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SP 031 746

Hensley, Larry, Ed.Tennis for Boys and Girls Skills Test Manual.American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation and Dance, Reston, VA. NationalAssociation for Sport and Physical Education.ISBN-0-88314-442-589

56p.

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,Recreation, and Dance Publications, 1900 AssociationDrive, Reston, VA 22091.Guides Classroom Use Guides (For Teachers) (052)

MFO1 Plus Postage. PC Not Available "from EDRS.

*Drills (Practice); Higher Education; *NormReferenced Tests; Physical Education; SecondaryEducation; Skill Development; *Student Evaluation;*Tennis; Test Selection

The first chapter of this manual for tennisinstructors provides an overview of the game of tennis, a briefhistory of the background of skill testing in tennis, and generalinstructions for using the manual. The second chapter presents testsfor ground stroke, serve and vollgy, as well as suggestions onselecting the most appropriate tests. Diagrams and scoring rules areincluded. In the third chapter the use of norms is explained andtables list percentile and T-score norm tables for males and femalesin grades nine to college. The fourth chapter provides detaileddescriptions of tennis drills for the basic skills in ground stroke,service, and volley. References are included and appendices containthe American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation andDance tennis skills tests and rating scales. (JD)

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TennisSkillsTest

Manual

EDITOR

Larry Hensley, University of Northern Iowa

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Graham Hatcher, University of North Carolina, WilmingtonGloria Hook, Dallas, Texas Public Schools7aul Hook, Southern Methodist University

Carolyn Lehr, University of GeorgiaJacqueline Shick, University of Minnesota

Copyright cu 1989

American Alliance for Health,Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

1900 Association DriveReston, Virginia 22091

ISBN 0-88314-442-5

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Purposes of the American Alliance for Health,Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance

The American Alliance is an educational organization, structured for the purposesof supporting, encouraging, and providing assistance to member groups and theirpersonnel throughout the nation as they seek to initiate, develop, and conduct pro-grams in health, leisure, and movement-related actin ities for the enrichment of humanlife.

Alliance objectives include:1. Professional grcwth and developmentto support, encourage, and provide

guidance in the development and conduct of programs in health, leisure, and move-ment-related activities which are based on the needs, interests, and inherent capacitiesof the individual in today's society.

2. Communicationto facilitate public and professional understanding andappre-ciation of the importance and value of health, leisure, and nn, ement-related activitiesas they contribute toward human well-being.

3. Researchto encourage and facilitate research which will enrich the depth andscope of health, leisure, and movement-related activities, and to disseminate thefindings to the profession and other interested and concerned publics.

4. Standards and guidelinesto further the continuous development and evalua-tion of standards within the profession for personnel and programs in health, leisure,and movement-related activities.

5. Public affairs--to coordinate and administer a planned program of professional,public, and governmental relations that will improve education in areas of health,leisure, and movement-related activites.

6. To conduct such other activities as shall be approved by the Board of Governorsand the Alliance Assembly, provided that the Alliance shall not cAgage in any activitywhich would be inconsistent with the status of an educational and charitable orga-nization as defir ed in Section 501 (c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 or anysuccessor provis.on thereto, and none of the said purposes shall at any time be deemedor construed to be purposes other than the public benefit purposes and objectivesconsistent with such educational and charitable status.

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Bylaws, Article III

Tennis Skills CommitteeLarry Hensley, University of Northern Iowa, Chairperson

Graham Hatcher, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, NCGloria Hook, Dallas, Texas Public SchoolsPaul Hook, Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TXCarolyn Lehr, Univ rsity of Georgia, Athens, GA

The following individuals served the Tennis Skills Committee in an advisory capacityand should be acknowledged for their contributions: E. Dawn McDonald, Ames, IA;Don C. Peatson, Springfield, MO; Kathleen Black, Edmond, OK; R. V. McGehee,Hammond, LA.

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AcknowledgementsCountless professionals have generously contributed their time and expertise to thedevelopment of this test battery and its manual. The Alliance is grateful to theAAHPERD Task Force on Sports Skills Testing, the tennis skills subcommittee, andall those individuals in the middle bchools, secondary schools, and colleges acrossthe country who provided the test data on which the norms are based. A sincere"thank you" for a job well done. Appreciation is also extended to Ray Ciszek of theAlliance staff for his support for thib project and to Lynne Cairney for her conscientiouspreparation of the manuscript.

AAHPERD Task Force on Sports Skills Testing

Jacqueline Shick, ChairpersonUniversity of Minnesota

Ted BaumgartnerUniversity of Georgia

Larry HensleyUniversity of Northern Iowa

David HopkinsIndiana State University

Jeralyn PlackUniversity of Minnesota

Contents

Chapter

1 Test Development 1

Overview of Tennis 3Background of Skill Testing in Tennis 4General Instructions for Using the Manual 7

2 The Tests 9

Selecting the Tests 10Ground Stroke (Foref and/Backhand) Test 12Serve Test 14Volley Test 16

3 Normative Information 19Use of Norms 20Percentile Norm Tables 22T-Score Norm Tables 25

4 Tennis Drills for the Basic Skills 31Ground Stroke Drills 33Service Drills 36Volley Drills 41

REFERENCES 45

APPENDICES 47

A AAHPERD Tennis Skill Test 48

B Rating Scales 49

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CHAPTER

Test Development

2 TENNIS SKILLS TEST MANUAL

Evaluation in physical education is done fora variety of reasons but, whatever the pur-pose, the credibility of the outcome is directlyrelated to the quality of the measuring toolused in the process. Recognizing this pre-cept, the Measurement and EvaluationCouncil appointed a task force to develorsports skill tests which could be used to assessstudent performance. This group wasresponsible for the delineation of a sequenceof tasks to be completed by a sports skillssubcommittee in the development of a bat-tery of tests for a given sport. Specific guide-lines for the completion of the tasks werealso outlined.

The first task for each sport skills subcom-mittee was to identify the skills deemed mostimportant for success in a particular sport.Since the battery was intended for use at allage levels, it was directed that all testsincluded within it must represent skills usedby all players, regardless of age. Because thetask force believed that the skill test shouldnot require more than two class periods foradministration, a maximum of four tests perbattery was established.

Determination of content validity for theessential skills was a requisite to individualtest selection or development. Based on thejudgment of experts in the sport, obtainedeither directly or through a search of theliterature, the subcommittee was required toprovide evidence that the selected skills are,in fact, those which are most essential tosuccessful performance in the respectivesport. The next task was to select an existingtest or, in the absence of an adequate mea-sure, to develop a new one. Guidance, todetermine the adequacy of a potential test orto develop a new test, was provided by a listof the cardinal features of good sport skillstests.The test should:

have at least minimally aLLeptable reli-ability and validity;

be simple both to admin.ster and to take,

have directions which are easy to under-stand;

require neither expensive nor extensiveequipment;

be reasonable in terms of time with regardto both preparation and administration;

encourage correct form and be game-like, but involve only one performer;

be of suitable difficulty, i.e., it shouldbe neither so difficult that it causes dis-couragement nor so simple that it is notchallenging;

be interesting and meaningful to theperformer;

exclude extraneous variables as much aspossible;

provide for accurate scoring by utilizingthe most precise and meaningful mea-sure.

follow specific guidelines if a target isthe basis for scoring. The target shouldhave a common goal with the capacityto encompass 90 percent of the attempts;near misses may need to be awardedpoints. The determination of targetplacement should be based on two prin-ciple factors. First, the developmentallevel of the student needs to be consid-ered, e.g., the height of a given targetmay be appropriate for a 17-year-old butnot a 10-year-old. Second, the strategi-cal aspects of the performance shouldenter into the allocation of points, e.g.,the placement of a badminton serve toan opponent's backhand should scorehigher than an equally accurate place-ment to i'le opponent's forehand.

require a sufficient number of trials toobtain a reasonable measure of perfor-mance; those tests which have accuracy

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as a principle component will requiremore trials than will tests measuringother characteristics.

yield scores that provide for diagnosticinterpretation whenever possible.

Compliance with the first requirement forminimally acceptable reliability and validity'necessitated the developmel.: f additionalguidelines. The task force specified that tkereliability to be determined was to be a mea-sure of stability. If the test invoked multipletrials, either the sum or the mean of the trialswas to constitute the test score. With regardto validity, the task force indicated that evi-dence of two or three types of validity shouldbe presented. Content validity was man-dated previously; therefore, either concur-rent or construct validity would also need tobe established. It was strongly recom-mended that both be determined, if possible.For all statistical evidence, i.e., reliability andvalidity, the minimum sample size was setat 50 per sex per group, e.g., elementary,junior high, or subgroup, e.g., high, medium,low, within each academic level. The mini-mal coefficient for the entire battery wouldbe .70.

Upon completion of the set preparatorytasks, it was possible to select the skill itemswhich would comprise the test battery. Thenext step, to generate norms, necessitatedthe development of the test protocol and scoresheets. Volunteers to administer the testswere then solicited in such a way that thetotal sample (N = 600 per sex per academiclevel) was selected from various parts of thecountry. The norms of the national testingwere to be described in both percentile ranksand T-scores.

Give :1 all this information, the final taskwas to prepare a test manual. It is believedthat this systematic procedure has made Itpossible to produce an instrument capableof pros id i ng invaluable information to tea'..hers and coaches. Those who use it are inv ited

TEST DEVELOPMENT 3

to send any comments and, or suggestions tothe task force chairperson.

Overview of TennisTennis, in its simplest form, merely involves

hitting a ball ove a net. This is done, ofcourse, within a specified area and using animplement called a racket. The addition ofan opponent, boundary lines, and a pre-scribed set of rules make tennis one of themost popular sports in the world today.

