dispensa inglese i

7/29/2019 Dispensa Inglese I

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UNIT 1: COMPOSITION WRITING

FEATURES OF THE MAIN TYPES OF COMPOSITION

A composition is an organised piece of writing written for a specific purpose.It is characterised by:

COHERENCE - ideas/points should be arranged in a balanced, logical manner.

COHESION - ideas/sentences/paragraphs should be linked together satisfactorily.

CLARITY - points should be expressed clearly so that they are easily comprehensible to the reader

CORRECTNESS - mistakes in grammar and spelling must be avoided

Every composition should have a recognisableINTRODUCTION,DEVELOPMENT (divided into PARAGRAPHS, each dealing with a particular aspect of the topic),CONCLUSION.

Compositions can be roughly divided into four main types:1 DESCRIPTIVE

Typical development:from the general to the particularfrom outside to inside or vice versadifferent features of a particular thing, place, personcontrasting positive and negative aspects

2 NARRATIVETypical development:setting the scene, place, background, situation, earlier events, descriptive paragraphevents in chronological order (what happened first, later, next, as a result, in the end, etc.)anecdotesMain tenses: Simple Past, Past Perfect, Past Continuous

3 ARGUMENTATIVETypical development:comparing different opinions, pros and consdestroying an argumentpersuading"selling" a point of view

4 FACTUALTypical development:comparing past and presentcause and effectdifferences between one place and anotherincrease and decrease

trends

N.B. Most compositions are a mixture of the above types and their features.


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A MODEL ESSAY

Points to note:o the use of pairs of words and pairs of ideaso contrasting pointso how paragraphs / points are linkedo adding detail to support a pointo use of repetition to reinforce a pointo use of generalisationo use of the pronoun youo focusing on what to do rather than what not to do

The Successful Interview

IntroductionTo be successful in a job interview (or for that matter in almost any interview situation), you should demonstratecertain personal and professional qualities. You need to create a good image in the limited time available, usuallyfrom 30 to 45 minutes. Furthermore, you must make a positive impression which the interviewer will remember whilehe or she interviews other applicants. At all times, you should present your most attractive qualities during aninterview.

UNIT 3

THE PARAGRAPH

Features of the paragraphA paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single feature or aspect of a broader topic. It can stand alone orbe part of a longer piece of writing. The sentences within the paragraph should be appropriately linked to what precedesand what follows and arranged in a logical sequence.

A paragraph has some of the features of the sentence (unity, balance, cohesion) and some of the features of a well-structured essay or composition, that is, it should consist of an introduction, development and conclusion.Research shows that the average paragraph contains about five to seven sentences, however, they may be shorter orlonger depending on the complexity of the subject

Sentence functions within the paragraphThe first sentence of a paragraph (introducer or topic sentence) serves to introduce the main idea and establish thefocus of the paragraph as a whole.The body of the paragraph (developers) provides details to support the main idea. Developers may present examples ordetails of various kinds to support or illustrate the topic sentence, or they may introduce exceptions, alternatives,differences. In any case they provide a transition leading to the concluding sentence.The closing sentence (conclusion or terminator) logically concludes the ideas expressed in the paragraph in apsychologically satisfactory manner. The terminator often reaffirms or underlines the central idea. Alternatively it may

provide a lead-in to the subsequent paragraph.

Introductory and concluding paragraphsParagraphs which serve to introduce or conclude a longer text have specific characteristics.The introducti on may have one or more of the following functions:

to arouse interest in the subject

to indicate which aspects of the subject you are going to deal with

to define the subject or the words of the title

to give your own or someone else's opinion on the subject (if the topic is controversial)

to express some general considerations about the topic to be developed


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4) Adverbs and adverbial phrases in the following order:5) a) Manner b) Place c) Time

This classic order is sometimes referred to as SVOMPT.

This order may be varied for a number of reasons. Some adverbs are normally placed before the main verb; someadverbs are followed by inversion of subject and verb if placed at the beginning of the sentence; questions requireinversion and in passive sentences adverbs of manner are often placed before the past participle. Sometimes adverbs of

place and time are placed at the beginning for emphasis or to avoid a long string of adverbs at the end.N.B. In English the verb and object should not be separated.

Emphasis with in the sentenceStandard word order is often varied for purposes of emphasis or dramatic effect: Out of the wardrobefelt a body.Never before had Ibeen in such a dilemma.Only now do l understand why he behaved as he did.Drunk though he was, he managed to carry the child to safety.That the students were bored was obvious.

