e a t g r a s s r o o t s i n L a t i n America and , i n t h i s c a s e , suppor ted by a s m a l l agency - t h e Inter-American Foundat ion founded by t h e US Congress and, a t t h e t ime of ~ i r s c h m a n ' s v i s i t , t h r e a t e n e d w i t h e x t i n c t i o n a s a p a r t of t h e supp ly s i d e economics. Hirschman had e a r l i e r w r i t t e n a major work on World Bank p r o j e c t s , and t h i s was p robab ly t h e f i r s t t ime t h a t a n economist of i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e p u t e had e v e r been deep ly engrossed i n t h i s t y p e of s m a l l , d i s p e r s e d g r a s s r o o t s movement. These a r e NGOs b u t of a d i f f e r e n t mould, o p e r a t i n g i n t h e p e r i p h e r y of t h e Th i rd World, born and b r e d i n t h a t d i f f i c u l t m i l i e u . Nor thern NGOs have shown an i n c r e a s - i n g i n t e r e s t i n i d e n t i f y i n g and c o l l a b o r a t i n g w i t h t h i s t y p e of NCO, r a t h e r t h a n working on t h e i r own. When S p o r t Aid d i s t r i b u t e s i t s d o l l a r s i n sub-Saharan A f r i c a , i t is t o t h e s e g r a s s r o o t s movements t h a t subs tan- t i a l funds w i l l , and s h o u l d , go .

~ i r s c h m a n ' s i s a d e l i g h t f u l l i t t l e book - i t is i n f a c t a n ex tended es - say - w i t h l o t s of i n s t r u c t i v e pho tographs . F u l l of i n t r i g u i n g i n s i g h t s a s t o how t h e s e g r a s s r o o t s movements came a l i v e , t h e e v e n t s which t r i g - s e r e d them o f f - a n a t u r a l d i s a s t e r , v i o l e n c e by governments o r by t h e power fu l - and t h e i r s u c c e s s e s and f a i l - u r e s , t h e book l e n d s weigh t t o t h e t h e s i s t h a t development i s no t a t r i ck le -down p r o c e s s , b u t i s an amalgam of imprcvements from below. Improvements which governments and b u r e a u c r a c i e s , <inJ even s m a l l o r g a n i s a t i o n s down below, c o n s i d e r a r e r e l e v a n t t o p e o p l e , might n o t be seen i n t h e same l i g h t by t h e in tended b e n e f i c i a r i e s . Hirschman t e l l s t h e s t o r y of t h e wool p r o d u c e r s ' coopera- t i v e i n Uruguay, s e t up t o t a k e o v e r t r a d i n g f u n c t i o n s and o b t a i n b e t t e r p r i c e s f o r t h e s m a l l p roducer . It has a c t u a l l y done t h a t , b u t he was s u r p r i s e d t h a t It was no t do ing even b e t t e r . The r e a s o n was t h a t t h e

s m a l l p r s d u c e r d i d no': a p n r e c i d t e g i v i n g u p t h e l i t t l e t r & d i r . r n a l c o l - o u r and e n t e r t a i n m e n . i p , his l i f e , ~ s s o c i a t e d w i t h b . i i c a r e t r i p s XJ t h e c i t y t o s e l l t h e woc-1. F i n a n c i ~ L c o s t s and be?i i ' : .~ tb do n o t c o n v e y t h e e n t i r e p i c t u r e , and :he ^ r a b n e ~ s i-f r e g u l a r ^ i f e d<n,tinds t h e o c c a s i u n a l , : i r c u s a n d ;'.trpJ~vaL.

b e i n g e r e c t e d . "The n x ~ i e so l !d l ? and r t ' - ~ i i e c t a b ' . y b u i l t t h e l i ouses a r e . t h e l e s s l i k e l y i t i s t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s fill set12 i n bulldozers C.;

d e m o l i s h t h e w h o ~ c new s e t t l e m e n t , and t h e more l i k f l y d o e s i t bccorre t h a t t i t l e s :c t h e U n d w i l l e v e n t u a l l y h e to::;. -.:m;riy. V a r i o u s p r i i t i - c a l p r e s s u r e s t o t h a t er.d a r e a l r e a d y h e l n e a , l ~ ~ . i ~ e a " . Pirschm.ir. n o t e ? t h a t i t was e v e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t once you hdve IF'.- r i d e , t h e r e i s no more i n c e n t i v e t o improve y o u r h o u s e . L ' ndcub te J Iy , t h i s pherornenun i s n o t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h c o n v t - i n t i > n a l economic wisdom, and whi.ch s u r p r i s e d e v e n s u c h a n o n - c o n v e n t i o n a l 1:ccr;ornist a s Hirschmc~: . . However. t o this r e v i e w e r , h a v i n g worked d u r i n g h i s f i r s t few y e a r s i n Land a d m i n i s t r a - t i o n i n t t ie r u r a l a r e a s of S r i Lank'i, a n i n v e r t e d s e q u e n c e o f t h i s t y p e c o n e s a s no s u r p r i s e . Thousands of s q u a t t e r s c l a i m e d : h e i r r i g h c s t o Land f rom t h e s t a t e on t h e g r ~ u n d s Lhat ri iey had a ' , . :eady + e v e l o p e d i t . P l a n n e r s a :~d e c o n o m i s t s , i n gove rnmen t s and i n UN agencies, s h o u l d ex- p e r i e n c e a t f i r s t hand t h e s e q u e n c e s a t t h e f i r a s s r o o t s it r e l e v a n t soli- c i e s an81 p rog ranmes a r e t o b e d e s i g n e d . Key and more e x c i t i n g v i s t a s c o u l d open up i n t h e e v e n t t o a f a t i g u e d p r o c e s s o f c e n t r a l i s e d d e v e l c p - merit.

The book h a s many more t a n t a l i z i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s on ?".is o r t h a t l i t t l e p r o j e c t . Givepi a c h o i c e be tween h o u s e s azd w a t e r , when b o t h a r t . s c a r c e , p e o p l e a p p e a r t o p r e f e r p r o j e c t s i n v e s t i n g i n w a t e r s > ~ p p l y , a s h o u s e s can b e c o n s t r u c t e d e v e n m o d e s t l y . The s u c c e s s of a c o o p e r - a t i v e l i e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e p r e c i s e o h j f c ~ t - i v e s f o r wh ich i t i s s e t u p , b u t i n t h e p r o c e s s of work ing t o g e t h e r , which c o u l d t h e n l e a d t o o t h e r c o l l e c t i v e u n d e r f a k i n g s by t h e g roup . S p o r t s c o u l d b e ::!e ba-3e f o r f u r t h e r g r o u p a c t i v i t y i n s e l f - r e l i a n t - d e v e l o p m e n t . Op'clmism and ch: v i t a l i t y o t l i f e , e v e n i n t h e c o s t d e p r i v e d of c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and t h e e n t e r p r i s e of Eh? p o o r a r e t h e Hirsc lnnan c h e n e s .

t t , f h e r a i n s p r i n g of t h e s e n r i v a t t i n i t i . a t i v e s l a no^ ' t h e i - ~ r i s c i e n c e of t h e e d u c a t e d and t h e r i c h ' '1,s was :he c a s e i n W e s t e r n Europe cind N o r t h America b e i ' o ~ e Lhe advent- of Lnz cu i i~e iupu i i ? iy ' n - e J f a r e $:ate, >U!;' a com- b i ~ i ~ t i o n o r s u c i d i CL ivis::! a t t. tie l o c a i ancl. naciun?! : ~i 'vs i s , i n s p i r e d by a g r e a t v a r i e t y of i d e o l o g i e s . w i t h tin-; c o n - 3 c l e r i c of t h e r i c h coun- c r i e s a t t h e 1 n t e r n a L i o n a i l e v e l " .

i n t h e next: few y e ? r s we must p r o c e e d t o f i n d c o r e a b o u t t h e s e r e l a t i v - e l y unsung v e v . t u r e s . They d i e L!?+ ?,COS of the f i i t u r s .

i f d a d o s s i e r 55 . s e p t e m b e r i c c t c s e r 1986 l e t t e r - s / ' i e t t r e s /ca r t i~s

FROM BRASIL

Fundacao Joao P i n h e i r o , an economic and ~ o c i a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t u t i o n , i s i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e impact of advanced m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c d i s c o v e r i e s on t h e s t r u c t u r e and p r o c e s s e s of contenporar:q s o c i e t i e s . As you a r e w e l l aware t h e emergence o l new g e n e r a t i o n s of comguters , t h e advances i n r o b o t i c s , and t h e integration of m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s and b io logy por tend profound t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s f o r a l l human a c t i v i t i e s . These Tremendous changes re - q u i r e s y s t e m a t i c i n q u i r y and informed p u b l i c l e b a t e t!iat w i l l h e l p pre- p a r e t h e members of o u r s o c i e t i e s t o a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n and d e a l w i t h t h e s e c o n t i n u i n g developments .

I n beg inn ing t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , we f e e l i t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y t o l e a r n more abou t t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t i s c u r r e n t l y i n p r o g r e s s an6 t o e s t a - b l i s h fo rmal and i n f o r m a l c o n t a c t s w i t h I n d i v i d u a l s and i n s t i t i i t i o n s a c t i v e l y invo lved i n t h e a r e a . We would be q u i t e g r a t e f u l i f you cou ld send r e p r i n t s of a r t i c l e s , t h e names and a f f i l i a t i o n s of r e s e a r c h e r s and o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t might be p e r t i n e n t t o o u r p r o j e c t .

FROM CANADA

I am p l e a s e d t o send you a copy of my r e p o r t , The >lewfoundland U u r g D e v e l o ~ m e u t Approack: I t s T n p l i c a t i o n s f o r Deve lopmg C o u n t r i e s . T a l s o wish t o t a k e advan tage of t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o thank you f o r your a s s i s t - ance . I found t h e D o s s i e r s you s e n t me v e r y h e l p f u l p a r t i c u l a r l y a s they were s o b r o a d l y based .