Mason (1974, p.1) described tennis as fol-lows:

The game consists of st Acing a ball with aracket, back and forth across a net, until oneplayer misses the ball or hits it Into the netor out of bounds.

She additionally indicated that the funda-mental techniques involved in playing ten-nis include eye-hand-racket coordination,motor (movement) skills, and stroking skills.Gensemer (1975) suggested that one needsto be able to throw a ball, swat a fly, run andwalk in order to play tennis. He stated thattennis involves basically the skills of runningand throwing. Tennis champion John New-combe (1975, p.21) indicated that there arethree basic concepts in learning tennis.

The first is to see the ball corning toward youand judge w here it will bounce. I call this ballseise. The second is to mice yourself to theball and still give yourself room to swing. Iall this movement. The third is to develop

control and feel of the strings of your racketso you can hit the ball. This is called racquetcontrol.

1-1c forth' r suggested that every thing in ten-nis is merely a refinement of these basics.

According to Bunn (1965), tennis consistsof three factorsservice, stroking, and foot-work. Footwork enables the tennis player toget in position to hit the ball, whereas serv-ing and stroking are primarily Innoled inchanging the motion of a moving ball by

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imparting force to it. Pelton (1980) stated that90 percent of all tennis shots involve the serve,forehand, and backhand. The volley nas alsobeen categorized as an additional beginningtennis skill by other authors (Chavez, 1982,Kenfield, 1982). Murphy and Murphy' (1978)suggested that unless a player was beyondthe intermediate level, in excess of 75 percentof the shots made during play were the fore-hand and backhand ground strokes. Mooreand Chafin (1979) maintained that the threebasic strokes are the forehand, backhand,and serve. According to Johnson and Xan-thos (1976, p.19), "it is not necessary to beable to volley to play tennis." They expressedthat the forehand drive, backhand drive, andserve were the essential skills of every tennisplayer. The forehand drive, backhand drive,and serve were considered by former tennisgreat Don Budi,e (1937) to be the funnamental tennis skills and, consequently, shouldreceive the greatest emphasis in a learningsituation. Emphasizing this point, Budgestated, "Ground strokes are bask for all players' games. Three-fourths of 4ii balls hit dur-ing a match have been first allowed tobounce.."

The basic components of all strokes, asdescribed by Mason (1974), are force pro-duction (developing power), absorption(reducing power), and direction (placement)in relation to the player, the ball, and theracket. In order to effectively utilize theseelements in playing tennis, the particii_.:ntmust understand (1) the effect of body actionon stroking, (2) the effect the angle of theracket face has on the ball, and (3) the effectof various types of ball spin. She suggestedthat beginning tennis players acquire skill infour basic strokesforehand, backhand,serve, and volley. The 26 experts whoseopinions were solicited by Edwards (1965)generally agreed that the forehand, back-hand, serve, and volley were the desirableskills for a beginner to acquire. Hillas andLeFevre (1955) indicated a total of five essen

tial irokes for the beginning tennis playerforehand and backhand ground strokes,serve, volley, and lob. Armbruster, Irwin,and Musker (1963) identified as fundamentalskills the following (in order). stance, foot-work, serve, forehand, backhand, and vol-ley, with other strokes pres.mted being merelya k aria tion of these listed. Murphy (1976),Kenfield (1982), and Chavez (1982) also Iden-tified the forehand, backhand, serve, andvolley as the basic shots of tennis. Johnson,Oliver, and Shields (197S, maintained thatthe forehand, backhand, serve, and volleywere the basic strokes while grip and stancewere basic fundamentals.

In a factor analytic study of 14 tennis skilltests, Hensley (1982) identified three com-ponents of tennis playing ability for thebeginning level player. (1) hitting anapproaching ball after it has bounced, (2)hitting an approaching ball befere it hasbounced, and (3) hitting a ball from a self-toss. Based upon these findins he con-cluded that a battery of tennis skill tests whichcontains items to measure :stroking, serving,and volleying would provide a valid mea-surement of the unique components of ten-nis playing (31mity. 1 le further suggested thatsince males, on the average, performed bet-t,:r than the females on the selected tests,separate performance standards would beappropriate.

On the basis of the foregoing research evi-denLe, the committee decided to base thetennis skills test on Ole fundamental skillswhich constitute the foundation of everytennis game. forehand drive, backhand drive,and serve. The volley was included as anoptional test item.

Background of SkillTesting in Tennis

The measurement of anyone's ability toexecAte the elements 'minded in sport skills

can be a difficult task. One needs to considerthe specific movement patterns, power,accuracy, and game-like situations. Manyattempts have been made since 1900 todevelop objective skill tests to measure ten-nis ability. The most popular of these testsare briefly discussed in the following section.

The first tennis test to achieve prominenceamong physical educators and tennis teach-ers was the Dyer Backboard Test (Dyer, 1935,1938). As devised in 1935, tie test consistedmerely of rallying a tennis ball above a spec-ified line on a wall for a 30-second period.This rally was initiated 20 feet from the walland only those shots hitting the wall abovea 3-foot high line, representing the net, werecounted. Once the rally was started, the stu-dent could move as close to the wall asdesired. Test-retest reliability of the originaltest was reported between .84 and .90 whilethe validity coefficient, as measured againsta judgement criterion, was reported as .85to .90. In 1938, Dyer revised the test by add-ing a restraining line 5 feet from the wall.The validity coefficient of the revision whenmeasured against the original test was .94 to.99. The test-retest reliability estimate wasreported to range from .86 to .92.

In 1950, Broer and Miller constructed fore-hand and backhand drive tests for femalecollege students of beginning and Interme-diate ability levels. The Broer-Miller testsallowed 14 placement or accuracy shots indesignated scoring areas using the forehandand backhand strokes. The test consiste 4 ofstanding behind the baseline, bouncing theball to one's self, and attempting to hit theball to the opposite baseline. Fox (1953) testedthe validity of both the Dyer and the Bruer-Miller tests using 84 beginning college stu-dents. The author analyzed three phases ofthe tennis game. forehand, backhand, andserve. A panel of four judges subjectivelyrated each student as they participated in agame of doubles. The intercorrelations of theratings of the fair judges were all between

TEST DEVELOPMENT 5

.76 and .84. Fox found the validity coefficientbetween the Dyer Test and the subjectiveratings to be .53. Fox also reported a validitycoefficient of .61 between the subjective rat-ings and the Broer-Miller test for collegewomen.

Cobane (1962), elaborating on the work ofDriver (1941), developed a test for service inwhich accuracy was measured merely bywhether or not the serve landed in the ser-vice court. In addition, force was measuredby a reasonable approximation of the dis-tance that the ball bounced and was scoredaccording to where the ball landed on itssecond bounce. She reported test-retest reli-ability as .87. Validity was not reported.

Hewitt revised the Dyer Backboard Test in1965. Noting that the Dyer Test did not dis-criminate sufficiently at the beginner's level,Hewitt surmised that the main reason thetest discriminated better for advanced play-ers was because the test was a better measureof the subject's ability to volley. To eliminatethis factor, Hewitt added a 20-foot restrain-ing line. The target area for the Hewitt Revi-sion of the Dyer Test was 20 feet high and20 feet wide. He also required the subjectsto start the test with a serve and then con-tinue to rally the ball against the wall for 30seconds using any stroke desired. The finalscore for the test was the average of threetrials. The reliability of the Hewitt revisionwas .82 for beginners and .93 for advancedplayers.

In 1965, Timmer developed a forehand andbackhand drive test in which the bails wereprojected to the student taking the test by aball machine. The placement of the student'sreturn shots into zoned scoring areas was toalternate from one side of the opposite courtto the other. Scoring was based on wherethe ball landed in the designated target area.The validity coefficients ranged from .75 to.86.

Hewitt (1966) constructed a TennisAchievement Test to evaluate three basic


strokes in tennisforehand, backhand, andserve. The test involved returning balls hitby the instructor to zoned areas on the courtover the net, but below a rope 7 feet abo% ethe net. After hitting 5 practice balls, thestudent would hit 10 forehands and 10 back-hands to the opposite baseline. The ben ILeportion of the test measured the speed andaccuracy of the served ball. The placementserve test was scored on the basis of thetarget area in which the ball landed in theservice zone. The speed of sere was mea-sured by where the served ball landed on itssecond bounce.

The Kemp-Vincent Rally Test (1968) wasdeveloped for the purpose of classifying stu-dents and rating playing skill. The test w escreated to measure the rallying ability of aplayer in game conditions. The test was easyto administer and required no speLific equip-ment or line markings. Two players of equalability stood on opposite sides of the net withtwo balls each and commenced to rally theball across the net for a 3-minute period.Scoring was based on the total number ofhits during the test period, less the numberof errors committed. The test-retest reliabil-ity was .86 for beginners and .90 for inter-mediate players. Validity, using rankings ofa round robin tournament as the criterion,was found to .84 and .93 for beginning andintermediate players, respectively . A sewndvalidation in which test scores of 362 stu-dents were correlated with performance onthe Scott-French Re% ision of the Dyer Testyielded a validity coefficient of .80.

In 1968, Hewitt devised two classificationtests for tennis Mich did not require the useof a backboan . The Bounce Test requiredthe student to . -.inually bounce the ball onthe court with the racket for 30 seconds. TheShoulder Test, meanwhile, measured theability of the student to bounce the ballupward with the r -cket to a point abo% eshoulder level w bile alternating forehand andbackhand on each successive hit. Hewitt

reported test-retest reliability LoeffiLients of.88 for the Bounce Test and .83 for the Shoul-der Test. When the results of a round robintournament were compared to test scores,the validity coefficients ranged from .56 to.88 for the Bounce Test and from .23 to .88for the Shoulder Test. He itt recommendedthe tests be used as a classification device.