"It is"/was" or an initial phrase beginning with "what" or "all" are sometimes used for emphasis within the sentence:It was an interesting story that he told.What these signs mean is a mystery.All he did was ask you a simple question.

Repitition for emphasisRepetition of the same word or phrase may also be used for emphasis"Men in great places are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business."(Francis Bacon)"A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse ""Do", "does" or"did" can be added for emphasis:These people don't have many resources but they do know how to make the best use of what they have.He did nothing to help the poor. what he did do was throw away his money on gambling, women and fast cars.

Structural repetitionHere's a short example of structural repetition from the play Getting Married, by George Bernard Shaw:There are couples who dislike one another furiously for several hours at a time; there are couples who dislike oneanother permanently; and there are couples who never dislike one another; but these last are people who are incapableof disliking anybody.

UNIT 6

THE PHRASE

Definitions of phrase A small group of words standing together as a conceptual unit, typically forming a component of a clause.

Any small group of words within a sentence or a clause.

In everyday speech, a phrase may refer to any group of words. In linguistics, a phrase is a group of words which form aconstituent and so function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.For example, the house at the end of the streetis a phrase. It acts like a noun. It can further be broken down into twoshorter phrases functioning as adjectives: at the end of the street, a shorter prepositional phrase within the longer nounphrase. At the end of the streetcould be replaced by an adverb such as nearby. The end of the streetcould also bereplaced by another noun, such as the crossroadsto produce the house at the crossroads.

Categories of phrasesPhrases may be classified as follows:


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Prepositional phrase (e.g. only on Saturdays, over the rainbow, out of sight).

Noun phrase (e.g. a bunch of flowers, that man over there, the girl with the pearl earring)

Verb phrase (e.g. phrasal verbs and verbs followed by a preposition or adverb, collocations containing verbs)

Adverb + adjective/participle phrases (e.g. not easily comprehensible, totally wrong, fairly well dressed)

Participial phrases (e.g. not knowing what to do, while working abroad, once left alone)

Idioms, stock phrases, collocations Many phrases are idiomatic, in other words, it is not always possible to understand their meaning from the

individual words that form them (e.g. out of the blue (= unexpectedly), to smell a rat (= to be suspicious), to cutno ice (= to have no effect), over the moon (= very happy).

Many phrases are fixed expressions, that is sets of words always used in the same order (e.g. last but not least,all things considered, first and foremost).

Many phrases are collocations, that is they are made up of words that tend to be used in combination (e.g. tomake a mistake, to find out the truth, the same old story).

UNIT 7

THE WORD

Words are classified as: nouns verbs

adjectives adverbs

prepositions

conjunctionsIn English these forms often overlap in usage or in meaning. In other words a word with same form may beboth a noun and a verb; nouns are often used adjectivally, prepositions may also be conjunctions or theymay function as adverbs (as in phrasal verbs).Many words have both a literal and a figurative meaning and some words are only used in specific phrases.Many English words have two or more distinct meanings (homonyms).

Many English words resemble Italian words but mean something different (false friends)Many English words are actually two words (compound words)

EXERCISE 1: Related wordsChoose two words from each line theta's in some way linked.Example: bullet, calendar, skirt, brick, gun

1. tree, sock, stone, branch, blanket2. weed, horse, tune, mane, mayor3. bark, gang, receiver, joint, knee

4. thread, tree, needle, crown, tea5. kettle, reins, hen, teapot, office6. key, surgeon, scalpel, desk, band7. floor, pew, trial, fire, church

8. foot, fringe, plait, pavement, basket9. net, stitch, step, drum, stair10. string, cord, bow, arch, violet


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UNIT 9

PREPOSITIONS

NOTE

Prepositions cause problems for a variety of reasons: they often have different meanings and different functions;

they are used in many idiomatic phrases, the meaning of which is not always immediately apparent (e.g. atlarge, by all means, for good, in return, at hand);

they do not always correspond to the same preposition in Italian (i.e. on is not always su, in is not alwaysin, etc.);

English sometimes requires a preposition where Italian does not (wait for, pay for, look at) and vice versa;

compared with Italian, prepositions in English may have a different function, e.g. the to of the infinitive, or toform phrasal verbs;

adverbial particles often have the same form as prepositions (e.g. on, off, by, in, over, etc.);

two or more prepositions in English are often required where one preposition does the job in Italian (a= to / at,in= in / into, da= for / since / from / by / at, di= of / than);

prepositions often have the same form as other parts of speech: before the war (prep.), before I arrived

(conjunction), havent we met before? (adverb), he walked past the bank (prep.), the plane flew past (adverb),in the past (noun), in past times (adj.);

prepositions have a different position in modern English as compared with Italian (e.g. in questions and relativeclauses): Who did you speak to? (not To whom did you speak?) ... the party I voted for (rather than the partyfor which I voted).