FROM INDIA

IFDA Doss* is a must f o r g roups working on in format io r i ~dissemi.,riatioc and r e l a t e d e c o l o g i c a l a s p e z t s . We a r e one such group keen t o g e t B D o s s i e r r e g u l a r l y . P r e s e n t l y we might n o t be a b l e t o pay f o r i t bu t a s and when we have funds we would d e f i n i t e l y s u b s c r i b e t o i t . T i l l they1 keep us on your r e g u l a r m a i l i n g l i s t from i s s u e 49.

FROM SRI L A N K A

h'e have r e c e i v e d your D o s s i e r f r c m t h e f i r s t i p s i ; e u p rci the ' i ? s t and have found them of much i n t e r e s t and g r e a t v a l u e i n o u r Research b e p a r t - Ten t . We make use of your m a t e r i a l i n o u r wsrk a r d a l s o o c c a s i o n a l l y have p u b l i s h e d some of t h e a r t i c l e s i n our "Eco:iomic Review".

FROM UGANDA

I w i s h t o t h a n k you v e r y much f o r k e e p i n g me on t h e m a i l i n g l i s t of I F D A D o s s i e r . I e n j o y r e a d i n g t h e D o s s i e r . ?Idre i m p o r t a n t i s t h e wea: t t~ of i n s t r u c t i o n t h a t t h e p e r i o d i c a l p r o v i d e s .

FROM CALIFORNIA

S i n c e t h e D o s s i e r ' s i n c e p t i o n I have b e e n s t i m u l a t e d and e n r i c h e d by t h e m a t e r i a l s you h a v e c o n s i s t e n t l y p l a c e d be tween i t s c o v e r s . I do n o t t h i n k , howeve r , t h a t you h a v e e v e r p u b l i s h e d a more v a l u a b l e , t h o u g h t - f u l , m a s t e r f u l e x p o s i t i o n of t h e c a u s e s o f r u r a l p o v e r t y t h a n i n t h e J a n I F e b i s s u e , i n t h e r e p o r t c o m e n c i n g a t page 3 : Development of t h e R u r a l P o o r : The M i s s i n g F a c t o r by Om P r a k a s h & P.N. R a s t o g i . 1 am a deve lopmen t e c o n o m i s t w i t h t o u r s o f d u t y of 1-5 y e a r s i n o v e r t e n coun- t r i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h r e e y e a r s i n I n d i a . I t was e x t r e m e l y s a t i s f y i n g t o h a v e e a c h s e n t e n c e of t h e i r r e p o r t s o l i d l y c o n f i r m my own c o n c l u s i o n s a s t o t h e b a r r i e r s t o r u r a l deve lopmen t (many of which a l s o a p p l y t o t h e u r b a n s e c t o r ) . And 1 a g r e e c o m p l e t e l y w i t h them t h a t n o t h i n g much c a n come of a n y development, p rog ram u n t i l we manage t o imbue t h e d e v e l - opment e f f o r t w i t h g e n u i n e humanism and a r e a l c o n c e r n f o r t h e l e s s - f a v o r e d g r o u p s . I t i s i n d e e d p a i n f u l t o s e e s o many t h o u s a n d s o f w e l l - i n t e n t i o n e d deve lopmen t s p e c i a l i s t s ( i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d l o c a l ) and s o many b i l l i o n s of deve lopmen t f u n d i n g e n d i n g u p , i n a l m o s t a l l c a s e s , w i t h a w o r s e n i n g of t h e income g a p and no r e a l a l l e v i a t i o n o f t h e m i - s e r a b l e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e p o o r .

FROM ELISE BOULDING, COLORADO, USA

The IEIIA D o s s i e r i s one of t h e b e s t p u b l i c a t i o n s I r e a d , s o of c o u r s e 1'11 s u p p o r t i t !

FROM Z I M B A B W E

I r e a d w i t h i n t e r e s t a copy o f one o f y o u r p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t I found i n t h e r e a d i n g rooms o f one o f o u r l i b r a r i e s . T h i s was t h e f i r s t t i m e I had e v e r r e a d s o m e t h i n g f rom IFDA a n d I f o u n d t h e i s s u e s c o v e r e d t o b e of v i t a l i m p o r t a n c e t o a c o u n t r y l i k e Zimbabwe. I am t h e r e f o r e k i n d l y a s k - i n g f o r g r a t i s c o p i e s o f a l l y o u r p u b l i c a t i o n s , and I am k i n d l y a s k i n g you t o p u t me on y o u r m a i l i n g l i s t . 1 am a s e n i o r j o u r n a l i s t w i t h The H e r a l d , Zimbabwe's l a r g e s t d a i l y n e w s p a p e r , whe re I am employed a s a b u s i n e s s r e p o r t e r . I a l s o w r i t e f o r a number o f o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s on a f r e e l a n c e b a s i s . No d o u b t , p u b l i c a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e l F D A b o s s i e r a r e w o r t h r e a d i n g r e g u l a r l y .

i f d a doss i e r 55 , septenber loc tober 1986 f o o t n c t e s / n o t e s / ' n o t a s

LOCAL SPACE

. J e a n - J a c q u e s V i n c e n s i n i ( p r e s . p a r ) k L i v r e i e s d r a i t s d e l ' homne ( P a r i s : R o b e r t L a f f o n t , 1985) 347pp. Ce l i v r e t o u r n i t 1 2 s t e x t e s d e r e - f e r e n c e d a n s i e u r i n t e g r a l i t ; o u , 2 t o u t I e moins , d a n s l e u r s a r t i c l e s l e s p l u s s i g n i f i c a t i f s . L ' abo rd en e s t f a c i l i t 6 p a r d ' i n d i s p e n s a b l e s e c l a i r c i s s e m e n t s j u r i d i q u e s , h i s t o r i q u e s e t p h i i o s o p h i q u e s . Leur p r e s e n - t a t i o n s ' i n s c r i t d a n s l a marche d e l ' h i s t o i r e , d e l a Grande C h i i r t e d e 1215 aux p l u s r e c e n t s p a c t e s i n t e r n a t i o n a u x . C e t o u v r a g e a p p a r a i t a i n s i comme une s o r t e d ' a n t h o l o g i e r a i s o n n e e d e s C o n s t i t u t i o n s e t Conven t ions e s s e n t i e l l e s e n c e q u i c o n c e r n e l e s d r o i t s fondamentaux ou e n c o r e cornme l ' i n v e n t a i r e min ima l que t o u t c i t o y e n s e d o i t d e c o n n a i t r e d e s l o r s q u ' i l s ' i n t e r e s s e 2 l ' e x i s t e n c e e t 2 l a r e a l i s a t i o n d e c e s d r o i t s .

. Andrew Gray , And A f t e r t h e Gold Rush . . .? Human R i g h t s and S e l f - Development Among t h e Amarakae r i o f S o u t h e a s t e r n P e r u (Copenhagen: IWGIA, 1986) 125pp. ( F i o l s t r a e d e 1 0 , 1171 Copenhagen K , Denmark).

. C a r d i n a l J a ime L . S i n , Les d r o i c s d e l ' homne e t l a p a u v r e t e (UNL', 1986) 22pp. (FOB 227, Sh ibuya PO, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150 , J a p a n ) .

. M i c h e l e M a t t e l a r t , Women, Med ia , Crisis: F e m i n i t y and D i s o r d e r (Co- media P u b l . Group, 1986) 123pp. M i c h e l e M a t t e l a r t l o o k s a t t h e r e l a t i o n - s h i p be tween t h e p r e s e n t economic c r i s e s of Wes te rn and T h i r d w o r l d so- c i e t t e s and t h e chang ing p o s i t i o n o f women i n t h e s e s o c i e t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Women's movement; a n d women and t h e media - how t h e med ia a c t s t o i n f l u e n c e t h e p o s i t i o n o f women i n s o c i e t y . Miche le M a t t e l a r t a r g u e s t h a t i n b o t h t h e N o r t h and t h e S o u t h t h e p r e s e n t eco - nomic c r i s i s c a n n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d i n i s o l a t i o n f rom a m o r a l and p o l i t i - c a l c r i s i s wh ich c e n t r e s a round t h e q u e s t i o n of f e m i n i t y and t h e f a m i l y . She d e v e l o p s t h i s argument by f o c u s i n g on t h e s p e c i f i c c o n t r a d i c t i o n s be tween f e m i n i t y and d i s o r d e r - n o t a b l y i n h e r a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e c i s i v e i d e o l o g i c a l r o l e of women i n t h e C h i l e a n coup d ' 6 t a t of 1973 , e n t i t l e d "The Feminine S i d e o f t h e Coup". ( 9 Po land S t r e e t , London W 1 V 3DG, L X ) .

. L e s communica t ions , l e deve loppemen t e t l a s u r v i e i n f a n t i l e (Con- f e r e n c e UNICEF/OMS, D j i b o u t i , a v r i l 1985) 60pp. (UNICEF, FOB 441Q5 , Nai- r o b i , Kenya ) .

. UNlCEF, " U n i v e r s a l c h i l d immuniza t ion by 19Y0". A r i c h s p e c i a l ls- s u e o f Assignment C h i l d r e n (?69/72) w i t h a d o s s i e r , g u i d e l i n e s f o r a c t i o n , c a s e s t u d i e s and r e s e a r c h n o t e s . (UNICEF, P a l a i s d e s N a t i o n s , 1 2 1 1 Geneva 1 0 , S w i t z e r l a n d ) 476pp.