Shepard (1972) revised the Broer-MillerTennis Test to evaluate a student's perfor-mance in hitting forehand and backhanddrives from an approaching ball, as opposedto a self-toss in the original test. The instruc-tor or another student was required to tossthe ball underhand into a target circle as theperformer mo% ed into position to drive thetossed ball deep into the opposite backcourt.The test consisted of 14 forehand and back-hand trials. The reliability of the total testdetermined from the correlation of the odd-and e% en-numbered trials was .91. Validitywas established on the basis that the testdiscriminated among three skill level groupsbeyond the .001 level of significance.

Green (1976) reported a Backboard AbilityTest measuring ground strokes, volleys,ben es, half volleys, lobs, overhead smashe..,and footwork. The test involved completingwell of the abo% e shots and skills within aspecified time period by aiming at a targetarea on a wall. Participants would standbehind a restraining line during 11 sectionsof the test. No normative, reliability, oralidity data were reported, although scalesindicating arious le% els of ability were indi-cated.

Trying to maximize the relationshipbetween skill ,ests and playing situations,Avery, Richardson, and Jackson (1979) con-structed a sere test which incorporated twoballs per trial, attempts from both left andright service courts, and wmparable creditfor the flat, slice, and spin ser% es. The Avery-Richardson Tennis Serve Test (ARTST) mea-sured placement of served ball and amountof speed. The subject served 20 trials in a

cpecific order. A trial consisted of twoattempts to serve the ball to a designatedhalf of the service court. Placement was mea-sured by the location of the serve on the firstbounce. Speed and spin were measured bythe location of the second bounce. Validitywas established by using a one-way analysisof variance between groups, beginning andintermediate for both males and females. Theanalysis revealed a significant differencebetween beginning and intermediate for bothmales and females.

In order to simulate a skill test which wouldemploy techniques related to actual gameconditions, Purcell (1981) developed a fore-hand-backhand drive skill test. Purcell con-tended that speed, direction, and depth wereimportant elements in the forehand andbackhand drives. A ball-pitching machine wasused to propel a pressureless tennis ball.Subjects attempted to return the pitched ballover the net and into target areas. To takeinto account the firmness of the shot, a timefactor was employed. Using a stop watch,the experimenter started the watch when theracket contacted the ball and stopped it whenthe ball struck the target or t:,.e net or it becameapparent that the ball would not hit the tar-get area. At the conclusion of the 10 trialsthe accumulated time was recorded to thenearest second. A correction factor was cal-culated as a time factor. Forehand, back-hand, and total scores were calculated. Theforehand and backhand scores were the meanof the two rounds, while the total score wasthe sum of the forehand and backhand means.A validity coefficient of .83 was reportedbetween test scores and judges ratings whenthe time factor was considered. The validity

TEST DEvELOPMENT 7

coefficient was .76 when the target valueswere used exclusively. The test-retest reli-ability was found to be .84.

ConclusionThe selection of a battery of tennis skill

tests wh;-h meets the teacher's needs is usu-ally based on practicality. Although reliabil-ity and validity are important criteria,administrative time, necessary equipment,equipment costs, space limitations, set-uptime, and administrator expertise are factorswhich usually contribute to the final deci-sion. Skill tests which require a ball-pitchingmachine, a motion picture camera, numer-ous individuals having the ability to use astopwatch, or a large array of markings shouldbe critically evaluated before being includedin a test battery.

General Instructions forUsing the Manual1. Study each test thoroughly. Take careful

note of violations and resultant penalties.2. Examine the diagrams in detail and be

certain to conform to all test specifica-tions.

3. Take special note of all required equip-ment and ensure availability.

4. If a specific order of administration of testswithin the battery is recommended, besure to follow it.

5. Determine which norm (percentile rankor T-score) is most appropriate for yourevaluation purpose and transform the rawscores to the selected derived scores.

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Selecting the TestsA committee of experts in the areas of tennisand measurement and evaluation represent-ing college, high school, and Junior highschool grade levels was identified to developthe Tennis Skills Test Manual. The first taskfor the committee was to identify the essen-tial skills of the sport of tennis. Essentialskills were defined as those skills represent-ing the basics of play without which an indi-vidual could not effectively participate in thesport of tennis. The identification of theessential skills involved a task analysiswhereby a comprehensive review of the con-ceptual and skill-testing literature was com-pleted as well as consultation with recog-nized tennis teachers and coaches. A sum-mary of these findings has been presentedin Chapter 1 of this Manual. Based upon thetask analysis completed, the committeeidentified two essential skills that are requi-site to playing tennis: ground strokes (fore-hand and backhand drive) and the serve. Athird skill, the volley, was generally thoughtto be more appropriate for intermediate oradvanced players, but was included in thetest battery as an optional item.

A pilot study was conducted in a varietyof school settings around the country todetermine the appropriateness of severalpublished tennis skills tests and to investi-gate a vanety of testing protocols and scoringsystems. Data were collected for both malesand females from the 7th grade through thecollege level. The primary purpose of thepilot study was to determine the administra-tive feasibility of the test items. A secondarypurpose was to provide preliminary esti-mates of reliability and validity. In order todevelop a test battery that possessed desir-able test characteristics and at the same timewas administratively feasible and gamelike,many compromises had to be made. Clearly,the most reliable and valid tests consisted ofthose Items that required many trials and

considerab' setup in terms of equipmentand markings, but such features would pre-clude the use of this test in a typical schoolsetting. Conversely, those tests whichrequired only a few trials or limited admin-istrative setup were often found to be lackingin scientific authenticity. Based upon theinformation obtained from the pilot study,the specific test items and administrativeprocedures were developed. For instance, itwas found that the best measure of strokingability was a composite score involving boththe forehand and backhand rather than sep-arate scores for each. Furthermore, both theground stroke and service tests -ought toincorporate a measure of both placement andpower in the lbf.ained score, while the volleytest considered only placement. The pilottesting also revealed that tennis was nottaught at the junior high school level as muchas previously believed. Consequently, thedecision was made to proceed with testdevelopment only for the 9th grade levelthrough college.

Utilizing the standardized administrativeprocedures developed through the pilot testphase, reliability and validity for each testitem for each sex and academic level wereestablished by the administration of the testbatter: in the school sc tting at the conclusionof a temlis unit. A minimum of 50 studentsper sex per grade level were administeredthe test items on two separate occasions nomore than 10 days apart. Stability reliabilityestimates for the test items are shown inTable 1.

Content validity for the test items wasassumed based upon the task analysis com-pleted earlier. Concurrent validity coeffi-uents were determined by correlating subjective ratings by experts for the specific skillswith performance on each test item. In orderto enhance the validity of the subjective rat-ings as the criterion by which the test itemswould be judged, considerable attention wasgiven to the development of specific, stan-

THE TESTS 11

Table 1. Intraclass stability reliability information

Test ItemMale

High School CollegeFemale

High School CollegeGround Stroke .88 .86 .80 .81Serve .95 .86 .88 .79Volley .72 .70 .79 .69

dardized rating scales. The rating scales usedby the experts throughout the validationphase are shown in the Appendix. The valid-ity coefficients ranged from .65 to .91 as pre-sented in Table 2. Only the volley test forcollege females fell below the desired crite-rion level of .70.

The three test items were adjudged as hav-ing acceptable reliability and validity by thetennis committee and the task force oversee-ing the project. The directions for adminis-tering and scoring the tests are simple andstraight-forward which enable students topractice the tests and to assist in test admin-istration. After properly marking the tenniscourts and by using students to assist withparts of test administration and scoring, thecomplete three-item test battery can be

administered to an average-sized class in twoclass periods. It is not necessary, however,to administer all three test items in order toutilize the test battery, although a combina-tion of the ground stroke and serve testswould probably best measure the skillsrequired for a beginning tennis player. Theinclusion of the optional volley test may beappropriate for those situations in which thevolley is routinely taught. The appropriate-ness of a test item is dependent upon theinstructional objectives established for one'sclass. Chapter 3 provides percentile rank andT-score norms for those teachers wishing tocompare the performance of one student withthat of another of the same sex and academiclevel.

Table 2. Concurrent validity estimates

Test ItemMale

High School CollegeFemale

High School CollegeGround Stroke .86 .83 .76 .82Serve .91 .78 .86 .80Volley .76 .75 .76 .65

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GROUND STROKE TESTForehand and Backhand Drive

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Power Zone 33 Pts

Power Zone 22Pts

Power Zone 11Pt

Figure 1. Ground Stroke TestCourt Markings

TIE TESTS 13

PURPOSE: To measure the ability to hit ground strokes with bothaccuracyand power.

EQUIPMENT: Tennis court, racket, a box of tennis balls (10-42 ballsper testcourt is recommended), and tape or chalk for marking targetarea on court

TARGET AREA: Two lines, parallel to the baseline and extending across thesingles court, are marked at a distance of 6 feet and 12 feetfrom the baseline. In addition, a third line, parallel to and 9feet from the baseline is marked outside the court. (See Figure1.)