UNIT 10

IDIOMS AND STOCK PHRASES

IntroductionOne way of making your writing more colourful and interesting to read is to use idiomatic expressions and stock phrasesin an appropriate way.An idiom is a combination of words with a special meaning that cannot usually be inferred from its separate parts. Wordsused idiomatically are often not used in the sense that you would normally associate with them.

Type 1) idioms (the meaning can be deduced from the components of the phrase)Even if you had never heard the following expressions you would probably be able to understand them.He eats like a pig.He took the lions share.Veronicas on the wrong side of thirty.

Type 2) idioms (literal and figurative meaning)

Rosemary wouldnt say boo to a goose. On the face of it this is a strange thing to say. Of course it is perfectly possibleto say boo to a goose, but who would want to? This statement is only used idiomatically, meaning that Rosemary is verytimid and wouldnt dare to make even the mildest protest. Clearly, its impossible to deduce this figurative meaning fromthe separate elements. Thus, the sentence has two meanings a literal meaning which you would be very unlikely touse, and a metaphorical meaning which all native speakers of English would understand.More examples:Every family has a skeleton in the cupboard.He buried his head in the sand.Dont rock the boat.Hes kicked the bucket.


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Type 3) idioms (only figurative meaning)Shall we go Dutch?This has no literal meaning at all, only an idiomatic one. It means I suggest that you pay for your meal and Ill pay formine. Again, it is impossible to infer the meaning from the individual words.More examples:He sold those old paintings for a song, not realising their true value.The new job is right up his street.

Jazz isnt really my cup of tea.

ConclusionMany idioms, proverbs and stock phrases are related to basic human needs and experiences. Many are therefore linkedto the agricultural life, seafaring, warfare, the cycle of the seasons, celestial bodies, animals, food, clothing, family, partsof the body, the home, colours, numbers, money. Many were first used in works of literature such as fables, fairy stories,Shakespeares plays and the English translation of the Bible. Many are related to the culture and customs of a particularhistorical period. Many are similes or metaphors.It is quite common for the same word (e.g. game, time, ship, hand) to be used in several different idiomatic expressions.

WRITING TIPS (1)THE FIVE PARAGRAPH ESSAY

Writing the Five-Paragraph EssayA good, clear format can make any essay easy to write. Structuring your ideas clearly, creating *a strong thesisstatement, and providing lots of support make the essay easier to read. The five-paragraph essay provides a schemainto which ideas will fit. By confining the ideas of your paper into this format you will increase your organization, yourreader's attention and understanding, and thus your grade.

The Five-Paragraph FormatThe five-paragraph format is a tried and true way to structure an essay. The first paragraph is the introduction. It shouldinclude a basic overview of the subject matter, as well as an idea of what will be discussed in the body of the work. The

paragraph should conclude with a strong thesis statement. The body of the essay should include approximately threeparagraphs, each with one well-developed thoughts. The conclusion will sum up the material covered in the body andrestate the thesis. By following this basic format, any essay can become easy to write.

The IntroductionThe introduction is the first thing a reader sees. It sets the tone for the entire piece by laying out not only what will bewritten, but also how it will be written. Begin the essay with something catchy. A bold statement or even a question is agreat way to begin. Next, discuss what the body of the essay will include. This is a brief summary of what the subject is,and your opinion about the subject. Finally, conclude with a directly stated thesis. This is one sentence including whatthe point of the essay is and how you plan on proving it.

The BodyThe body is the true meat of your essay. This is where you lay out your ideas and make your point. Begin yourparagraph with a topic sentence. State the point you're trying to make in this paragraph, along with how you intend todo that. If there is one thing to remember when writing your essay, it should be SUPPORT, SUPPORT, SUPPORT. Justas the essay has three supporting paragraphs, your paragraph should have three supporting points. These points,especially if the paper is for an English class, chould include citations. As long as you support the citation you've made,quotes can only help you. Conclude the paragraph with a wrap-up sentence revisiting the point of the paragraph.