. S i l v i a R i v e r s C u s i c a n q u i , Opr imidos p e r o no venc*, l u c h a s d e l campes inado aymara y qhechwa d e B o l i v i a 1900-1980 ( G i n e b r a : UNRISD,

Ll"- ' .o) 2 2 3 p p . R2sur.e l a j l u c k a s c a m p e s x a s , qhcchwa :: ~ y m d r a , desi-e 1900 a a 1'JSO. En s u c r o n o l o g i a , e s t a " l 6 g i c a J e l a r e b c ; l d l a U supo::e no s o l o un p e r i n a r i ~ n ! : ~ ~ p r o c e s o d e 3 c ~ i v a r e s i s t e i i c i a s i z ~ i , aden;,&, coritemple: l a c o n s t r u c c i h i n t e l e c c u a l de un h o r i z o n t e h i s t o r i c 0 cuyo s e n t i d o v e r c ? 10s 1 S m i t e s de 10 a ~ u e ha i d o s i e n d o e l E s t a d o b o l i v i a n o - g r a c ~ i s a un m i r a r h a c i a d;,r,';s a u e t a c b i g n e s un i r h d c i d a d e l a n t e : " n . ~ u p a j maripani". L s t e ! ~ o r i z o n t e l i i s t 6 r i c o . . . U e g a a t e n e r hey e n d i r t , s e g u n S i l v i a m . x i v e r a C u s i c a r q u i , d o s e s t r a t o s d e r e f e r e n d a c o m p 1 e m e n t a r i o s , d i a l e c t i -

* . c , men:-ido a c a g o n i c o s : ~ t n o , s l d e i a "rnemoria c o r t a " r e f e r i d o a l a i i i ~ u r r e c c - i G ~ ~ p o p u l a r dc 1952 y p o s t e r i o r m e n t e marcadc p o r la Reforma A g r d r i a , y o t r o , e l d e l ~ a "memoria l a r g a " , r e f e r i d o a l a s l u c h a s i n d c g e - n a s a n t i ~ < ' l o n i a I e s y ?:c+ s e s i n b o l i z a e n l a f i g u r a d e Tupak K a t a r i .

M i c h a e l M . C e r n e a , l i r a 1 d e v e l o p m e n t ( N ~ w 3 2 4 . ~ 5 . An u n s u c c e s s f u l

P u t ~ i n e e o p l e F i r s L : S o c i o l o g i c d l V a z i a b l e s i n --p-

York: Oxfo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1986) 4 4 4 p p . , g r o u n d n u t scheme i n T a n z a n i a migh t h a v e b e e n

f o r e s e e n bv s p e n d i n g more t i m e i n t h e f i e l d a s k i n g f a n n e r s why t h e y d i d I G L c u l t i v a ' c e ? h e l a n d i n t h e p r o p o s e d p r o j e c t a r e a . The Hdnunoo P e o p l e i n 1 .h~ P h i l i p p i n e s h a v e knowledge o f 1 ,600 names f o r p l a n t s , 4CO mnre t h a n t h o s e i n a b o t a n i c a l s u r v e y . Ancl t h e Kiln8 San o f Botswana h a v e a knowledge n? a n i m a l b e h a v i o r o f t e n s u p e r i o r t o t h a t o f a s c i e n t i s t . Examples c o u l d b e m u l t i p l i e d . The f a c t i s t h a t t h e i n d i g e n o u s p e o p l e ' s knowledge o f s o i l s , s e a s o n s , p l a n t s , d o m e s t i c and w i l d a n i m a l s , f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s , d i e t , c o o k i n g p r a c t i c e s and c h i l d c a r e , n o t t o m e n t i o n s o c i a l cus toms and r e l a t i o n s , i s o f t e n r i c h e r and s u p e r i u r t o t h a t o f t h e o u t - s i d e r . T h i s new book , p u b l i s h e d f o r t h e World Bank, d r aws f rom e x p e r i - e n c e s i n many World B a n k - a s s i s t e d development. p r o j e c t s , b o t h p o s i t i v e Â¥i.r n e g a t i v e , t o s u g g e s t p r a c t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s f o r a d d r e s s i n g t h e s o c i a l i s s u e s o f s e v e r a l d i . s t i f . c t c a t e g o r i e s o f p r o j e c t s , and t o r e c o r n e n d con- s t r i i c t i v e a n J f e a s i b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s . The book h a s A S i t s b a s i c t e n e t t h a t p e o p l e a r e , and s h o u l d b e , t n e s t a r t i n g p o i n t , t h e c e n t e r , and t h e g o a l o f e a c h deve lopmen t p r o j e c t . I n s o c i o l o g i c a l t e r m s , p o i n t s o u t M i c h a e l M . C e r n e a , who e d i t e d t h e b o o k , it i s n o r e t h a n a n i d e o l o g i c a l a p p e a l . I t means making s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s t h e e x p l i c i t c o n c e r n of de- velupment : p o l i c i e s and p rog rams and c o n s t r u c t i n g deve lopmen t p r o j e c t s a r o u n d t h e mode o f p r o d u c t i o n , c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , n e e d s a n d p o t e n t i a l of t h e l o c a l p e o p l e a r e a s .

. K i l h e l a O s t b e r g , The Kondoa Trans fo rma t+ -on : Coming t o G r i p s w i t h S o i l E r o s i o c i n C e n t r a l T a n z a n i a ( S c a n d i n a v i a 2 I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u - d i e s , 1 9 8 b j 9 9 p p . (POE 1 7 0 3 , 751 47 U p p s d l a , Sweden) .

. Ander s H j o r t ( e d ) , Land Management and S u r v i v a l ( S c a n d i n a v i a n In - s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u J i e s , 1985) 148pp.

. G e r a r d J . G ' R e i l l y , Newfoundland R u r a l DeveLop~nent Approach: L t z Imp1 i c a t i ~ 7 n s f o r Z e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s ( I a s t i t u t e o f S o c i a l a n d Econumic R e s e a r c h , Memoria l U n i v e r s i t y o f Newfoundland, 1986) 96pp.

t i a n o , ? & l , 1985) 49pp. ( C a t e d r a l 1063, 7'PISO, S a n t i a g o , C h i l e )

. Sopsn P o r n c h o k c h a i , The R012 o f Community P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Human S e t t i e m e n r . ~ Work: A K c g i o n a l O V ~ L T ~ L ~ (1985) 36pp; Slum D w e l l e r s : 2 .. -

L e s s P r i v i l > g e d Segment o f Urban E ' cp .L ,~ t ion (1985) X p p . (Schoo l of LT- - b a n Conmur i ty R e s e a r c h a n d A c t i o n s , 6 8 8 / 5 0 . J c r ansan i twong 68, B a n g p l a d , Bangkok 10700 , T h a i l a n d )

. :;.R. t l i t r a & a s s o c i a t e s , s 2 e n g e a E d P e s p ~ ~ : ~ s e : Towards a* E d u c a t i o n P o l i c y and Beyond (Wi l ey L a s t e r n L t d , i S t f c 1 25;pp. (-t8j5/2!, - A n s a r i Rd, D a r y a g a n j , New D e l h i 110002, I n d i a ) . . Moonis P a z a , A i j a z u d d i n Abmad, S h e e t Chand !,ar.a, -P----. T r i b a l 1 . i t e r a c v ir . I n d i a : The R e g i o n a l Dimension (NiXPA, 1985) 7 l ' ~ p . (17 -B , S r i Aurab indo Marg. New D e l h i i1U 015, I n d i a ) .

NATIONAL SPACE

. F i v e new b o o k s f rom t h e S a n t i a g o C e n t r e d e e s t u d i e s d e l d e s ~ r r o - 110's p r o j z c t C h i l e i n t h e d o s :

- A n g e l F l i s f i c h , Eugen io O r t e g a , R i c a r d o Lagos e t a l . , E l f i ~ t ' - i r o d e ~ o c r a t i c o d e C h i l ~ : 4 v i s i o n e s p o l f t i c a s , .- 206pp;

- E r n e s c o T i r o n i , G u i l l e r m o C a m p e r ~ , C 1 a r i s . i Ha rdy , Ig i i dc io Balbont-l";! e t a l . , C o n c e r t a c i 6 n s o c i a l y d e ~ , o c r a c i a - , . ?8 ip? .

- Edgardo B o e n i n g e r , Gonzz lo D . F f a r t n e r er a l . , Grden e c ( > n L ? ~ i c ~ > --y d e m o c r a c i a , 295pp;

- C a r l o s V i g n o l o , Augus to Anir .a t , J a c q u e l i n e W e i n s L i i n e t a l . , .- La . i n d u s t r i a c h i l e n a : v i s i o n c s s e c t o r i a l e s , 30'4pp.

--p-----

(CED, Nueva d e L)on 128 , S a n t i a g o , C h i l e ) .

. O s c a r $fun02 Gom5, C h i l e y s u i n d u s t r i a l i z a c i 6 n - z a s a d o . c r i s i s y - o p c i o n e s (CIEPLAN, 1986) 323pp. (AV. Co l& 3494 , S a n t i a g u , C h i l e ) . . --

. J a n H e s s e l b e r g , The T h i r d World i n T r a n s i t i o n : The Cake af t h e ?euy s a n z i n Botswana (Vppsa l a : S c a n d i ~ ~ a v i a n I n s t i t u t e oL Afr ica11 S t u d i e s , - --- 1986) 256pp.

. R i c h a r d H o s i e r , Energy [ i se i n R u r a l Kenya: !ausehaid Demand and R u r a l T r a n s f o r m a t i o n ( U p p s a l a : S c a n d i n a v i a n I n s t i t u t - c o f A f r i c a n S t u - d i e s , 1986) 177pp.

. M.R.. Bhagavan, Angola:-S Pol i t ica l>onamy 1975-1985 ( C p p s a l a : Scan- d i n a v i a n I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , 1986) 89pp .