DIRECTIONS: Prior to taking the test, all students are permitted a warm-upperiod of approximately 5 minutes. The student takes a posi-tion at approximately the location of the center mark of thebaseline, yet remaining behind the baseline as shown in Figure1. The tester is stationed with a box of balls on the other sideof the net, within approximately 3 feet of the net and alongthe center line. Using an overhand throwing motion, the testertosses 12 consecutive balls to the forehand followed by 12 ballsto the backhand. The first 2 tosses to each side serve as prac-tice, with the remaining 10 trials scored. The tester shouldattempt to toss the ball so that it will land beyond the serviceline on the desired side and within approximately 6 feet of thestudent. The student may elect not to swing at a total of 2scored tosses for each test item and request that additionaltosses be made. (This decision must be made prior to attempt-ing to return the ball. Consequently, no swing should bemade.) The student should attempt to hit the ball over the netinto the designated scoring area within the singles court.

SCORING: Each of the 10 designated trials for both the forehand andbackhand drives is scored for both placement and power. Theplacement score is determined according to the target area inwhich the ball lands (see Figure 1). Shots landing deeper inthe court receive the greater point values. For each of the legalreturn shots which lands in the designated scoring area, anappropriate score is awarded for power (i.e., 1, 2, or 3) accord-ing to bounce distance as determined by the power zone inwhich the second bounce lands. Balls that are wide, long, orhit into the net receive a score of 0 for both placement andpower. A student's score is the sum of the placement andpower score for each of the scored trials. The forehand andbackhand trials are combined for the total score.

In order to facilitate test administration, students may be trainedto serve as ball tossers, scorers, and retrievers.

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45'g.

SERVE TEST

Power Zone 2 (2 Pts)

Power Zone 1 (1 Pt)

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II

II

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I

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II

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2 or 1 Pt

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I

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Figure 2. Serve TestCourt Markings

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PURPOSE: To measure skill in serving the ball with both accuracy andpower.

EQUIPMENT: Tennis court, racket, a box of tennis balls (approximately 20balls per test court is recommended), and tape or chalk formarking target area on court.

TARGET AREA: A line is marked down the center of each service court, bisect-ing the service court into right and left halves. A power lineextending from sideline to sideline is marked 9 feet from andparallel to the baseline outside the court. This line is extendedapproximately 10 feet towards the net on each end at a 45degree angle. (See Figure 2.)

DIRECTIONS: Prior to taking the test, all students are permitted a warm-upof approximately 5 minutes. Two students may be testedsimultaneously on each testing court. A box of balls is acedseveral feet behind the center mark on the end of the courtwhere the server is located. One student takes a positionbehind the baseline in preparation to sering to the deucecourt while the second student prepares to serve to the adcourt. Each student is permitted two practice serves prior toattempting 4 scored trials into the designated scoring area.Each trial may consist of a second service attempt if the firstis a fault. The first 4 trials are directed to the outside half ofthe service court, the next 4 scored trials towards the insidehalf of the respective service court. After each student hascompleted all 8 scored trials to the designated service court,the students trade service positions and they repeat the pro-cess without additional practice serves. All let serves are re-served. In order to facilitate test administration, it is recom-mended that two students be tested simultaneously and thatthey alternate attempts. Two other students may be used tocollect balls on the opposite end of the court and then carrythem to the ball box after the testing is completed. Thesestudents then become the next servers. The tester should bepositioned near the baseline on the opposite end of the courtfrom the servers. Students may also be trained to be scorers.

SCORING: Each of the 16 designated service attempts is scored for bothplacement and power. The placement score is determinedaccording to the target area within the service court in whichthe ball lands (see Figure 2). Serves landing in the designatedhalf of the court are awarded 2 points, serves landing else-where in the service court are awarded 1 point, and thoselanding outside of the service court receive a score of 0. Foreach of the service attempts which lands within the servicecourt, an appropriate score is awarded for power according tothe location of the second bounce. (See scored Figure 2 forappropriate scoring zones and point values, i.e., 1, 2, 3.)Served balls that fail to go over the net or that land outsidethe appropriate service court are scored 0 for power. A stu-dent's score on the service test is the sum o: the placementand power scores for each of the 16 trials.Note: The serve test was adapted from the Avery-RichardsonTennis Serve Test (1979).


VOLLEY TEST (OPTIONAL)

Figure 3. Volley TestCourt Markings

es.4

THE TESTS 17

PURPOSE: To measure the ability to volley the ball accurately from aposition near the net.

EQUIPMENT: Tennis court, racket, a box of tennis balls (10-12 balls per testcourt is recommended), and tape or chalk for marking targetarea on court.

TARGET AREA: Four straight lines ale marked on the court as illustrated inFigure 3.

DIRECTIONS: Prior to taking the test, all students are permitted a warm-upperiod of approximately 5 minutes. The student takes a posi-tion 3 to 6 feet from the net in the center of the court as shownby the box in Figure 3. (It is recommended that the box NOTbe marked on the court.) The tester is static pd with a box ofballs on the other side of the net near the cm -. of the baseline.Using a forehand stroke, the tester hits 10 balls to the forehandside and 10 balls to the backhand c;de of the student. Thestudent should attempt to volley the ball ever the net into thedesignated scoring areas within the singles court. The first 4balls hit to each side constitute practice trials, with the remain-ing 6 trials scored. The tester should attempt to hit the ballsat a consistent, moderate speed at approximately 1 to 3 feetabove the level of the net. (Depending upon the height of thestudent, this would represent a range from waist high to headhigh.) The student may elect not to attempt to volley a total oftwo scored trials for each test item and request that additionalattempts be given. (This decision must be made prior toattempting to return the ball. Consequently, no swing shouldbe made.) If in the judgment of the tester an improperly set-up ball was responsible for a low score on a student's attempt,this trial may be repeated.

SCORING: Each of the 6 designated trials for both the forehand andbackhand are scored for placement. The placement score isdetermined according to the target area in which the ball lands(see Figure 3). Higher scores are awarded for shots hit deepinto the corners and to sharply angled shots near the net. Ballsthat are wide, long, or hit into the net receive a score of 0. Astudent's score on the volley test is the sum of the scores forall 12 trials.

In order to facilitate test administration, students may be trainedto serve as scorers and retrievers, and highly skilled studentsmay be trained to hit balls to the student being tested.

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Data for the norms were collected through a"convenience" sampling procedure. Datacollectors were solicited through advertise-ments in the AAHPERD publication Up-date and announcements at the AAHPERDnational convention. Those personsresponding to this request were providedwith test directions and scoresheets and wt -egiven instructions to carefully follow theadministrative procedures described for eachtest. This sampling procedure was employedbecause the financial resources were notavailable to identify and test a national, ran-dom sample. Normative data for the test bat-tery obtained in this manner were collectedon over 7,000 students representing 42 statesand grades 9 through college.

The normative data in this manual provideinformation relative to the range of perfor-mance scores that can be expected for stu-dents of both sexes and different academiclevels. In addition, the tables enable the userto compare the performance of one studentwith that of another of th_ same sex andacademic level and also to compare the per-formance of a given student over a period oftime.

To convert raw scores ti :.erived scores,select the appropriate table (r 3rcentile rankor T-score) for the specific test and for thegender of the student. Locate the columnwhich classifies the student according academic level and then, within that column,find the student's score. Match the score withthe corresponding percentile rank or T storereported at the left of the table.

The selection of percultile re.nk.. or T-scoresmust be determined by the purpose of theevaluation, and then: may be times whenboth scores would prove useful. Percentilerank norms have the advantage of being moreeasily understood by both students and parents. If, for example, a student scores at the80th percentile, one would say either thatthe student had a score which was equal toor better than 80 percent of the students in

his or her norm group that the studenthad a score which exceeded that of 79 per-cent of the students in his or her norm group.

If the user wishes to utilize the derivedscores for further statistical manipulation,even as simplistic as combining scores for acomposite battery score, the T-score must beselected. This standard score makes it legit-imate to combine results of two or n.ore testswhen raw scores are based upon differentscales of measurement, e.g., time, distance,number completed. The mean of th.- T-scoredistribution is 50 and its standard deviationis 10, therefore, a 1' -score of 60 would rep-resent a score that is one standard deviationabove the mean. Commonly, the T-scc.e dis-tribution ranges from 20 to 80 because,although it is possible, it is rare to have scoreswhich are more than three standard devia-tions above or below the mean. Interpreta-tion of T-scores will be facilitated by refer-ence to Figure 4.

Percentile norms are provided in Tables 3through 8 for evaluating a student's tennisskill development. The peicentile rank rep-resents the percentage of students from thenational sample who scored at or below agiven test score. The 50th percentile repre-sents an average level of performance for thepopulation with which the student is beingcompared. Students who score below th25th percentile should be provided with aprogram of exercise and drills as describedin Chapter 4.

T scores, provided in Table:. Q through 14,enable one to combine results A tests whenscores are reported in different scales of mea-surement. 3y summing the T-scores of a sru-dent for the various test items, a compositebattery score is derived. The omposite scoreprovides an indication of overall tennis per-formance. Sine: the mean of the T-score dis-tribution is 50 and its standard deviation is10, the average sum of the three T-scoreswould be 150. Students scoring compositescores above 150 would be performing above

the national mean. The sum of the T-scoresallows the student to compare his or heroverall tennis performance to the nationalsample, while the individual test-item T-scores provide the same information for eachskill. The following is an example of a 12th-grade boy's scores:

Test Item Score T-score

Ground Stroke 36 40Serve 27 50Volley 38 69

159 =sum of T-scores

Percent of casesunder portions ofthe normal curve

NORMATIVE INFORMATION 21

This student's performance on the groundstroke test was below average, average forthe serve, and above average for the volley.The composite score indicates performanceon the test battery was slightly above aver-age.