ConclusionEnd your essay as neatly as you can. Restate the thesis you laid out in the introduction. Talk about the points you'vemade in the essay and to what conclusion those points ultimately lead. This is a great opportunity to look back over youressay and see whether you met the promise of your thesis. Did you discuss all the things you planned to? Did you


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support each with evidence from the text? Finally, did the things you wrote about in your essay point to one ultimateconclusion? The conclusion is the last chance you have to make your point and leave a lasting impression on the reader.Make the piece as memorable as possible.*Definition for thesis statement:

a brief sentence presenting the main point of a persuasive writing, usually in the introductory paragraph

a thesis statement clearly expresses the author's opinion on the subject and can be argued and supported with

evidence.

an explicit statement of the purpose, intent or main idea of a piece of writing

POSSIBLE PARAGRAPH THEMES FOR A COMPOSITION ABOUT FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

difficulty of learning a foreign language

best way to learn a foreign language

opportunities for learning

foreign language teaching in your country

comparison with language learning in other countries

bilingualism

usefulness / necessity of knowing another language

social and cultural aspects

own experience

prospect for the future

N.B. Not all of these. Be selective.

WRITING TIPS (2)

DISCOURSE MARKERS, TRANSITIONAL DEVICES, LINKING DEVICES, CONNECTORS

Two effective ways to achieve coherence in your writing are with transitions (or connectors) and with parallel structureslinked by conjunctions (e.g. and, but, so, not only ..... but also) or adverbs (moreover, however, therefore).Transitions allow sentences to hang together and make connections between sentences and between paragraphs.These linking devices act very much like directional signals to your reader allowing him to follow your words. They can

also be thought of as bridges that connect sentences and paragraphs to each other. The purpose of these connectionsis to show the relationship between succeeding parts of sentences, phrases and clauses.

A. To add, amplif y or carry forwardalso / and / and then / as well / besides / beyond that / especially / first, second, etc. / finally / for example / forinstance / furthermore / in addition / indeed / in fact / in other words / in particular / in the same way / likewise /moreover / namely / next / similarly / that is / too / to illustrate this point / whats more / for one thing ..... for another

B. To show a resultafter all / and so / as a consequence / as a result / because of this / consequently / for this reason / hence / so / then /therefore / thus


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Cause and Effect Essay -A cause and effect essay deals with why something occurs and the results of this.

This seems very straightforward but it requires clear thinking and the ability to express concepts in

straightforward language, with a logical presentational structure.

Classification Essay - Stated simply, the purpose of a classification essay is to organize things into

categories. This is done by putting useful categories in place following a single underlying principle and

finding examples that fit into each category.

Comparison Essay - The comparison essay is commonly used in essay writing across the disciplines. It

requires the writer to look at the similarities and differences between two or more subjects which may, in fact, be

related under an 'umbrella topic'. For example, a Literature essay might require you to compare how two writers

approach the same theme by using a different genre.

Deductive Essay - Typically, the deductive essay is based on the premise that given a certain set of

facts, by using deductive reasoning assumptions can be made leading to a conclusion. Thus, the three

stages of a deductive essay would be the premise, the evidence and the conclusion.

Descriptive Essay - Of all , the descriptive essay is the one which requires most creative writing ability as it is

based on the ability of the writer to facilitate the visualization of a scene, evoking sensory reactions andresponses. Much of the writing will be adjectival and lexical variety is essential.

Evaluative Essay - The evaluative essay sets out to evaluate something according to predetermined criteria.

For an evaluation to be recognised as valid, both the subject to be evaluated and the criteria to be used to make

the evaluation must be stated clearly.

Expository Essay - The expository essay does not so much ask the writer to set out to give their views, unlike

other essays. Instead, you are being asked to display, as fairly and comprehensively as possible, the views of

others; as the name suggests, to 'expose' them. The expository approach is also used in the case of reportage

e.g. in journalism.

Narrative Essay -A narrative essay tells a tale, usually a personal experience told in the form of a story. Thepoint of view is usually personal and description is very important to contribute to the overall feel of the

narrative. However, narrative essays can also be used for book reports.

Illustration Essay - In an illustration essay, the evidence is largely provided by the inclusion of

examples, or 'illustrations', to support your argument; in many ways it is similar to a narrative essay. Basically,

in an illustration essay you are literally inviting your reader to picture, via your 'illustrations', the argument's

effectiveness.

Literature Essay - The Literature essay assesses a students ability to respond to a question about given texts

or select texts that will be used to address a specific problem/topic. You may also have completely free choice

and select both texts and topics yourself.

Persuasive Essay - The persuasive essay uses reasoned argument to persuade the reader to

adopt/agree with the position being proposed in the opening statement. Experts are often quoted to

support the central argument and give it additional credibility.