. T s s a G . S h i v j i , Law, S t a t e & t h e W ~ r k i n g C l a s s i n Ta:,::ania (London; James C u r r e y L t d , 1986) 268pp. I s s a S h i v j i ' s -- C l a s s -. Str'i&s .- -- i n .- T a n z a n i a -

t o o k the d e b a t e on t h e c o u n t r y s e v e r a l s t a g e s f u r t h e r f o r w a r d when i t was p u b l i s h e d i n 1976 . Now t h i s new s t u d y f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t e s t h e r e l a - t i o n be tween l a w , s t a t e and s o c i e t y i n t h e c o n t e x t of t h e deve lopmen t a n d s t r u g g l e s of t h e w o r k i n g c l a s s i n t h e Tanz: i a m a i n l a n d . I t c o v e r s f o u r d e c a d e s f rom t h e p e r i o d when t h e l a b o u r f o r c e w a q p r edominan t - i y

s e m i - p r o l e t a r i a n t o t h e l a t e c o l o n i a l and e a r l y p o s t - c o l o n i a l p e r i o d wh ich saw t h e r i s e and f a l l of one of t h e s t r o n g e s t t r a d e u n i o n move- m e n t s i n A f r i c a . (54B T h o r n h i l l S q u a r e , I s l i n g t o n , London M1 lBE, LX).

. L o t h a r C a v i e z e l , T a n z a n i e : S t r a t r i g i e d e developpernent a g r o - i n d u s - c r i e l e t s e s c o n s e q u e n c e s i n t e r n e s e t e x t e r n e s (Gengve: E d i t i o n d ' a u - t e u r , mimeo, 1985) 807pp . L ' a u t - e u r , a p r g s a v o i r p a s s e 3 annGes e n Tanza- n i e (1977-80 ) , 6 t u d i e s a strategic a g r o - i n d u s t r i e l l e . Une a p p r o c h e s y s - t 6mique a p e r m i s u n e a n a l y s e c o m p l e t e d e c e q u ' o n a a p p e l e " I e rnodsle t a n z a n i e n " . L ' h ; fpo thSse s e l o n l a q u e l l e l e s d i f f i c u l t e s r e n c o n t r e e s p a r l a p o l i t i q ~ i e de deve loppemen t 6conornique a g r o - i n d u s t r i e l l e e n T a n z a n i e d e p u i s 1972 s o n t d a v a n t a g e d ' o r i g i n e i n t e r n e q u e d ' o r i g i n e e x t e r n e , e s - s e n t i e l l e m e n t d u e s 2 u n e p r i s e e n compte i n s u f f i s a n t e d e l ' e n v i r o n n e r ' i e n t g e o g r a p h i q u e , demograph ique , s o c i o - c u l t u r e l , p o l i t i c o - a d m i n i s t r a t i f , s e t r o u v e demon t r ee a u t e r m e du t r a v a i l . L ' a u t e u r s ' e s t b a s e s u r u n e i n f o r - m a t i o n a b o n d a n t e - on n ' e n e s t que p l u s s u r p r i s que n e t i g u r e n t p a s d a n s La r i c h e bibliographic l e s t r a v a u x d e J u s t i n i a n F. Rwevemamu, e t notam- rnent- L'nderdevelopment and I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n T a n z a n i a , A S t u d y o f P e r - v e r s e C a p i t a l i s t I n d u s t r i a l Deve lopmen t ( N a i r o b i : Oxfo rd U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1973) 273pp e t "The F o r m u l a t i o n o f a n I n d u s t r i a l S t r a t e g y f o r T a n z a n i a " , A f r i c a Development (Vo l .VI , N o l , J a n u a r y - A p r i l 1981) pp.5-18 (BP 1974 , Bujumbura , B u r u n d i ) .

. B.J . T e r w i e l ( e d . ) , Development I s s u e s i n T h a i l a n d ( B i h a r : C e n t r e f o r S o u t h E a s t A s i a n S t u d i e s , 1984) 236pp. T h i s book i n c l u d e s n i n e pa- p e r s p r e s e n t e d a t t h e F i r s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e on T h a i S t u d i e s , 1981 , New D e l h i . T h e s e p a p e r s o f f e r a s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r o - b l e m s f a c e d b y p o l i c y p l a n n e r s i n T h a i l a n d . A u s e f u l s o u r c e o f i n fo rma- t i o n f o r s t u d e n t s and r e s e a r c h e r s . (Ramsagar Road, Gaya 823001 , B i h a r , I n d i a ) .

. J . Bandyopadhyay, N . D . J a y a l , U. S c h e t t l i and C h h a t r a p a t i S i n g h , I n d i a ' s Env i ronmen t : C r i s e s and R e s p o n s e s (Dehra Dun: N a t r a j P u b l i s h e r s , 1985) 309pp. Development p o l i c y i n t h e T h i r d World had . u n t i l r e c e n t l y . . - f o c u s s e d e x c l u s i v e l y on p l a n n i n g f o r economic g r o w t h , s i n c e i t was a s - sumed t o b e synonymous w i t h economic d e v e l o p m e n t . I n c r e a s i n g l y howeve r , i t i s b e i n g e x p e r i e n c e d t h a t economic g rowth c a n n o t l e a d t o deve lopmen t i f i t i s d e s t r u c t i v e t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s book i s a c o l l e c t i o n of p a p e r s s e l e c t e d f rom a s e r i e s o f s i x s e m i n a r s on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l c r i s e s h e l d d u r i n g 1984 i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f I n d i a . ( R a j p u r Road, Dehra Dun, I n d i a ) , US519.95.

REGIONAL SPACE

. J i r l T e x l e r , E n v i r o n m e n t a l H a z a r d s i n T h i r d World Development (Kul- t u r a , 1986) 48pp . (FOB 149 , 1389 B u d a p e s t , Hunga ry ) .

. Essam El-Hinnawi , E n v i r o n m e n t a l Re fugees ( N a i r o b i : UNEP, 1 9 8 5 ) 4 l p p .

. AMPS, L ' e x p l o s i o n u r b a i n e : Chaos ou m a i t r i s e ? (Geneve: 'JNITAR, 1985) 244pp. P o u r s a p r e m i e r e s e m a i n e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s d e p r o s p e c t i v e so- . . . . c i a l e , r e u n i e 5 GenZve e n novembre 1984 , s o u s l e s a u s p i c e s d e 19UNITAR, 1'AMPS a p o r t 6 l ' e x p l o s i o n u r b a i n e 2 s o n o r d r e du j o u r . AprGs a v o i r e t a -

b l i un d i a g n o s t i c a c c a b l a n t , l e s p a r t i c i p a n t s o n t r e c h e r c h e d e s s o l u - t i o n s . Ce l i v e p r e s e n c e c e t t e a n a l y s e e t c e s t h c 5 r ~ p e u t i q u e s . ( P a l a i s d e s ,.. , i d t i o n ? , 1 2 1 1 Gengve 1 0 , S u i s s e ) .

. ?iuh3mlad Xumaihi , Beyond O i l : h i t ; ; 8 9eve iopmen t i n t h e GuLf (Le?- don: A1 S a q i Books , 1986) 156pp . Dur ing t h e p a s t two d e c a d e s t h e Arab Gu l f h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s f o r m e d . O i l h a s b r o u g h t und reamt of p r o s - p e r i t y t o t h i s v a s t b u t t h i n l y popuLa ted r e g i o n , once a b a c k w a t e r b u t now a t t h e f o r e f r o n t o f w o r l d p o l i t i c s . The f u t u r e seems a s s u r e d , y e t . . . Beyond O i l l o o k s a t t h e Arab Gu l f c o u n t r i e s . A s u r v e y of s o c i a l and economic l i f e b e f o r e t h e d i s c o v e r y of o i l i s f o l l o w e d by a c r i t i c a l a s s e s s - ment o f t h e p a s t twen ty y e a r s . Look ing b e h i n d t h e a p p a r e n t s t a b i l i t y , Muhammad Rumaihi a r g u e s t h a t p o l i t i c a l u n i t y t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n i s e s s e n t i a l i f g e n u i n e s o c i a l and economic deve lopmen t i s t o b e a c h i e v e d . (26 Wes tbou rne Grove , London W2 5RH, LX).

. L a u r e n c e Deonna, La g u e r r e 2 deux v o i x (Gencve: Labor e t F i d e s , 1986) 280pp. La g u e r r e a u f e rn in in . La g u e r r e s u b i e p a r d e s femmes d ' I s r a 5 l e t d e s f e m e s d ' E g y p t e q u i m 'on t l i v r 6 l e u r v i e , chacune d e s o n c o t e , c h a c u n e d a n s s o n camp. Un r e p o r t a g e r e l i a n t d e s femmes q u i f u r e n t ennemies e t q u i n e s e s o n t j a m a i s r e n c o n t r e e s , q u i n e s e r e n c o n t r e r o n t s a n s d o u t e j a m a i s . J e donne i c i l e u r v r a i s noms. J e l e s a i meme pho to - g r a p h i e e s . Ce document n ' e s t p a s un roman. C ' e s t du v e c u . Ce s o n t p l u s d e 25 a n s d ' h i s t o i r e r e c e n t e 6 c l a i r 6 e a u t r e r n e n t . Ce n ' e s t p a s 1 2 l e l i v - r e d e s d r a p e a u x b i e n r e p a s s e s . C ' e s t l e l i v r e d e s d r a p e a u x l i n c e u l . E t d e l a r e v o l t s .

. Luc B a r b u l e s c o e t P h i l i p p e C a r d i n a l , L ' I s l a m e n q u e s t i o n s , V ing t - q u a t r e 6 c r i v a i n s a r a b e s r e p o n d e n t ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s G r a s s e t , 1986) 280pp.

. A l b e r t T 6 v o e d j r 6 , L e s d r o i t s d e l 'homme e t l a d e m o c r a t i c e n A f r i q u e (Tokyo: UNr), 1986 ) 29pp.

. Hanne C h r i s t e n s e n , R e f u g e e s and P i o n e e r s : H i s t o r y and F i e l d S tudy of a B u r u n d i a n S e t t l e m e n t i n T a n z a n i a (Geneva: UNRISD, 1985) 144pp.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union o f Food & A l l i e d Worke r s ' A s s o c i a t i o n s , The - Labour Movement i n T r o p i c a l A f r i c a - I t s B e g i n n i n g s (1986) 37pp. (Rampe d u Pont-Rouge 8 , 1213 P e t i t - L a n c y , Geneva , S w i t z e r l a n d ) .