StandardDeviations

0.13% 2.14% 2.14% 0.13%

1tr 0 +1u +2u +3a +4oCumulative

Percentages2.3%

2%15.9% 50.0%16% 50%

84.1%84%

97.7%98%Rounded 0.1% 99.9%

I1 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 95 99

PercentileEquivalents T-Scores

20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Figure 4. Normal Curie


Table 3. Percentile normsGroundstroke: Females

Grade LevelPR 9 10 11 12 College

99 94 92 108 104 10595 66 67 78 79 8090 c9 61 70 73 7485 54 56 65 69 6980 50 52 60 65 6675 46 49 56 62 6370 43 47 53 59 6065 40 44 50 57 5760 37 42 7 54 5555 35 39 44 52 5350 32 37 41 50 5045 29 35 39 47 4840 27 32 36 45 4635 24 30 33 43 4330 21 27 30 40 4125 18 25 27 38 3820 15 21 23 34 3515 11 18 18 31 3110 6 13 13 26 275 2 7 5 20 20

Table 4. Perce .le normsGroundstroke: Males


99 97 108 107 109 1249:-, 73 83 82 84 9690 67 76 75 78 8985 63 72 70 73 8480 59 68 67 70 CO

75 57 65 63 66 7770 54 62 60 64 7465 52 60 58 61 71

60 49 57 55 59 6855 47 55 53 57 6650 45 53 51 54 6345 43 50 48 52 6040 40 48 46 50 5835 38 46 43 47 5530 36 43 41 45 5225 33 41 38 42 4920 30 37 35 39 4615 27 34 31 35 4210 23 29 26 31 375 16 23 20 24 30

2.-,

NORMATIVE INFORMATION 23

Table 5. Percentile normsServe: Females


99 34 50 49 52 5095 24 36 35 40 3790 21 32 32 3; 3485 19 30 29 34 3280 18 28 27 33 3075 16 26 26 31 2870 15 24 24 30 2765 14 23 23 28 2660 13 22 22 27 2455 12 20 20 26 2350 11 19 19 25 2245 10 18 18 24 2140 9 16 17 22 2035 8 15 15 21 1830 7 14 14 20 1725 6 12 13 19 1620 5 10 11 17 1415 3 8 9 15 1310 1 6 7 13 105 0 2 3 10 7

Table 6. Percentile normsServe: Males


99 44 50 54 52 6495 31 36 41 41 4890 27 32 37 38 4485 25 30 35 36 4180 23 28 33 34 3975 21 26 31 33 3770 20 24 30 31 3565 18 23 28 30 3460 17 22 27 29 3255 16 20 26 28 3150 15 19 25 27 2945 13 18 23 26 2840 12 16 22 25 2635 11 15 21 24 2530 10 14 19 22 2325 8 12 18 21 2120 6 10 16 20 1915 4 8 14 18 1710 '' 6 12 16 145 1 2 9 13 10

4Jz)


Table 7. Percentile normsVolley: Females


99 29 26 37 36 3895 20 19 27 27 2990 18 17 25 24 2785 16 16 23 23 2580 15 15 22 21 2475 14 14 20 20 2370 13 13 19 19 2265 12 12 18 18 21

60 11 12 17 17 2055 11 11 17 16 1950 10 10 16 16 1945 9 10 15 15 1840 8 9 14 14 1735 7 8 13 13 1630 7 8 12 12 1525 6 7 11 11 1420 5 6 10 10 1315 3 5 8 8 1210 2 4 7 7 11

5 1 2 4 4 8

Table 8. Percentile normsVolley: Males


99 32 39 39 47 4595 24 29 31 36 3590 22 26 28 33 3385 20 24 27 31 31

80 19 23 25 30 2;75 18 22 24 28 28

70 17 21 23 27 2765 16 20 22 26 2660 16 18 22 25 2555 15 18 21 24 2450 14 17 20 23 2345 13 16 19 22 2240 12 15 18 21 2235 12 14 17 20 21

30 11 13 17 19 2025 10 12 16 17 1920 9 10 15 16 1715 8 9 13 14 1610 6 7 12 12 145 4 4 9 9 12

NORMATIVE INFORMATION

Table 9. T-Score normsGround Stroke: Females

25

T-Score Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 College

80 94 92 108 104 10579 92 90 106 102 10378 90 89 104 101 10177 88 87 102 99 10076 86 85 99 97 9875 84 83 97 95 9674 82 81 95 93 9473 80 79 93 91 9272 78 77 91 90 9171 76 76 88 88 8970 74 74 86 86 8769 72 72 34 84 8568 70 70 82 82 8367 67 68 79 81 8166 65 66 77 79 8065 63 65 75 77 7864 61 63 73 75 7663 59 61 70 73 7462 57 59 68 71 7261 55 57 66 70 7060 53 55 64 68 6959 51 54 62 66 6758 49 52 59 64 6557 47 50 57 62 6356 43 48 55 61 6155 43 46 53 59 5954 40 44 50 57 5853 38 42 48 55 5652 36 41 46 53 5451 34 39 44 51 5250 32 37 41 50 5049 30 35 39 48 4948 28 33 37 46 4747 26 31 35 44 4546 24 30 33 42 4345 22 28 30 41 4144 20 26 28 39 3943 18 24 26 37 3842 16 22 24 35 3641 13 20 21 33 3440 11 18 19 32 3239 9 17 17 30 3038 7 15 15 28 2837 5 13 12 26 2736 3 11 10 24 2535 1 9 3 22 2334 0 7 6 21 2133 0 6 4 19 1932 0 4 1 17 1831 0 2 0 15 1630 0 0 0 13 1429 0 0 0 12 1228 0 0 0 10 1027 0 0 0 8 826 0 0 0 6 725 0 0 0 4 524 0 0 0 2 323 0 0 0 1 122 0 0 0 0 021 0 0 0 0 020 0 0 0 0 0


Table 10. T-Score normsGround Stroke: MalesT-Score Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 College

80 97 108 107 109 124

79 95 106 105 107 122

78 94 104 104 105 12077 92 103 102 103 11876 90 101 100 102 116

75 88 99 98 100 114

74 87 97 96 98 112

73 85 95 94 96 11072 83 93 92 94 10871 81 92 90 93 106

70 80 90 88 91 10469 78 88 87 89 102

68 76 86 85 87 10067 74 84 83 85 9766 73 82 81 83 9565 71 80 79 82 9364 69 79 77 80 9163 67 77 75 78 8962 66 75 73 76 8761 64 7, 71 74 8560 62 71 70 72 8359 61 69 68 71 8158 59 68 o6 69 7957 57 66 64 67 7756 55 64 62 65 7555 54 62 60 63 7354 52 60 58 62 71

53 50 58 56 60 6952 48 57 54 58 6751 47 55 53 56 6550 45 53 51 54 6349 43 51 49 52 61

48 41 49 47 51 5947 40 47 45 49 5746 38 45 43 47 5545 36 44 41 45 5344 34 42 39 43 5143 33 40 37 42 4942 31 38 36 40 4741 29 36 34 38 4540 27 34 32 36 4339 26 33 30 34 4138 24 31 28 32 3937 22 29 26 31 3736 20 27 24 29 3535 19 25 22 27 3334 17 23 20 25 31

33 15 22 19 23 2932 13 20 17 21 2631 12 18 15 20 2430 10 16 13 18 2229 8 14 11 16 2028 7 12 9 14 18

27 5 10 7 12 16

26 3 9 5 11 14

25 I 7 3 9 12

24 0 5 2 7 10

23 0 3 0 5 822 0 I 0 3 6

21 0 0 0 I 4

20 0 0 0 0 2

3 2,


Table 11. T-Score normsServe: Females

27

T-Score Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Co Ileg,

80 34 50 49 52 5079 33 19 48 52 4978 33 48 47 51 4877 32 47 46 50 4776 31 45 45 49 4675 30 44 44 48 4574 30 43 43 47 4473 29 42 42 46 4372 2e 41 41 45 4271 27 40 40 44 4170 26 39 39 43 4069 26 38 38 42 4068 25 37 37 41 3967 24 36 36 40 3866 23 35 35 40 3765 23 34 34 39 3664 22 33 33 38 3563 21 32 32 37 3462 20 31 31 36 3361 20 30 30 35 3260 19 29 29 34 3159 18 28 28 33 3058 17 27 2/ 32 2957 16 26 26 31 2956 16 25 25 30 2855 15 24 24 29 2754 14 23 23 28 2653 13 22 22 28 2552 13 21 21 27 2451 12 20 20 26 2350 11 19 19 25 2249 10 18 18 24 2148 9 17 17 23 2047 9 16 16 22 1946 8 15 15 21 1845 7 14 14 20 1744 6 13 A3 19 1743 6 12 12 18 1642 5 11 11 17 1541 4 10 10 16 1440 3 9 9 15 1339 3 8 8 15 1238 2 7 7 14 11

37 1 6 6 13 10

36 0 5 6 12 935 0 4 5 11 834 0 3 4 10 733 0 2 3 9 632 0 1 2 8 631 0 0 1 7 530 0 0 0 6 429 0 0 0 5 328 G 0 0 4 227 0 0 0 3 1

26 0 0 0 3 025 0 0 0 2 024 0 0 0 1 023 0 0 0 0 022 0 0 0 0 021 0 0 0 0 020 0 0 0 0 0

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Table 12. T-Score normsServe: MalesT-Score Grade 9 Grade W Grade U Grade 12 College