Find out more from :http://www.ukessays.com/

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/


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PREPARING TO WRITEThink, Make Notes, and Prepare the Material You Want to Use Before You Begin to WriteSpend a few minutes gathering the ideas and thoughts you will need to include in your essay. Then consider the mosteffective way to present that material to your reader. Remember that essay exam responses are usually read veryquickly: the more quickly the reader can move through your writing, the less time he or she will have to consider itsdeficiencies. Many students find it useful to create a short topic outline or to draw a key diagram at this point, as a way toorganize their thoughts.

The focus of your writing depends on the task stated in the question. In a question that asks you to explain, for example,your focus should be on presenting information as clearly as possible so that the reader understands the topic. At othertimes you may be asked to take a position on a topic; in these cases, you need to state that position clearly and thenprove to your reader, through the careful use of illustration and examples, the validity of the statement with which youstarted. But in either case, the reader needs a clear statement of your purpose at the beginning of your essay.

Write StrategicallyWriting that merely responds to the question (no matter how accurately) may garner only an average grade unless it isalso successfully presented in other ways. Here are some areas that often make a difference:

Unless you have been told for some reason to restate the question in your own words, do not waste valuable

time repeating information is already written in the title. Move immediately to answering the question.

Order the points of your discussion. Follow some sort of sequence - logical, chronological, procedural, etc.

Add support to assertions. Incorporate examples or facts hat support these main statements.

Tie your discussion to your focus. Demonstrate, both along the way and in your conclusion, how everything

relates to the topic.

Be direct when you write. Avoid overlong complex sentences (more than three clauses), use a mixture of long

and short sentences, long lists, long parenthetical remarks, do not overuse the same boring adjectives

(important, good, bad, etc.), do not use etc..

Use signals to direct the reader through your points. For example:

"There are three reasons why..." "First,....Second,......Finally,....." "In early Greece....But in Rome..."

Be legible. You will probably not be graded on neatness, but you could easily lose credit if your instructor has a

hard time reading what you have written. Sloppy handwriting, multiple cross-outs, and confusing circles and

arrows will all make grading difficult. Remember that your instructor has many other papers to read and may

easily become impatient with anything that makes grading harder.

WRITING TIPS (6)

The Expository Essay

Expository writing is a type of writing that is used to explain, describe, give information, or inform. The text is

organized around one topic and developed according to a pattern or combination of patterns. The writer of an

expository text cannot assume that the reader or listener has prior knowledge or prior understanding of the topicthat is being discussed. Since clarity requires strong organization, one of the most important mechanisms to

improve skills in exposition is to organize the text effectively. The patterns outlined below are frequently used to

create an expository essay. Additionally, more than one pattern may be used within an expository essay.

Expository essays are written by students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of a particular

topic. For example, a student might use a descriptive pattern to explain the features and characteristics of a

place or person. Sequential writing emphasizes the order of events, listing items in numerical or chronological

order. A writer might use a comparison or contrast pattern to emphasize the similarities or differences between


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two topics. A cause and/or effect pattern shows the relationship between events, while a problem/solution

pattern shows a different kind of relationship that discusses a problem and suggests solutions. Variations of

these patterns are sometimes used, as well as a combination of patterns to create an expository essay.

Expository writing is intended to convey the writer's knowledge about a topic. While different patterns may be

employed to create the essay, every essay contains the same features: the introduction, the thesis, the body

paragraphs, and the conclusion. The introduction is the first paragraph in the essay. The introduction containsthe thesis statement, one sentence that summarizes the main idea of the essay. The body paragraphs follow

the introduction and explain the main topics. Lastly, the conclusion is the final paragraph that restates the main

topics and the thesis. Every expository essay contains these features, in this order.

Expository writing has distinct features that distinguish it from creative writing. The content of an expository

essay is factual and straightforward while the content of a creative story is imaginative. Expository essays are

written for a general audience but creative stories are more likely to be designed for a specific audience. The

writing style of an expository essay is formal, standard and academic, while a creative story may use an

informal and more personal style. The organization of an expository essay is systematic and deliberate; on the

other hand, the organization of a creative story is more imaginative and artistic. Finally, the most important

difference between the two types of writing is the purpose of the text. An expository essay is written to inform

and instruct, while a creative story is written to entertain and captivate.