. P a u l D. R a s k i n , "LEAP: A D e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e LDC Energy A l t e r n a t i v e s P l a n n i n g System", Ene rgy , Env i ronmen t a n d Development i n A f r i c a (Scan- d i n a v i a n I n s t i t u t e of A f r i c a n S t u d i e s , N08, 1986) 149pp.

. L i g i a B o l i v a r , Hugo F r u h l i n g , Morna Mac leod , Myriam W a i s e r , S i t u a - c i 6 n d e l a education p a r a 10s d e r e c h o s humanos e n America L a t i n a y e l C a r i b e ( S a n t i a g o : CEAAL, 1986) 214pp.

GLOBAL SPACE

. I n t e r g o v e r n m e n t a l O c e a n o g r a p h i c Commiss ion, IOC Manual ( R e v i s e d e d i t i o n , December 1985) 173pp. (UNESCO, P a r i s , F r a n c e ) .

. Yats Harn.arstrom, m Resources by Force : The Xeed f o r Raw Y a t e r i a l s and N i l i t a r y I n t e r v e n t i o n by Plajor Powers i n Less D e v e l ~ d - " ~

L . ' anc r ies (Unpsala , Report ? 2 7 , 1586) 183pp. (Dept . of Peace and CJK- flier r e s e a r c h , L'ppsala L ' n i v e r s l t y , F O B 2 7 8 , 751 05 Uppsala , Sweden).

. M E ? , Radiat ior . : Doses, E f f e c t s , R i sks ( N a i r o b i , 1985) 6 4 ~ ~ . The n i t e d Nat ions S c i e n t i f i c C o m z i t ~ e e on t h e E f f e c t s of Atomic R a d i a t i o n (L'NSCEAR) c o l l e c t s a v a i l a b l e ev idence on t h e s a u r c e s and a f f e c t s of ra- d i a t i o n a ~ d e v a l u a t e s i t . I t b r i n g s t o g e t h e r l e a d i n g s c i e n t i s t s from 20 c o u n t r i e s 2nd i.s one of t h e most a u t h o r i t a t i v e b o d i e s of i t s k ind i n t h e world. T h i s b o o k l e t i s an a t t e m p t t o summarize t h e most up- to -da te n a t e - r i a l fron. t h e r e p o r t s f o r t h e g e n e r a l r e a d e r . But i t i s no s u b s t i t i i t e f o r <he r e p o r t s themse lves . (FOB 30552 , N a i r o b i , Kenya).

. Robert Repet.to, -- World Enough and Time: S u c c e s s f u l S t r a t e g i e s f o r Resource Manzgercent (Washington: 'world Resources I n s t i t u t e , 1986) 147pp. -- -- '. f r e s h look a c what has gone r i g h t i n r e s o u r c e management i n r e c e n t y e a r s . ),. ~ e a l t l i of f a c t s and a n a l y s e s h a s been packed i n t o a l i t t l e more char. 1Â° pages . i i 7 3 5 New York Avenue, N W , Washington, DC 200C6, USA) .

. Ek:iiLppe Kore1, Nord-Sud: Les e c j e u x du d6veloppement ( P a r i s : Syros , 1986) 2G9pp. Les i d e e s s u r l e d6veloppemer.t s o n t a u j o u r d ' h u i b r o u i l l 6 e s : a p o l o g i e d e s "noaveaux pays i n d u s t r i e l s " a u Sud e t d ' u n li- b s r a i i s m e o a l v a t e u r au Nord, d e c l i n d e s u t o p i e s s o c i a l i s t e a , g e s t i o n l a b o r i e u s e d ' u n e c r i s e i n t e r m i n a b l e ou encore " f i n du d6velopperaent", a u t a n t d ' images , de r e a l i t 6 s q u i s e t6ltZscopenc.. . S i I e d i s c o u r s con- tempoi-'+in peut a i n a i p r o s p e r e r s u r d e s c l i c h e s 2 l a node e t s u r des dog- mes pgrimes, c ' e s t en s e fondan t s u r une t r i p l e amnesic. Oublige I ' h i s - t o i r e q u i r e d i s t r i b u e l e s c a r t e s au p r o f i t d e s uns e t au d e t r i m e n t des a u t r e s , q u i d6possSae l e s peup les de l e u r s c a p a c i t e s autonomes 2 e t r e e t 2 f a i r e . Passee sous s i l e n c e l a m o n d i a l i s a t i o n economique q u i s t r u c t u r e l e s in te rdgpendances e n t r e n a t i o n s e t e n t r a v e l a recherche d e m o d a l i t e s o r i g i n a l e s d e developpement ou de s u r v i e c o l l e c t i v e . Reprimee l a ques- t i o n du s e n s 2 a c c o r d e r 2 l ' e n t r e p r i s e promCth6enne du developpemer-t c e l l e q u i l ' o n t concue l.es c u l t u r e s o c c i d e n t a i e s . En dec2 d e s s l o g a n s , c e l i v r e nous r e n v o i e aux f a i t s : a s s e r v i s s e m e n t d e s peup les aux objec- t i f s p r o d u c t i v i s t e s , e x p r o p r i a t i o n d e s autonomies p o p u l a i r e s , i n t e g r a - t i o n o b l i g a t o i r e d e s i n d i v i d u s c o m e t r a v a i l l e u r s peu ou p a s reconi'iiis... ( 6 , r u e Montmartre , 75001 P a r i s , F r a n c e ) .

. C h r i s t i a n Comeliau, Mythes e t e s p o i r s du tiers-non- ( P a r i s : ' H a r m a t t a n , 1986) 185pp. Le developpement n ' e s t - i l qu 'un mythe, une i l l u s i o n ? La c o o p 6 r a t i o n au developpement, e s t - e l l e a u t r e chose qu 'une i y p o c r i s i e , une e s c r o q u e r i e ou l e p r o d u i t d ' u n e mauvaise consc ience q u i ne s e r a i t p l u s de rnise? Au-del i d e s q u e r e l l e s s u r l e " t iers-mondisme", au-de l2 du mim6tisme que l ' o n v o u d r a i t imposer aux pays du T i e r s Monde, c e t ouvrage propose une double r e f l e x i o n c r i t i q u e . Sur lÂ dCveloppen~ent p r o d u c t i v i s t e e t marchand, d ' a b o r d , q u i s ' 6 t e n d peu 2 peu 2 l ' e n s e m b l e d e l a p l a n g t e . Sur l a c o o p e r a t i o n au developpement , e n s u i t e , s e s motiva- t i o n ~ r s e l l e s e t s e s i l l u s i o n s d ' e f f i c a c i t e . Mais l a c r i t i q u e n ' e s t pas purement n e g a t i v e : e l l e r e c h e r c h e l e s o r i e n t a t i o n s p o s s i b l e s pour de nouveaux cho ix de s o c i e t e s , un a u t r e developpement , une c o o p e r a t i o n d i f - f e r e n t e . Une c o o p e r a t i o n q u i o f f r e a i n s i , en d e f i n i t i v e , une o c c a s i o n

e x c e p t i o n n e l l e d e r e s s o u r c e r i e n t de ; i ~ t r e e u l c u r e . ( 7 r'-u> Le ! ' h c c l i i P P - technique. 75005 P a r i - - . , F r a n c e ) .

Da-,.iJ ' d e : ~ , ?&t~-F?>?al Syi~L:-*jce: I J ~ x s t i c i d e X a n u f a ~ t u r ~ n g and t h e Th i rd World (.Pe-13%- 'u~,l:, LJFif,) l i 7 p p . I r Decei".bsr 1 9 8 4 . t h e w o r l d was -- s t u n n e d by ;he k ' o r s t i n c u s t r i a l a ce ideT i t ; i n h i s t c r y , A runaway c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n a t a L'nion ~ c ' i ~ b i c l e pe s tn ; i . . i - p1ar.t i n E h o p a l , I n d i a , k i - l l e d a b o u t 2 , 5 0 0 p e o p l e and i n j u r e d 2'.1O,G00 more , ma:ly f c r L i f e . Can Bhopa l happen a g a i n ? The a n s w e r s i n t h i s book a r e d i s t u r b i n g i n d e f d . Through per : jor ia l in:#'-r'.'ie'ds and eyt 'wi t r .ess d e s c r i p t l L - ' n s , h e i r Jocuir.ents how t h e r e d d of p e s t i c i d e t e c h n o l o b y t h r e a t e n s t ~ o n m ~ n i t i e s and w o r k e r s a r o u n d t h e w o r l d . I n B r a z i l , r e s i d e n t ' , l i v i n g ne.ir a gl-inl: c h e m i c a l c o a p l e x iwned by t h e w o r i d ' s l a r g e s t p e s t i c i d e c o r p o r a t i o : ~ say t h e a i r and t h e r i v e r t u r n s r e d . The o n l y ea'?rgi.;ncy p r o c e d u r e t n e v know LS L o L O O K - a t w i n d s o L k s hung a r o u n d t h e compkex C O f i n d cut: which way t o r u n . I n Indo - n e s i a , a D D T p l a n t b u r n s I t s w a s t e a t n i g h t . V i l l a g e r s l i v i n g n e a r b y s a y 25 of t t~ t ' : r n e i g h b o u r s d i e d d u r i n g a. r e c e n t f i i ne -non rh p e r i o d f rom i n - h a l i n g t h e smoke. From Egypt ti-, l a ~ w a n , Â£ro i Guatemala t o Zimbabwe, s i - m i l a r s t o r i e s eL;erpe. Zut a:; t h i s book shows , b y v f ~ n i s i n g f o r r i g h t - to-know l e g i , - : i i ' l t i o n , f ree' icm-of-iri! .crr 'at i o n i a w s , a i t e r n & ~ i v c p e a t con- t r o l me thods and o t h e r s t r a t e g i e s , c i t i z e r a can s t o p "The Bophal Syn- d r o n e " . (POP. i G ' t 5 , " e ~ a n g L ! h 3 0 , Mc~"Laysia) L ' S S 4 . 9 5 ? e r copy by :?'amail.