80 44 50 54 52 6479 43 49 53 51 6278 42 48 52 51 6177 41 47 51 50 6076 40 45 50 49 5975 39 44 49 48 5874 38 43 48 47 5773 37 42 47 46 5572 36 41 46 46 5471 35 40 45 45 5370 34 39 44 44 5269 33 38 43 43 5168 32 37 42 42 5067 31 36 41 41 4966 30 35 40 40 4765 29 34 39 40 4664 28 33 38 39 4563 27 32 37 38 4462 26 31 36 37 4361 25 30 35 36 4260 24 29 34 35 4159 23 28 33 34 3958 22 27 32 34 3857 22 26 31 33 3756 21 25 30 32 3655 20 24 29 31 3554 19 23 28 30 3453 18 22 28 29 3352 17 21 27 29 3151 16 20 26 28 3050 15 19 25 27 2949 14 18 24 26 2848 13 17 23 25 2747 12 16 22 24 2646 11 15 21 23 2545 10 14 20 23 2344 9 13 19 22 2243 8 12 18 21 2142 7 11 17 20 2041 6 10 16 19 1940 5 9 15 18 1839 4 8 14 17 1638 3 7 13 17 1537 2 6 12 16 1436 1 5 11 15 1335 0 4 10 14 1234 0 3 9 13 1133 0 2 8 12 1032 0 1 7 12 831 0 0 6 11 730 0 0 5 10 629 0 0 4 9 528 0 0 3 8 427 0 0 2 7 326 0 0 1 6 225 0 0 0 6 024 0 0 0 5 023 0 0 0 4 022 0 0 0 3 021 0 0 0 2 020 0 0 0 1 0


Table 13. T-Score normsVolley: Females

29

T-Score Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 College

80 29 26 37 36 3879 28 25 36 36 3778 27 25 35 35 3677 27 24 34 34 3676 26 24 34 34 3575 26 23 33 33 3474 25 23 32 32 3473 24 22 32 32 3372 24 22 31 31 3371 23 21 30 30 3270 22 21 30 29 3169 22 20 29 29 3168 21 20 28 28 3067 21 19 28 27 2966 20 19 27 27 2965 19 18 26 26 2864 19 18 25 25 2863 18 17 25 25 2762 17 17 24 24 2661 17 16 23 23 2660 16 16 23 23 2559 16 15 22 22 2458 15 14 21 21 2457 14 14 21 20 2356 14 13 20 20 2255 13 13 19 19 2254 12 12 18 18 2153 12 12 18 18 2152 11 11 17 17 2051 11 11 16 16 1950 10 10 16 16 1949 9 10 15 15 1848 9 9 14 14 1747 8 9 14 13 1746 7 8 13 13 1645 7 8 12 12 1544 6 7 12 11 1543 5 7 11 11 1442 5 6 10 10 1441 4 6 9 9 1340 4 5 9 9 1239 3 4 8 8 1238 2 4 7 7 1137 2 3 7 6 1036 1 3 6 6 1035 0 2 5 5 934 0 2 5 4 933 0 1 4 4 832 0 1 3 3 731 0 0 2 2 730 0 0 2 2 629 0 0 1 1 528 0 0 0 0 527 0 0 0 0 426 0 0 0 0 325 0 0 0 0 324 0 0 0 0 223 0 0 0 0 222 0 0 0 0 1

21 0 0 0 0 020 0 0 0 0 0


Table 14. T-Score normsVolley: MalesT-Score Grade 9 Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 College

80 32 39 39 47 4579 32 38 39 47 4478 31 37 38 4t 4377 31 37 37 45 4376 30 36 37 44 4275 29 35 36 43 4174 29 35 35 42 4173 28 34 35 42 4072 28 33 34 41 3971 27 32 33 40 3870 26 32 33 39 3869 26 31 32 38 3768 25 30 32 38 3667 24 29 31 37 3666 24 29 30 36 3565 23 28 30 35 3464 23 27 29 34 3363 22 26 28 33 3362 21 26 28 33 3261 21 25 27 32 3160 20 24 26 31 3159 20 23 26 30 3058 19 23 25 29 2957 18 22 24 29 2856 18 21 24 28 2855 17 20 23 27 2754 16 20 23 26 2653 16 19 22 25 2552 15 18 21 24 2551 15 17 21 24 2450 14 17 20 23 2349 13 16 19 22 2348 13 15 19 21 2247 12 14 18 20 2146 12 14 17 19 2045 11 13 17 19 2044 10 12 16 18 1943 10 11 15 17 1842 9 11 15 16 1841 9 10 14 15 1740 8 9 13 15 1639 7 8 13 14 1538 7 8 12 13 1537 6 7 12 12 1436 5 6 11 11 1335 5 5 10 10 1334 4 5 10 10 1233 4 4 9 9 1132 3 3 8 8 1031 2 2 8 7 1030 2 2 7 6 929 1 1 6 6 828 1 6 5 827 0 5 4 726 0 4 3 625 0 4 2 524 0 3 1 523 0 3 1 422 0 2 0 321 0 1 0 220 0 1 0 2

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Mastering the component skills of tennis islargely a matter of proper instruction andpractice. Although each teacher of tennis mayadopt an instructional approach that is com-patible with his or her philosophy, expert:se,and available resources, a common elementof most instructional strategies is the use oftennis drills to enhance learning. The tennisliterature abounds with examples of tennisdrills for the basic skills as well as thoserequired for the advanced player. The fol-lowing drills have been selected as represen-tative of those that have been designed toelicit improvement in the tennis skills of hit-ting forehand and backhand groundstrokes,serving, and volleying. They are offered inprogressive order from simple to complexand from individual to group participation.

GROUND STROKEDRILLS

A. Progression from Novice to AdvancedBeginner

Objective: Racket-to-ball contact andtracking.

Description:

Step 1Self TossStudent hitter (H) stands behind service

line. Using a self toss (bounce-hit), thestudent hits the ball into the parallel ser-vice court. (If the student is having dif-ficulty with the self toss to the backhand,a partner may be used. The partner (P)may stand next to the hitter or behindthe hitter. In either case the hitter shouldbe in racket preparation position.)

Competency Goal: 6 out of 10.

Step 2Partner TossStudent hitter stands behind service line.

A partner (T), from across the net, tossesball to hitter. The ball is hit into the par-allel service court.

Competency Goal: 6 out of 10.

Step 3RallyStudent partners stand behind parallel

service line. Beginning with a self toss(bounce-hit), students rally using theparallel service court as boundaries. Stu-dents must attempt to contact the ballafter the first bounce.

When using these progressions theinstructor may want to have the studenthit all forehands, all backhands, eitherforehands or backhands or alternatingforehand - backhand.

Competency Goal: six consecutive hitsby each student.

Step 4GameStudents stand behind parallel service

lines. Beginning with a self toss (bounce-hit) serve, students play a four (4)-pointgame. The parallel service court area isused as service and play boundaries. Thefirst player to score four (4) points winsthe game. Serving, receiving, and gameplay rules are consistent with regularplaying rules except for the boundaries.

Competency Goal: win two out of fourgames.

Step 5Doubles GameUsing the service line extended and

doubles side line as boundaries, the fourplayers play a four (4)-point game. Stu-dents stand behind the service line. Thegame begins with a self toss (bounce-hit)serve. The first team to score four pointswins the game. Serving and receivingorder is consistent with regular doublesplay. Game play rules are consistent withregular playing rules except for theboundaries and the "bounce-hit" serve.

Competency level: win two out of fourgames

Step 6Repeat Steps 1-5 from the base-line

Steps 1-5 are repeated except studentsbegin all drills from behind the baseline.

STEP 1

TENNIS DRILLS FOR THE BASIC SKILLS 33

H H

A

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H H

STEP 3

Figure 5. Progressive Ground Stroke Drill

STEP 2


The target area and play area becomesthe back court.

B. Level Progression from Beginner toIntermediate Level

Objective: Controlled rally.

Description: Two , tudents assume aposition behind the baseline and rally fora two-minute period. They attempt tocommit as few errors as possible. Eachstudent has two balls to start a rally. Ifthe four balls have been played, studentsmust retrieve at least one of the balls inorder to start another rally. One studentbegins the rally with a self toss (bounce-hit). Any time an error is committed therally ends. Immediately a new rally isstarted by either student from behind thebaseline. Errors include: ball being hitout of bounds, ball not going over net,or not hitting the ball on the first bounce.The rally ends after the two (2)-minutetime period or if the students were unableto retrieve any of the original four balls.The scoring system includes both thecombined "good" strokes by both stu-dents, and the "errors" committed byeach of the students. First, the combinedtotal of "good" strokes executed by bothstudents is calculated, not counting theinitial self t:P5. Then, the number of errorscommitted oy each student is subtractedfrom this total. There:ore, scores are cal-culated for both students.

Students should determine theircounting responsibilities prior to thetwo-minute rally or if four students areassigned per court, the two sitting outshould assume the counting responsibil-ities. Time periods can be increased inaccordance with the skill level of the stu-dents. It is not recommended to rallybeyond a four (4)-minute period.

Competency level: Students reflect anincrease in score.

C. LevelProgression from Intermediateto Advanced Level

Objective: Cross-court, down-the-lineforehand and backhand strokes, andstrategy.

Description:

Step 1Down-the-linealley rallyUsing the appropriate ground stroke

(forehand or backhand) the students rallywith a partner in the parallel alley. Forexample, a right-handed student in posi-tion A uses a backhand, right-handedstudent B a forehand, right-handed stu-dent C uses a backhand, and right-handedstudent D uses a forehand. The parallelalley area is used as :'-,:. boundary.

Rotation involves . and D, and B andC exchanging places.