Typical features of expository wri tingDescriptionThe author describes a topic by listing characteristics, features, and examples.It provides details about how something looks, feels, tastes, smells, makes one feel, or soundsSequence or ProcessThe author lists items or events in numerical or chronological order.Words and phrases: first, second, third, next, then, finallyComparisonThe author explains how two or more things are alike and/or how they are different. A comparison essayusually

discusses the similarities between two things, while the contrast essaydiscusses the differences.Words and phrases: unlike, whereas, in contrast, on the other hand, alike, similarly, the same asCause / EffectThe author focuses on the relationship between two or more events or experiences. The essay could discussboth causesand effects, or it could simply address one or the other. A cause essayusually discusses the reasons whysomething happened. An effect essaydiscusses what happens after a specific event or circumstance.Words and phrases: the reason why; if...then, as a result, therefore, thus, because since, as, for, consequentlyProblem / SolutionThe author states a problem and lists one or more solutions for the problem. A variation of this pattern is the question-and-answer format in which the author poses a question and then answers it.Words and phrases: the main / major problem is, an unsolved problem is ..., question (How?) ... answer, one solutionmight be to .....

WRITING TIPS (7)The Persuasive Essay

What is a persuasive essay? Put simply, a persuasive essay is a short commentary designed to persuade youraudience. It is an article traditionally five paragraphs long that communicates your position in a persuasive manner.The persuasive essay is used to assess students writing skills and understanding of a topic. The persuasive essayfeatures can also be applied to a sales promotion, a job application or even a presentation to a group of people.The persuasive essay is constructed using a title, thesis statement, supporting paragraphs and a conclusion. Letsbreak these down a little further:


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1. TitleThe title is straightforward. What topic are you writing about? You can be a little descriptive here to give your reader abrief overview of what you are discussing. For example, your title heading might be Modern Eco Friendly Housing.You havent taken a position yet but you are letting your reader know what is to come.

2. Thesis StatementThis is a statement about what you are trying to convince your readers of. For example, your thesis statement might be

Housing made from renewable resources have a low carbon footprint compared to traditional construction methods.Make your thesis statement a little controversial to emotionally involve your audience. But only be a little controversial.If you take the extremist point of view, you risk alienating your readers.The thesis statement is a bait to hook your readers. If you need help with how to write your thesis statement, then walkthrough your local mall or turn on the TV. You are surrounded by them every day. Advertising headlines are greatexamples of thesis statements that capture attention.

3. Supporting ParagraphsA persuasive essay will normally have a minimum of three supporting paragraphs. Start each supporting paragraph witha statement that supports your main thesis. Back up their statement with facts or testimonials from well known sources.Facts form the foundation of your argument and allow you to act as an authority on the subject.The key to your supporting paragraph is to remember that a fact is not debatable. The statement you make in theseparagraphs is an emotional interpretation of these facts to persuade readers. Marketers know the best way to sellsomething is to use the Feature-Benefit rule. First, identify a feature (or a fact) and then draw the reader in with thebenefit they will receive by agreeing with you. Marketers sell the sizzle, not the sausage.For example, Good orientation increases the energy efficiency of a home, making it more comfortable to live in andcheaper to run. Good orientation and energy efficiency is the feature. But what does it mean to the house owner? Thebenefit to the owner is a house that is comfortable to live in and cheaper to run.

4. ConclusionThe last part of the persuasive essay is the conclusion. Make a mistake here and all your effort is down the drain. Theconclusion is the call to action. If you are selling something, then this is a real physical action such as clicking on thebuy button. In your essay, the call to action is having your reader agree with you.Use your conclusion to remind the reader of what your thesis statement is together with your supporting facts. Next, tellyour reader what to do or think. If youre selling a product, tell them to buy. Get the reader to share your point of view.What happens if your reader does not take action or agree? It does not mean you have failed, it just means you havenot taken into account the objections your readers have. These are the Nos that you must overcome before you canget to a Yes. Persuasive essays use passive argument to overcome objection. When you first sit down to write, askyourself what objections your readers may have to your ideas? Now, what features and benefits can you discuss toovercome these objections? For example Objection: Eco-friendly housing is expensive when compared to other designs.Feature/Benefit: Savings in heating and cooling will quickly offset the price over just a few years.In the paragraph above I stated that a persuasive essay uses passive argument. This is where you focus on thefeatures and benefits of your point of view. You do not actively discuss the opposing view. If you are in a job interview,you dont talk about how good the other candidates are for the job, you focus on how you can fill their needs. If you usean active argument discussing both sides of the topic, then you are writing an argumentative essay.

WRITING TIPS (8)

Writing an Introduction for an Essay

The quality of an essay introduction often determines whether the essay gets read in the first place. Even if it has to beread, as in the case of essay writing assignments in a university setting, a fine introduction gives the reader a good initialimpression, which entices the him/her to read on. Hence, an essay introduction serves to attract the readers interest,introduce the topic, and explain what the essay will be about. Correspondingly, an essay introduction contains threefeatures that usually appear in the following order: an attention-getter, some background information and the centralidea.