T h r e e r e c e n t r e p o r t s f rom t n e U N L e n t r e on T r a n s n a t i o n c i l Corp. ) r i l - t i o n s ( U n i t e d t . a t i o n s , hew York, U S A ) :

, W An:alys is of Z n g i n e e r i ~ s and T s ~ h n i c a l A s s i . s t a n c e C o n s u l t a n c V Con- t r a c t s , 517pp.

. N a t i o n a l L e g i s l a t i o n a n d Regdla:i.ons R e l a t i n g pp-p- t o T r a n s n a E i o n a I Cor- p o r a t i o n s , 2 4 6 ~ ~ .

. T r a n s n a t i o n a l C o r p o r a t i o n s i n t h e I n d u s t r i a l Semiconduc t.>r l n d u s - --p

J t , 4 7 l p p ~

. - P o u r un c o m e r c e > u i t a b l e a v e c l e T i s r s Xonde (198b) 3Opp. ( S w i s s a i J , 49 r u e d e Bourg, 1003 Lausanne , S u i s s e ) .

. L e c l a n a n d a d e S i l v a , We igh ted S c a l e s : Emerging T r a d e I s s u e s Viewed i n a Nor th -Sou th C o n t e x t (Geneva: NGLS, 1986) 36pp. ( P a l a i s d e s N a t i o n s , 1211 Geneva S O , S h - i t z e r l a n d ) .

. CANES, -!$estLG e t l e s p a y s a n s -----p du T i e r s Monde: G e s p r o p o s i t i o n s , 34pp. (Case p c s t a i e , 1261 T r e l e x , S u i s s e ) .

T - . ~,>~T.L?z:(,II a u ; a r t ac;-.arLa! d.+r~s ' . e ~ p r o j e t s d e d 6 v e l o p n ~ m e n t , - - 5 6 - m i n a i r e d Bouai-, R6pubLique C e i i t r a t r i c a i n e , 17-Zb j a n v i e r 1986 , lOLpp. (r'GCSIV, Via S t r a d e l 1 . i 1 0 , 2 0 1 2 9 M i l a n o , I t a l i e ) . . d t m a r H u i l , O s c e r r e i c h i s c h e E n t w i c k l u n g s h i l f e 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 s : K r i t i s c h e . A n a l v s e u,;d i n t e r n a t i o n a l e r - - . - V e r g l e i c h p (Wilhelm B r a u m u l l e r , 1986) 187pp (Ges.m.b.H. 'L"-12 Wien, O s t e r r e i c : ~ ) .

. Hilciegard Schi ir ings ( r e d . ) , Pddagogik: D r i t t e K e l t ( F r a n k f u r t : IKO V e r l a g , Yearbook 1985) 229pp. ( P o s t t a c h 900965, 6000 F r a n k f u r t 9 0 , F R G ) .

. L i b e r a t i o n des p e u p l e s , a u t o d 6 t e n n i n a t i o n e t r e s p o n s a b i l i t i ? ~ i n t e r - n a t i o n a l e s (Samur: L ' n i v e r s i t 6 ae P a i x , 1986) 177pp. Ces t e x t e s t r a i t a n t de l a p r o b l g n a t i q u e des l i b e r a t i o n s d e s p e u p l e s , a u t o d 6 t e r m i n a t i o n e t r e s p o s a b i l i t e s i n t e r n a t i o n a l e s s o n t I e r e s u l t a t d ' u n e S e s s i o n I n t e r n a - l i o n a l e , r 6 a l i s e e s u r ce theme 2 Caracas du 19 au 26 mars 1985. U s s o n t t r a n s c r i t s dans l e s 3 l angues u t i l i s e e s d l a S e s s i o n : a n g l a i s , e s p a g n o l , f r a n e a i s . (Bd. du Kord 4 , 5000 Samur, B e l g i q u e ) .

PERIODICALS

. A f r i q u e e t d6ve loppement /Af r ica Development (Vol.X, No&, 1985): " I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n i n A f r i c a " (BP 3304, Dakar , S e n e g a l ) .

. A i r p l a n ( ? 2 , 1986): "Cubatao, a n Environmental Time Bomb" (Ai r P o l l u t i o n Act ion Network, FOB 5627, 1007 AP Amsterdam, The N e t h e r l a n d s ) .

. A l i r a n (Vol .VI, N o l , 1986): "Malaysian Women Toddy: B e t t e r o r worse?" (FOB 1049, 11950 Pulau P inang , M a l a y s i a ) .

. A l t e r n a t i v e s w a 1 . 1 0 ~ (N041, 1986): "Le mouvement c o o p e r a t i f en F landre" (Avenue Genera l Michel 1 B, 6000 C h a r l e r o i , B e l g i q u e ) .

. B a l a i (N014, 1986) : "Working C h i l d r e n i n Asia: F a c t s and F a n t a s i e s " (FOB 3M-366, Mani la , P h i l i p p i n e s ) ,

. B u l l e t i n Cr idev (?53, 1986): "Nouvel les t e c h n o l o g i e s e t T i e r s Mon- de" (47 avenue J a n v i e r , 35100 Rennes, F r a n c e ) .

, B u l l e t i n du Forum du T i e r s Monde (bureau a f r i c a i n ) / B u l l e t i n of t h e Th i rd World Forum ( A f r i c a n o f f i c e ) , N06, A p r i l 1986. Le B u l l e t i n e s t desormais imprime - c e q u i l e rend p l u s maniab le . Au sommaire, Samir Amin ( " E t a t , n a t i o n , e t h n i e e t m i n o r i t e dans l a c r i s e " , p. 1 6 ) . As from t h e p r e s e n t N06, t h e B u l l e t i n assumes a new, b e t t e r , p r i n t e d fo rmat . T h i s i s s u e i n c l u d e s Mahmood Mamdani ("The A g r a r i a n Ques t ion and t h e De- m o c r a t i c S t r u g g l e - w i t h s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e t o Uganda", p . 8 (BP 3501, Dakar, S e n e g a l ) .

. C a p i t u l o s (?11, 1986): "Los d e s a f l o s d e l SELA a n t e America L a t i n a " (Tor re Eurcpa, P i s o 4 , AV. F.de Miranda, C h a c a l t o , Caracas , Venezue la ) .

. CEPAL Review (N027, 1986): "Fore ign P o l i c y and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Finan- c i a l N e g o t i a t i o n s : The E x t e r n a l Debt and t h e Car tagena Consensus" by J o r g e Eduardo N a v a r r e t e ; " E x t e r n a l d e b t : Why d o n ' t o u r governments do t h e obv ious?" by Guil lermo O'Donne11; "Twenty-five y e a r s of t h e I n t e r - American Development Bank" by F e l i p e H e r r e r a ( U N , S a n t i a g o , C h i l e ) . .

. Chamiza ( ~ ' 1 3 , 1986): "For que F r e i r e . . . ? " (CEDEC, C a s i l l a 906-A, Q u i t o , ~ c u a d o r ) .

. E l Correo de S o l a g r a l ( N o l , 1986). Selection en c a s t e l l a n o d e a r t i - c u l o s p u b l i c a d o s por l a r e v i s t a f r a n c e s a "La L e t t r e de ~ o l a ~ r a l " , E l

C o r r e o p ropone c a d a dos meses a r t i c u l o s e i n f o n n e s d e s t i n a d o s a 1 0 s a c - t o r e s d e l d e s a r r 0 1 1 0 r u r a l e n 10s p a i s e s d e l N o r t e c d e l S u r . (3 r u e F r a n c o i s B i z e t t e , 35000 Re rmes , F r a n c i a ) .

. C u l t u r a l F u t u r e s R e s e a r c h ( V o l . V I I 1 , ? 3 , 1 9 8 4 ) : "Video V a l u e s Ed:;- c a t i o n : S t a r Ire'/, a s Modern Myth" by M a r l e n e H. G o l d s m i t h (Box 1 5 2 0 0 , N o r t h e r n A r i z o n a L ' n i v e r s i t y , F l a g s t a f f , AZ 86011 , USA).

. C u l t u r a l S u r v i v a l Q u a r t e r l y (Vo l .10 , ? l , 1 9 8 6 ) : " M u l t i l a t e r a l ~ a n k s a n d I n d i g e n o u s P e o p l e s : Development o r D e s t r u c t i o n ? " (11 D i v i n i t y Avenue, Cambr idge , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , USA).

. Development and P e a c e ( V o l . 1 , ? l , 1 9 8 6 ) : "East -West and S o r t h - S o u t h R e l a t i o n s : Disarmament and NIEO o r F u r t h e r Negative-Sum-Game'!" by Tamis S z e n t e s ; "Needs and D e s i r e s : A New Approach t o Consumpt ion Ana lys - is" by I s m a i l - S a b r i A b d a l l a ; " N a t i o n a l Development i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld : An H i s t o r i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e " by A t t i l a Agh ( H u n g a r i a n P e a c e C o u n c i l , FOB 1 3 9 5 , B u d a p e s t , Hunga ry ) .

. E a r t h s c a n P r e s s B r i e f i n g Document 4 3 , 1986: "No P l a c e t o H ide : Nu- c l e a r W i n t e r and t h e T h i r d World" (3 E n d s l e i g h S t . , L o n d o n WC1H ODD, U K ) .

. The E c o l o s (V01.16, N 0 2 / 3 , 1 9 8 6 ) : "Banking on D i s a s t e r : I ndone - s i a ' s T r a n s m i g r a t i o n Programme" ( W o r t h y v a l e Manor, C a m e l f o r d , C o r n w a l l PL32 9TT, U K ) .