Step 2Cross-court alley drillUsing the appropriate ground stroke

the students rally with a partner in thecross-court alley. If all students were righthanded, students A and C rally using abackhand cross-court stroke and stu-dents B and D rally using forehand cross-court strokes. The cross-court alley is usedas the boundary.

The rotation involves students A andD, and students B and C.

Competency level: Steps 1 and 2-5consecutive hits by each student.

Step 3Steps 1 and 2, 4-point gameBeginning Mb a self toss (bounce-hit)

and the alleys as boundaries, studentsplay a four (4)-point game. The first stu-dent to reach four (4) points wins. Thestep 1four-point game involves onlystudents in parallel alleys. The step 2--four -point game may involve only thosestudents in diagonal alleys or all four stu-dents. In both cases only cross-courtstrokes are allowed. Serving, receiving,and game play rules are cons' nt with

4 U.

B C

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STEP 1

D


B C

Figure 6. Down-the-line/Cross-Court Rally Drill

regular playing rules except for the alleyboundary area.

Step 4Down-the-linereturn-to-cm-ter-mark

Students rally down-the-line shots, butafter each down-the-line shot the studentmust return to the center mark position.Thus, student A is always moving left toreturn the shot and student B moves tothe right. Repeat with students movingin opposite directions, student A movingto the right, and student B moving to theleft.

Step 5 Cross - court return -to- center-mark

This drill is similar to step 4 exceptcross-court shots ale executed. In this dnll,both players would move to the right,

4i

STEP 2

execute a cross-court shot and then returnto the center mark. This sequence contin-ues until an error is made. The drill isthen repeated with the student movingto the left executing a cross-court shotand returning to center mark.

Competency level: Steps 4 and 5; 5consecutive hits by each student.

Step 6Cross-courtIdown-the-linesequence

Students rally using only designatedshots. One student hits only cross-courtshots, while the other student only hitsdown-the-line shots. For example, stu-dent A would hit only cross-court shots,while student B hits only down-the-lineshots. Students then reverse assigned


4+ A

STEP 4

Figure 7. Return-to-Center Drill

strokes, A hitting down the line, B hittingcross-court strokes.

Competency level: Each student musthit a sequence of two consecutive fore-hands and two consecutive backhands.

Step 7Cross-courtIdown-the-line gameStarting with a self-toss (bounce-hit),

students begin with the cross-court/clown-the-line sequence. After each student hasexecuted two of their designated strokes,they rally using any stroke, yet attempt-ing to keep the ball in play and forcingan opponent error. The playing area isthe backcourt. Playing rules are consis-tent with regular play except for theboundaries.

A 41-0*STEP 5

[The ground stroke drills are providedcourtesy of Carolyn Lehr and Jane Kuy-kendall of the University of Georgia.]

SERVICE DRILLSA 'nvice Toss Drill

Objective: To improve the consistencyof the service toss, since an accurate andconsistent toss is a key component of theserve.

Description: This drill may be prac-ticed anywhei,.., but the ideal position isstanding just behind the baseline whilefacing the net. This adds realism to thedrill, since you are practicing from the

44-

AA- CROSSCOURTB- DOWN- THE -LINE


1F

4-- A

A- DOWN- THE -LINE

B- CROSSCOURT

Figure 8. Cross-Court/Down-the-line Rally Drill

normal service area. Place your rackethead at a spot that represents the loca-tion where a tossed serve should land.The preferred spot is slightly in front ofthe baseline and in line with the rightshoulder. A right-handed player shouldtake a ball in the left hand and toss it inthe air as if to initiate a serve. Pay partic-ular attention to the height of the balland the accuracy of the toss in relation-ship to the body. If the toss is done cor-rectly, the ball should land on the rackethead and bounce back up to you. Takeyour time and continue to toss the balluntil you have developed the requiredconsistency.

General Comments. An accurate andconsistent service toss requires a greatdeal of practice to develop, so do notbecome discouraged if you do not suc-ceed immediately. Once you feel com-fortable with your toss, you might wantto add the normal body rotation that isalso an integral part of the serve, takinginto account that you are practicing thisrotation without a racket in your hand.

B. Service Form Drill

Objective: To coordinate the total bodyrotation with the ball toss while actuallyserving the ball, without being con-


cerned about the placement or speed ofthe serve.

Description: Stand 5 to 7 feet awayfrom a fence or net and practice the serve.Draw an imaginary baseline and workon the ball toss, body rotation, armextension, and hitting the ball as youwould during a regular game. Avoid anyconcern about how high the ball hits onthe net or fence in the early stages. Withpractice, players eventualk become morecomfortable with the total service motion,and only then should work on serviceplacement be initiated.

':eneral Comments. The tennis serveis a difficult stroke to master, so be patientand allow yourself plenty of practice time.The serve is a very important part of ten-nis, and for that reason, many players atall skill levels spend a great deal of timepracticing the serve.

C. Half-Court Serve Drill

Objective: Once the basic bodymechanics of the serve have been prac-ticed, service placement is the nextimportant hurdle. This drill allows a playerto concentrate on ball placement from aposition cioser to the net than normal.

Description: Stand just behind the ser-vice line and immediately to the right ofthe center service line. Cnce in position,proceed to serve a ball diagonally intothe right service court. Placement isImportant, so try to consistentiy servewithin the boundaries of the right ser iLecourt. Forget about the speed of the ben euntil you have achieved consistent p1aLe-ment. As you impime, add a faster bodyrotation and arm swing to the servicemotion. This promotes an increase in ser-vice velocity. When you have thoroughlypracticed the rignt service court serve,then move to the left of th center sen ice

line and serve diagonally into the leftservice court. Be sure to practice an equalamount of time from both the right andleft sides.

General Comments. By initially standingat the service line, each player shouldexperience a higher rate of success, whichallows him:her to concentrate more onplacement and speed while gaining con-fidence in performing the serve. As ser-vice ability improves, the distance fromthe net to the server should be increaseduntil the baseline is reached.

D. Consecutive Serves

Objective: To practice concentrationwhen serving.

Description: Player A serves to B, twoserves to each court, alternating courts.When A misses, B serves. Keep track ofthe number of consecutive good servesby each player. Try to improve byincreasing the number. Keep personaland group records to add an element ofcompetition.

E. Jacks

Objective. To develop concentrationand consistency in serving.

Description: Spin the racket to deter-mine which player serves first. Player Aserves one serve from the forehand court.If the serve is good, A moves to the Jack-hand court to attempt two consecutiveserves. If both are good, A attempts threeconsecutive serves from the forehandcourt. A continues sen ing until missing,alternating sen ice courts and attemptingan additional serve each time. If A misses,B serves. B follows the same pattern. IfB misses, A serves. Player A will con-tinue from the last successful set. (If thelast set completed was three consecutive

serves, then four consecutive servesshould be attempted.) The object is to bethe first player to serve ten consecutivesuccessful serves.

Target Serve

Objective: To develop accuracy inserving.

Description: Mark a line 3 feet insideand parallel to the service line. Dividethat area in half with another line. Makea pyramid with four balls in the tenter ofeach area to use as targets. Player A willserve two balls to the deuce court, thefirst to land in the forehand target area(1), the second to land in the backhandtarget area (2). A will then serve two ballsto the ad court, the first to land in theforehand target area (3), the second toland in the backhand target area (4). Awill continue this pattern until 12 ballshave been served, then B will serve '2balls. Five points are awarded if the pyr-amid of balls is hit, three points if theserve lands in the proper target area, andone point if the serve lands anywhere inthe correct service court but not in theproper target area. The player having themost points wins.

Variation: The target areas and five-point targets can vary in size, dependingon the skill level of the players.

Serve and Return Drill

Objective: To improve a player's oerv-ing ability.

Description: Stand just behind thebaseline and immediately to the right ofthe center service line, just as you wouldif it were the first serve of an actual game.Serve the ball diagonally into the rightservice court, concentrating on both theplacement and speed of the serve. After


A

Figure 9. Target Service Drill

practicing from the right side, move tothe left of the center service line and con-tinue to work on your serving consis-tency. This is a good time to work orserves toward an imaginary opponent'sforehand and backhand sides, as well asfor practicing spin serves. Remember thatserving to an empty service court is dif-ferent from serving to an opponent.

Once you feel comfortable serving toan empty court, have your partner takea proper service return position and strokethe ball back over the net after each serve.The drill then becomes valuable for bothplayers, as it becomes a serve and returndrill. After thoroughly practicing yourserve, switch roles and become the retur-ner. Avoid the temptation to keep score.Just concentrate on the serve and servicereturn.


General Comments. This is an excel-lent drill for a server, regardless of his/her skill level. The drill promotes serviceconsistency, improves forehand andbackhand placement, and allows for thepractice of spin serves. The partner isalso given the opportunity to work onpositioning for the service return alongwith return placement.

Advanced drills for the serve simplyinvolve a player's serving from the base-line while working on such things as pre-cise placement, spin, and the speed ofthe serve. Most skilled tennis playerswould agree that proficiency in servingis attained only through much hard workand concentration.

[The service drills are taken from Petro,S. (1986). The tennis drill book. Cham-paign, IL: Leisure Press.]

VOLLEY DRILLSA. Wall Volley Drill

Objective: To develop the hitting tech-nique for the volley shot.

Description: Stand approximately 5 feetfrom a wall and proceed to continuouslyhit a ball against the wall, concentratinginitially on the forehand volley. With anyvolley shot, it is important that you fol-low the flight of the ball until it makescontact with your racket. In other words,keep your eyes on the ball and try to havethe ball consistently make contact withthe racket at the "sweet spot." Once youfeel comfortable with the forehand, switchto the backhand and again hit volley shotscontinuously against the wall. As youimprove, move back from the wall untilyou are consistently hitting both the fore-hand and backhand volley shots from adistance of 10 feet.