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Getting the readers attentionSome common strategies used to attract the readers interest to an essay are:

Relate a dramatic anecdote.

Expose a commonly held belief.

Present surprising facts and statistics.

Use a fitting quotation.

Ask a provocative question.

Tell a vivid personal story.

Define a key term.

Present an interesting observation.

Create a unique scenario.

Providing background informationProviding background information in an essay introduction serves to link the reader to the topic of an essay. But exactlyhow long this bridge should be is largely dependent on how much information the writer thinks the reader will need inorder to understand the issue being discussed in the essay and appreciate the importance of the issue. For muchuniversity writing (for which the readership may not be restricted to lecturers alone), one good rule of thumb for studentsto determine whether enough background information has been provided is to show the draft introduction to someonewho is not familiar with the topic and see whether they understand what is being talked about.

Stating the central ideaThe central idea or thesis statement in an essay introduction is the most important part of the essay and is thusindispensable. The thesis statement is usually one or two sentences long and tells the reader what the whole essay isgoing to be about.

A thesis statement can be direct or indirect. A direct thesis statement gives a specific outline of the essay. For example,one of my students (in his essay entitled The Qualities of a Successful Technopreneur*) wrote the following thesisstatement: The three core qualities that a technopreneur must possess to be successful are vision, a never-say-quitattitude and an innovative mind. This sentence tells the reader what the essay is going to be about (i.e. the qualities atechnopreneur must possess in order to succeed) and provides a structural outline (i.e. that the essay will comprise threemain parts, each portion respectively covering one of the three qualities mentioned).

In an indirect thesis statement, no such outline is provided; however, the reader will still know what aspect of the topic

the essay is going to discuss. For example, on the same topic, another of my students wrote this thesis statement: Intodays rapidly changing technology market, only technopreneurs who possess certain qualities will succeed while thosewho do not will falter and fall in the battlefield. From this sentence, the reader can still expect the essay to talk aboutsome qualities of a successful technopreneur; but he/she will neither know exactly which and how many qualities theessay will cover, nor predict how many parts the writer will discuss in the main body paragraphs. The suspense given byan indirect thesis statement sometimes gives the reader a good reason to read on.

Once aware of the three features of an essay introduction and some of the options for the presentation of each feature,students can experiment with different options to see which one(s) creates the best effect for each essay.


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*a technopreneur is an entrepreneur involved in high technology

WRITING TIPS (11)

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement is a statement in an essay that you plan to support, discuss or prove. A thesis statement should alsostand out as an indicator of the clear direction in which you will take your essay. It should be strongly worded, impossibleto miss, and in shorter essays (e.g. the five paragraph essay), it should show up in the introduction.

A thesis statement:

tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of the subject matter under discussion.

is a road map for the paper; in other words, it tells the reader what to expect from the rest of the paper.

directly answers the question asked of you. A thesis is an interpretation of a question or subject, not the subject

itself. The subject, or topic, of an essay might be World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a way to

understand selected aspects of the war or the novel.

may make a claim that others might dispute. This applies especially to argumentative or persuasive essays.

is usually a single sentence somewhere in your first paragraph that presents your argument / subject matter to

the reader. The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers and organizes evidence that will persuade the

reader of the logic of your interpretation.

WRITING TIPS (12)

Topic Sentences in paragraphs

A topic sentence (also known as a focus sentence) encapsulates or organises an entire paragraph, and you should becareful to include one in most of your major paragraphs. Although topic sentences may appear anywhere in a paragraph,in academic essays they most often appear at the beginning.

WRITING TIPS (13)

An overview of how to write effectively

Here are some of the principal points to consider in academic writing: Think of the major points or aspects that you want to cover. Ask yourself: What do I want to say here? Keep

it simple. Clarity of expression is essential in good academic writing. Some people approach writing sequentially,

usually in logical or historical sequence. Others approach writing holistically and use the brainstorming technique.

This is up to you and your inclination. After brainstorming, it will help if you try to sort out your ideas and find links

to group them together in some way.

Organise your topics into an acceptable structure but remember that it is a work in progress. One of the big

traps is thinking that everything has to be perfect from the beginning. A result of this is that some people waste

valuable time because they cannot write perfectly the first time. Remember too that practice makes perfect. We

get better at writing the more we do it; patience and practice will help to improve your writing.


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One way to begin is by tackling the easiest parts first, which helps you get in the practice of writing, and

ensures that you put pen to paper.

Some Principles of Good Composition Some academics firmly believe that we should choose a design and stick to it, and it is indeed true that all

good prose follows some sort of pattern and structure. Think about what you want to say and put it in order.