. E c o n m i a y d e s a r r o l l o (No88 , 1985) : "Sobre l a r e g i o n a l i z a c i 6 : i e co - -- n 6 a i c a y l a p1a : : i t i c ac iSn t e r r i t o r i a l " p e r M a r t i a E. D e b r o s s e y R o s a l i a M a r t i n e z ( C a l l e 33 , NO1421 e / 14 y 1 8 , Mar i anao 1 3 , Habana, Cuba ) .

. - ia l - M u j e ~ ( 1 9 8 6 ) : "Mujer j oven" ( I L E T , C a s i l l a 16-637, Cor- r e o 9 , S a n t i a g o , C h i l e ) .

. F o r e i g n A f f a i r s ( S p r i n g , 1 9 8 6 ) : "The C h i l e a n Road t o Democracy" by Edgdrdo B o e n i n g e r , pp .812-832.

. F u t u r i b l e s (N098 , 1 9 8 b ) : "Economic d e s a c t i v i t e s c r i m i n e l l e s e n I t a l i e " p a r Dominique Bonnafe (55 r u e d e Varennc , 75341 P a r i s , F r a n c e ) .

. H a b i t a t ( G o 1 , N02 /3 , 1 9 8 6 ) : " R e f l e x i o n e s s o b r e e c o l o g i a , a l i a n z a d e c l a s e s y c r i s i s d e l a s o c i e d a d domin icana" p o r Amparo Chan tadd (Apdo p o s t a l 21886, S a n t o Domingo, Republics Dominicans).

. Hai News (N027, 1 9 8 6 ) : "An I r r a t i o n a l Drug P o l i c y " by Mi ra s h i v a (TOCU, FOB 1045 , Penang , M a l a y s i a ) .

. Homines ( V o l . 1 0 , ? l , 1 9 8 6 ) : "En busqueda de une s o c i o - h i s t o r i a econ6mica d e l a m u s i c a p u e r t o r r i g u e s a , a p r o p 6 s i t o d e "La V e i l o n e r a e s t 5 d i r e c t a " p o r S y l i v a E . Arocho V e l a s q u e z ; "Towards a n a n a l y s i s of P u e r t o R i c a n women and t h e i n f o r m a l economy" by J a n i c e P e t r o v i c h and S a n d r a L a u r e a n o ( A p a r t a d o 1293 , H a t o Rey, 00919 P u e r t o R i c o ) .

. Impac t o f S c i e n c e on S o c i e t y (N0140, 1 9 8 5 ) : "Examining a Blue-Green Gem" (L'NESCO, 7 p l a c e d e F o n t e n o y , 75800 P a r i s , F i -d :~cd ) .

. I n d i a n Jo l l rnd l of A d u l t L 'ducat ior . ( V o i . 4 7 , S " ? - - ? , 138';): V'-zceed- P---

g ; of t h e 3 8 t h A i i I n d i a Adult- E d u c a t i o n Cpr.ferer.ce on '?.!.~.ss ' l o v e r a n t o r A d u l t ducati ion" (17-B, I n d r a p r a s t h a E s t . , New Delhi. 110 002; Indi-i ' l

. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour R e p o r t s ( ~ ' 1 5 , 1986) : " h o r k e r s L i n e Vp Â ¥ - \ g d i q i GM"; "The T i n D i s a s t e r " ; "100 Y e a r s of ?:ay Day"; "Hov :he L'S riu':? A f r i - c a Unions" ( 2 1 4 Oxfo rd Road. M d n c h e s t e r M1 5uA, LK).

. t n f o m . e ' R ' ( ~ ' l l - i , 1986) : " C r e p S s c u l o d e l ir .ovimiento o b r d r o ? " p i r -- J o r g e L a z a r r e ( C a s i l l a de c o r r e o s 2 0 1 9 4 , La P a z , S o l i v i a ) .

. I W G 1 A 2 e ~ s l e ' - : e ~ (N"45, 1 9 8 6 ) : with a r t i c l e s and n o t e s o n , among o t h e r s , B e l i z e , E o l i - - i a , B r a z i l , G r e e n l a n d , tndr- i , I n d o n e s i a and P e r u . F i o l s t r a e u e 10 , 1171 Copenhagen K , D e n n a r k ) .

. -.-p K a s ~ r i n l a n (Vo l . 1 , N"3, 1986) : " L e a p f r o g g i n g '-hi. S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h ~ o l o g i c a l Cap: ,>.I A i t e r n a t i v e N a t i o n a l S t r a t e g ' . ;'or Ma: t e r ing t1.e F u t u r e " by Roger Po - - adas ; " T r a n s n a t i o n a l i z i E i o n , tht> G l o b a l > f ~ i - j snd F o r e i g n Deb t . The P h i l i p p i n e E x p e r i e n c e " b y R.inJol / 3 . David (FOB 212, ' J n i v e r s j t v o f t h e P h i l i p p i n e s , D i l i m a n , Quezon C i t y , P h i l i p p i n e s ) .

. L e L t r e .- -. d e 1 , i a i s o n ( ~ ' 1 , 1985-86) : "La p e r m a c u l t u r e e t I ' a g r i c u l t u r e n a t u r e i l e " (Ass . Las E n c a n t a d a s , 11300 B o u r r i e g e , F r a n c e ) .

. La L e t t r e di' S o l a g r a J (N0'+9, 1 9 8 6 ) : 'l:-!exique: ?P'- n c r i r i e i h de Zcpaca f a c e a 1 ' M a t " ( j r u e i ' rani ,o is B i z e t C e . 35C'OC f.zr!r'!t.'1s, F r a n c e ) .

. Lokayan B u l l e t i n (N04/1, 1 9 8 6 ) : "The Con_~~u; .~ , . - i l V i iu t : ^ h e P r o b J e n of R e s e r v a t i o n s " by D.L. S h e t h a n d " ~ d i v a s i s , Law and % c i c i l .iu.s?i.:uU by :.hr.3rad K u l k a r n i ( 1 3 A l i p u r Road, New D e l h i 11: 05-'., I n d i a ) .

. Himar (N019, 1986) : "Segic . 'na l i s i r and A r c h i t e c t u r a l 1 , J e n t i t y V ( 1 Grange Road, 05-11/12, O r c h a r d B u i l d i n g , S i n g a p o r e 0923, ' .

. Minka (t!'18-1Y, 1986 ; : " C u i c i v y r e c u l t i v o " (Grupo T a l p u y , A p a r t a - do 111, Huancayo, P e r u ) .

. Monthly R e v i z ( V o L . 3 7 , N09, 1 9 8 6 ) ; " T h i r d World Debt" b> H a r r y Magdoff (155 West 23 rd S t r e e t , New York , N Y 1001!, USA).

. Mult i .na t iona1. M o n i t o r ( 7 0 1 . 7 , Nn8 , 1 9 8 6 ) : "Oil, P o l i t i c s and t h e P u r s u i t o f P r o f i t s " (PUB 1 9 i 0 5 , Wash ing ton , D'; 20036, U S A ) .

. New O p t i o n s (N028, 1986; : " A l t e r n a t i v e t o T e r r o r i s m : S i d i u g With t h e W o r l d ' s Poor" (PUB 19324 , Wash ing ton , DC 20036 , USA).

. NW-Ind ia ( l 9 8 b ) : News f rom F i e l d s a n d Sls!ms i c I n d i a i s a ~ o n t , ? l y s e r v i c e f o r s u p p l y i n g a r t i c l e s and news on t h e i m p a r t o f deve lopmen t p l a n s , p r o j e c t s and p o l i c i e s on t':ie p o o r e s t s e c t " - o r s of T n d i p n =nc'Iety. F o r d e t a i l s c o n t a c t B h a r a t Dogra , D-7, Raksna Kun j , Pasct;int V i h a r , New D e l h i 110 0 6 3 , I n d i a .

. N e w s l e t t e r B ina Swadaya, C o r n u n i t y S e l f R e l i a n c e Development Agency t,N02, 1 9 8 6 ) : " I n d o n e s i a ' s T r a n s m i g r a t i o n Program" ( J d l a n Gtinungs Si-ihari 11117 , J a k a r t a P u s a t , 10610 , I n d o n e s i a ) .

. Notas de CLAEH (N041, 1985): "Pollticas sociales y proyecto alternative" (Casilla Postal 5021, Montevideo, Uruguay).

. Novos estudos (N014, 1986): "Modernidade e revolucao" (CEBPAP, rua Morgado Mateus 615, Sao Paulo SP 04015, Brasil).

. OAPEC Monthly Bulletin (Vol.12, ?5, 1986): "Arab Engineering Finns - A Key to Self-Sustaining Development" (FOB 20501, Safat, Kuwait).

. Peace News for Nonviolent Revolution (N02269, 1986): "After Cher- nobyl, Where Next?" (8 Elm Avenue, Nottingham 3, LK).

. Pensamiento Iberoamericano (No8, 1985): "Agricultura, Procesos y Pollticas". El tema central de esta edici6n de Pensamiento Iberoameri- cano, es la agricultura. Como es habitual, el contenido incluye analisis - desde la perspectiva latinoamericana, espaiiola y portugesa. Los trabajos latinoamericanos permiten perfilar el cuadro general y algunos de sus problemas sobresalientes, tales como la seguridad alimentaria, las eco- nomlas campesinas, el proceso de trasnacionalizaci6n y la modernization del sector. Estos aspectos se complementan con el analisis de algunos palses representatives: Argentina, Brasil y Colombia. Los trabajos es- pasoles analizan, por un lado, 10s cambios estructurales de la agricultura (1940-80). examinando criticamente 10s proyectos de reforms agraria, especialmente en Andalucla, y la polltica agraria y sus efectos sociales desde el primer plan de desarrollo espanol (1964-68) hasta nuestros dias. (Avenida de 10s Reyes Catolicos 4, 28040 Madrid, Espafia).