46

General Comments. A common mis-take with any volley shot is to overswingor try to "power" the ball over the net.Work on a smooth, fluid swing whileconcentrating on accuracy. Do not beconcerned about ball velocity until later.As your skill improves, alternate fore-hand and backhand volleys and gradu-ally increase the speed of the shot.

B. Stationary Volley Drill

Objective: To improve the consistencyand accuracy of the volley shot.

Description: Stand between 5 and 7feet from the net, facing it and straddlingthe center service line. Have your part-ner stand at the service line on the oppo-site side of the net and throw a tennis:Jail to your forehand side. Attempt tohit a volley shot over the net while con-centrating on hand-eye coordination andball-racket contact. Avoid any concernabout ball placement or speed. Afterthoroughly practicing the forehand vol-ley, go to the backhand, staying 5 to 7feet from th net and in the center of thecourt.

After some improvement, increase thedistance from the net to 10 to 12 feet andcontinue to practice both forehand andbackhand shots. You should eventuallywork your way back to the service line,a distance of 21 feet from the net.

General Comments. Once you havedeveloped hitting consistency with thevolley shot, placement is the next impor-tant objective. Placing the volley returnat an angle, either to the right or left, isusually preferred. Gradually increase thetempo of your swing, and speed of thereturn will increase accordingly.

As you gain some confidence in yourvolley stroke, it is a good idea to haveyour partner hit a ground stroke to you

instead of simply throwing the ball. Thisadds a little more speed to the oncomingball and requires some movement on yourpart in ord7r to obtain prop.:r position-ing. An excellent variation of the station-ary volley drill involves two players hit-ting a ball continuously over the netwithout allowing the ball to hit the play-ing surface. In the partner volley drill,each player stands facing the net,approximately 5 feet away, and proceedsto volley the ball back and forth, concen-trating on consistency. As progress ismade, the players move farther from thenet until they have reached the serviceline.

C. Moving Volley Drill

Objective: To improve a player's abil-ity to set up and hit a volley shot in asimulated game situation.

Description: As in the previously dis-cussed stationary volley drill, start at aposition 5 to 7 feet away from the net andin the middle of the court. Have yourpartner hit ground strokes from the base-line to both your forehand and backhandside, varying the speed and height of theball. Instead of hitting the ball directly toyou, he/she should hit it at least 8 to 10feet to each side. This way you will beforced to move to the shot, as opposedto standing in the center of the court.

As you progress, increase the distancefrom the net until you have at leastreached the service line, a distance of 21feet. Concentrate on shot consistency andplacement. Speed is developed naturallyas confidence in hitting the volley shot isincreased.

General Comments. Proper position-ing is an important prerequisite for thesuccessful return of any tennis shot,especially the volley. React to the ball assoon as it leaves the opponent's racket,


if not before. Based on the body positionof your opponent, you can often deter-mine the angle of the return or the shotselection ahead of time. Body languagein tennis varies from player to player, buta correct interpretation of an opponent'smovement definitely gives a player anadvantage in shot anticipation and reac-tion time. Drill work provides a playerthe opportunity to study a partner's bodylanguage, which can be later appliedagainst a real opponent. Take full advan-tage of this opportunity during drills suchas the moving volley drill.

D. Scramble Drill

Objective: Footwork and racket prep-aration.

Description:1. Student (A) assumes position at

net in center of court.2. Feeder (B) assumes position at

baseline, behind center mark.3. A is randomly fed balls to volley,

forehand, backhand, low, high,wide, and tight.

Note; The pace of the balls fed may beadjusted to the skill level of the student.Additionally, B's position may be movedtoward net as well, dependent upon eachstudent's ability.

E. One-On-One Volley

Objective: Footwork, racket prepara-tion, and consistency/accuracy of volley.

Description:1. Students (A and B) assume net

position in center of court.2. One student feeds ball and both

volley back and forth keeping ballin play.

Note. Variations of this drill can invokestudents in deuce or ad court, cross courtfrom each other, or with two pairs of

4 '


B

Figure 10. Scramble Volley Drill

volleyers alternating hitting down lineand cross court.

F. Volley Placement Drill

Objective: Contacting ball in front ofbody and depth in placement of volleys.

Description:1. Student (A) assumes position at

net in center court.2. Feeder (B) assumes position at

baseline, behind center mark.3. Using forehand volley, A attempts

placements in backcourt alternat-ing shots to corners.

Note: Two retrievers may be utilizedto assist in keeping drill moving. Thisdrill may be performed emphasizingeither forehand or backhand volley, A

A

A

B

Figure 11. One-on-one Volley Drill

B

Figure 12. Volley Placement Drill

placed in either deuce or ad court, and/or executing cross-court and down -the-line volleys.

[Volley drills A, B, and C are taken from


Petro (1986). Volley drills D, E, and F areprovided courtesy of Graham Hatcher ofthe University of North Carolina, Wil-mington.]


Armbruster, D. A., Musker, F. F., & Mood,D. (1975). Basic skills in sports for men andwomen. Saint Louis: The C. V. MosbyCompany.

Avery, C. A., Richardson, P. A., & Jackson,A. W. (1979). A practical tennis serve test.Measurement of skill under simulated gameconditions. Research Quarterly, 50(4), 554-564.

Broer, M. R., & Miller, D. M. (1950).Achievement tests for begin-ing andintermediate tennis. Research Qu..rterly, 21,303-313.

Budge, D. (1937). How lawn tennis is played.New York: American Lawn Tennis Asso-ciation.

Bunn, J. W. (1972). Scientific principles ofcoaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Chavez, R., & Nieder, L. S. (1982). Teachingtennis. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publish-ing Company.

Cobane, E. (1962). Test for the service. InTennis and badmiiton guide-lune 1962 -June1964. Washington, D.C.: AAHPER Publi-cations.

Driver, H. (1941). Tennis for teachers. Phila-delphia: W. B. Saunders Co.

Dyer, J. T. (1935). The backboard test of ten-nis ability. Research Quarterly, 6(Suppl.),63-74.

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APPENDIX AAAHPERD Tennis Skill Test

Name Sex: M FGrade Level: AgeLocation of school.

Ground Stroke

FOREHAND BACKHAND

0,o (e.tt° e-

12 _34 _6 _7

8

910

Sum

Composite ScoreDate:

Volley Serve

FOREHAND BACKHAND

1 _234 _5

6 .._

Sum

Composite ScoreDate'

Deuce AdCourt Court

1

2345

6

78

Sum

LtiComposite ScoreDate

APPENDIX 3 49

APPENDIX B

TENNIS RATING SCALE:FOREHAND/BACKHAND

5Excellent Proper grip, good balance, footwork, and near perfect form. remonstratesconsistent stroke mechanics. Anticipates opponent's shots. Placementappropriate for opponent's weaknesses or position.

4Good Proper grip, good balance, adequate footwork, and acceptable bat nest per-fect, form. Demonstrates above average consistency of stroke mechanics.Anticipates opponent's shots. Consistent placement within court area.

3Average Proper grip, acceptable balance, but footwork is poor. Form is somewhaterratic and inefficient, resulting in inconsistency in shot placen.cmt. Style ofplay may be defensive. Little anticipation of opponent's shots.

2Fair Uses improper grip at times, poor footwork, and basically .-orrect form.Inconsistent in stroke mechanics. Defensive style of play, merely trying toget ball over net. Little anticipation of opponent's shots. Unable to sustaht arally.

1Poor Incorrect grip, off-balance, with poor footwork. Form is very poor and erratic.Inaccurate shot placement. No anticipation of opponent's shots. Experiencesdifficulty in getting ball over net.

TENNIS RATING SCALE: SERVE

5Excellent Continental or Backhand grip, good 'valance, good use of shoulder (loop),consistent ball toss with adequate height, ability to place serve powerfullyin designated areas.

4Good Grip may vary some, balance ;b ad( quote, good use a shoulder, slight balltoss problems, ability to place se.ye (most of the time in designated areawith power.

3Average Forehand grip, balance is adequate, Shuulder may be slightly ineffi cient, balltoss too short or too high consistently. Control of serve is lacking and haslimited power.

2Fair Forehand or Western grip, balance problems, ineffectiv.! use of shoulder,ball toss control problems, little control and power.


1Poor Forehand or Western grip, poor balance, improper use of shoulder and body,no control of serve and very little power.

TENNIS RATING SCALE: VOLLEY

5Excellent Textbook form, footwork facilitates stroking patterns, shoulders turned I" hentime permit . Consistent racket preparation, contacts ball in front of body,little backswing or follow through. Anticipates well, capable of hitting offen-sively and aggressively off both sides.

4Good Good grip, above average footwork, generally good position. Acceptableform, often has good racket preparation, often contacts balls in fronl- of body.Seldom hits with backswing or follow through. Good anticipation, aboveaverage consistency in shot placement.

3Average Acceptable grip, occasional backswing and follow through, erratic form.Often defensive volley but an occasional good I, olley from one side. Incon-sistent stroke production, little anticipation, contacts ball late from openstance with little footwork.

2--Fair Inconsistent grip, frequent backswing, frequent late contact with ball. Incor-rect form, poor framework, inconsistent stroke mechanics and production.Generally defensive, little anticipation, poor racket preparations.

1Poor Unacceptable grip, poor footwork, inefficient form. No racket preparationor anticipation, late contact with ball, if any. Hits with same side of racketfor forehand and backhand volleys. Always defensive, poor racket/eye coor-dination.

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