Organisation is critical in academic writing.

Paragraphs are the effective units of composition and they provide writing with definition and measure.

Usually, each paragraph deals with one topic and contains a topic sentence. Some topic sentences give a good

preview of what is coming next, while others simply make an opening generalisation to begin the journey.

Express similar ideas in a similar form.

Further Tips on Good Writing All sentences should be clear and worded accurately. Try to use a combination of simple and complex

sentences.

Make sure you use paragraphs. It may sound obvious, but paragraphing is not just for looks. Paragraphs

give structure and definition to ideas and enable you to develop your ideas in logical sequence. It quickly becomes

obvious that structure and content are very closely linked. Try to develop one idea per paragraph; move to the next

paragraph with the next idea.

Remember, if you say you are going to show or do something in your opening sentence you should deliver.

Always check that you've done what you set out to do.

The length of a paragraph is usually between 50 and 200 words. Several medium-length paragraphs (or

sentences) are often followed effectively by a shorter, snappier paragraph (or sentence).

Use a linking sentence to join paragraphs together. This helps maintain the flow of thought, and leads thereader naturally to the next point.

Remember that precision, clarity and economy of style are the critical foundations to good writing.

PrecisionPrecision is a key to good style. An extensive vocabulary and elegant style cannot overcome a lack of precision.Whenever you have to ask yourself, 'What do I mean by this?' you know you have not been precise. Precision rests onusing the right words, so when you are writing try to ensure that the words you are using do actually convey what youwant to say. One trap people can fall into is assuming that a Thesaurus solves all problems. Although a word may begiven as a synonym in a Thesaurus, it may not carry the exact meaning that you want to convey in this particularcontext; and some terms also conflict with traditional usage.

ClarityClarity involves saying something in plain English. Avoid ambiguity, which can occur when words are used loosely orcarelessly. Avoid circumlocution; get to the point simply and directly. And avoid mixed constructions; make sure that yourgrammatical construction is correct. It's also important to use correct punctuationpoorly applied punctuation canchange the entire meaning of a sentence.

Strategies to avoid Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing."

Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.


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Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.

Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.

Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.

Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.

Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

WRITING TIPS (15)

POINTS ABOUT PRONOUNS

Using the pronouns 'he' and 'she'

It is better, when possible, to avoid `he', `his' or `him' when you intend to include both men and women.

Instead of:

Solvent abuse is not a crime but ifa police officer finds a young person under 17 sniffing solvents, he should

take him to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.you could repeat the short titles of both people:

Solvent abuse is not a crime but ifa police officer finds a young person under 17 sniffing solvents, the officer

should take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.

Using `he or she' and `him or her' is also feasible here - preferably, in just one of the cases:

Solvent abuse is not a crime but ifa police officer finds a person under 17 sniffing solvents, he or she should

take the person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.

Repeated use of `he or she' and similar terms becomes clumsy and obtrusive. The alternatives, `s/he' or `he/she',

look ugly and cannot be spoken easily.

If the text is addressed specifically to police officers, it would be feasible to use `you':

Solvent abuse is not a crime but ifyou find a person under 17 sniffing solvents, you should take him or her to a

secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.

Using the plural

A further alternative, and often the best, is to use the plural:

Solvent abuse is not a crime but ifpolice officers find a person under 17 sniffing solvents, they should take the

person to a secure place such as the police station, home or hospital.

Using plurals as singulars

It is becoming more acceptable to flout the grammatical conventions set in the eighteenth century by male

grammarians and to do what Shakespeare did when he wrote:

God sendeveryone theirheart's desire.

In other words, to revive the old use of`they', them' and `their' as singulars:

Give details of your partner's income. Ifthey have been unemployed for more than 12 months ...

You may find that an individual has levels of competence in several skills beyond those required in their current

role. This will occur when someone has developed their skills and potential in readiness for other opportunities.

Alternatively use the plural:

You may find that individuals have levels of competence in several skills beyond those required in their current

roles. This will occur when they have developed their skills and potential in readiness for other opportunities.

Using one, ones, oneself

Repeated use ofone is best avoided. Use you, we, they, people instead where possible. All of the following

sentences would sound better avoiding the use ofone..


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Duty is what one expects from others; it is not what one does oneself.

One is morally responsible for what one does, not for what one does not do.

Ifone takes what one does with one's life seriously, one cannot simply muddle along without thinking ofones

future.

Whereverone goes, one finds heaps of foul-smelling rubbish lining the streets.

GOLDEN RULE: USE COLONS SPARINGLY

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