. Polftica y sociedad (ND17, 1985): "Los Proyectos politicos econ6mi- cos de 10s candidates presidenciales en Guatemala" por Hugo Re& Silva Abrego (Apdo Postal 2662, Ciudad de Guatemala, Guatemala CA).

. Politique aujourd'hui (?14, 1986): "Nouvelles technologies et relations de travail en Europe" (19 rue Jacob, 75006 Paris, France).

. Public Enterprise (Vol.6, ?2, 1986): "Organisation Development and National Culture in Four Countries" by P. Marsh and V. Kreadc; "Econo- mics of Self-Management, Self-Managed Enterprises and Public Enter- prises" by A. Vahcic and T. Petrin; "Performance of Public Enterprises in India: Impact of Heavy External Finance" by G. Venkata Chalam (FOB 92, 61109 Ljubljana, Yugoslavia).

. :uehacer (N040, 1986): Pablo Mi1anes:"La inspiracih es hija del teson , entrevista de Jose Maria Salcedo (AV. Salaverry 1945, Lima 14, Perii) . . Revista Universidad EAFIT ( N 0 5 9 , 1985): "Nosotros 10s pueblos" (Apdo Aereo 3300, Medellin, Colombia).

. Scandinavian Journal of Development Alternatives (Vol.V, NOl, 1986): "Self-reliance and Destabilization in the Caribbean and Central America: The Cases of Jamaica and Nicaragua" by Bjorn Hettne (Post Box 7339, 103 90 Stockholm, Sweden).

. Seminar (N0320, 1986): The "total" State is not totalitarian. It is, according to popular description, democratic, with a cynical, autho-

ritarian ambience - "total" in its exercise of power, but dressed in a garb that appears to be democratic ... (Post Box 338, New Delhi 1, India) . Social Change (Vol.15, N03, 1985): "Education and Development in India: the God That ~ailed" (Sangha Rachana, 53 Lodi Estate, New Delhi 110 003, India).

. Survival International (N012, 1986): "Gold War in Amazonia" (29 Craven Street, London WC2N 5NT, U K ) .

. Synapses Messages (Vol.IV, N02, 1986): "The Philippines: People Power and Beyond ..." (1821 W. Cullerton, Chicago IL 60608, USA). . Thai Development Newsletter (Vol.3, N04, 1986): "Sexual Violence Against Women and the Women's Movement in Thailand" (121190 Near Cha- loemla Bridge, Phyathai Rd, Bangkok 10400, Thailand).

. Tranet (N041, 1986): "A.T. Directory 41, Lowcost Transportation" (Box 567, Rangeley, ME 04970, USA).

. La Tribune (N08, 1986): "La commercialisation: En quoi elle consiste et pourquoi elle est importance pour les fenunes" (777 United Na- tions Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA).

. Voz campesina (N031, 1986). La Confederation Campesina del Peru y "Derechos Humanos" (Plaza 2 de Mayo 40, Lima, Peru).

. WFUNA Bulletin (N037, 1986): "International Year of Peace, WFUSA Symposium" (Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneve 10, Switzerland).

, Who Owes Whom? (Winter 1986): "US Fanners and the Third World: The Crisis Points Toward Unity" (Project Abraco, FOB 2324, Santa Cruz, CA 95063, USA).

. Wise: The first issue of the bulletin of the International Coali- tion o n ~ n e r ~ ~ for Development is specially written to link organizations and people working on energy for development issues in relation to the UN conference on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Energy. This conference will be one of the larger UN conferences and will strongly promote nuclear power for Third World countries, an alternative which we oppose (FOB 5627, 1007 AP Amsterdam, The Netherlands).

. Women's Journal (N04, 1985): "Industrial women workers in Asia" (ISIS International, Via Santa Maria Dell'Anima 30, 00186 Rome, Italy).

. Women's Skills/Resource Exchange (1986): This issue focuses on Cen- tral America (Woodland Park Presbyterian Church, 225 North 70th, Seattle, WA 98103, USA).

. World Policy Journal (Vol.111, N02, 1986): "The Post-Reagan Eco- nomv: A New Democratic Deal" bv Jeff Faux and "SDI and Europe: Militari- zation or Common Security" by Michael Lucas (777 United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA).

ifda dossier 55 materials received for publication

V.3. Li s t i ng a paper betow does not imply tha; it ui'1-1 be published. Decisions i n t h i s r e spec t are based on the need for a c e r t a i n bcLanse betueen ~hemes , ac tors , regions and Lanqnages. The edi-tors r egre t t h a t t ime makes it impossible t o engage i n d i r e c t corresponderne u i t h authors about papers. Papers nay be obtained d i r e c t l y from the author.

LOCAL SPACE

. ASSEFA, Rural banking - An innovative approach (1 Lady Doak College Road, Madurai-2, Tamil Nadu, India) 4pp.

. Kamla Bhasin, Some thoughts and doubts on the need for a national movement for the eradication of female illiteracy (FAO, 55 Max Mueller Marg, New Delhi 110003, India) 6pp.

. Mahdi Elmandjra, Learning needs in a changing world - Role of human resources in a civilization of knowledge (University Mohamed V, Rabat, Morocco) 14pp.

. M.M. Kamwengo, Teaching adults through theatre: The Namushekande experience (University of Zambia, Centre for Continuing Education, PO Box 50516, Lusaka, Zambia) 10pp.

. Esteban Krotz, La evaluation de cooperativas rurales: apuntes para el estudio de aspectos relevantes del cooperativismo rural en Mexico (Apartado postal 55 - 536, 09340 Mexico DF) 15pp.

NATIONAL SPACE

. Mladen Obradovic, Reintegration of people into the labour process: Experience and performance of small-scale industry in Yugoslavia (Yugo- banka United Bank, 7 jula 19-21, 11000 Belgrade, Yugoslavia) 22pp.

. Chahrokh Vaziri, Elements d'information sur Ie comportement des elites iraniennes dans la tourmente revolutionnaire (Institut de science politique, AV. de l'universite 5, 1005 Lausanne, Suisse) 8pp.

REGIONAL SPACE

. M. Anis Alam, Social obstacles in the path of technical solutions (Physics Department, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan) 18pp.

. Stewart MacPherson, Social security and social assistance in developing countries (Dept. of Social Administration, University of Notting- ham. University Park, Nottingham NG7 ZRD, UK) 15pp.

. Musukulu Itu-Ikunde, Le passe, l'actualite et l'avenir de la cor- ruption dans Ie Tiers Monde (Institut Superieur de Developpement Rural Mbeo-Idiofa, BP 8251, Kinshasa I, Zaire) 6pp.

(continued on page 7 0 )

d o s s i e r 55 . sep tember /oc tober 1986 they had t h i s t o say

p-P -

MANUEL PEREZ GUERRERO: FOR HUMANKIND AS A WHOLE

OUJ' friend Vanuel Ferez Guerrero phys ia~ lLy le f t us a year ago, on 24 October, but: h i s moral legacy w i l l continue to inspire us for a long time t o cone. Witness t o t h i s are some of h i s ins igh t s on the global poble'matique, col lected by h i s d i sc ip les i n Caracas, Venezuela.

For humankind a s a whole, none of t h e problems c o n f r o n t i n g o u r tormented world i s more impor tan t than t h e development of t h e T h i r d World. (1970)

i t i s not a question of depriving anyone of h i s possessions or le- git imate well-being, but it i s in tolerable tha t a few should con- t inue t o l i v e beyond t h e i r means a t the expense of others. I t i s a question o f implementing a true international social jus t ice under which there would be no losers and, i n the las t analys is , all would be dinners. (March 19771

We a r e , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i s t o r t i o n s b rought i n t o our l i v e s by u n r e s t r a i n e d consumerism. Ra ther than i m i t a t i n g t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s t o t h e e x c l u s i v e b e n e f i t of t h e wea l thy i n o u r own c o u n t r i e s , we shou ld devo te more e n e r g i e s t o t h e t a s k of d e v i s i n g fo rmulae more i n keep ing w i t h t h e t r u e needs of o u r peop les . We might t h u s pe rhaps h e l p t o b r i n g abou t t h e changes i n c r e a s i n g l y demanded by a growing number of peop le i n t h e Nor th , and c r e a t e a more humane s o c i e t y , a s o c i e t y which would c e a s e t o squander i t s own n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and d e s t r o y i t s na tu - r a l environment . I t i s n o t f a i r t h a t a few shou ld l i v e above t h e i r means w h i l e o t h e r s l a c k t h e e s s e n t i a l s i n l i f e . (February 1979)

I n Latin America, as i n the Third World, we have come t o rea l i ze tha t unless w un i t e i n sp i t e of our economic and cul tural d i f f e r - ences, and unless we f ight together t o achieve our fundamental corn- non object ives , we shall, continue to be, as i n the past, the easy prey of divisionary t a c t i c s - the "divide and rule" strategy - whtch we have experienced i n our own f lesh and t o which we owe, t o a large ex ten t , our underdevelopment. (May 1983)

Between 1978 and 1983, i n n e t t e rms , approx imate ly 55 b i l l i o n d o l l a r s l e f t t h e r e g i o n , f o r t h e most p a r t a t t r a c t e d by h i g h e r i n t e r e s t r a t e s i n t h e Uni ted S t a t e s . I r o n i c a l l y , t h a t c o u n t r y , t h e r i c h e s t i n t h e wor ld , i s i n t h e p r o c e s s of f a s t becoming t h e g r e a t e s t d e b t o r of a l l , a t t h e expense of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s . (March 1985)

Contributions t o the IFDA Dossier are presented under the sole respon- s i b i l i t y of t h e i r authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be reproduced or transmitted i n any form or by any means without permission of the author or iFDA. I n case of reprint , acknowledgement of source and receipt of a copy would be appreciated. The IFDA Dossier i s published bi-monthly. Printed i n 18,800 copies. ISSS 0254-3036

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