deviance essay sociology

George Churchill Individual Essay Sociology SSP325

George Churchill

Sociology SSP325

Marc Lawton

Deviance and the Athlete: Causes in Sports Society

Due Date: 18th December 2008

Word Count: 2578

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Contents Page

1. Introduction 3-5

2. Theories Behind Deviance in Sport 5-6Conflict and Critical theories

3. Causes of Deviance 6-8Education System, Overconformity & Gambling

4. Sport Ethic 8-10Underconformity, Positive Deviance, Varsity Blues & Mary Decker Slaney

5. Drug Use 10-11Banned Substances, Tom Simpson & Information Network

6. Conclusion 11-12

7. References 13

8. Appendices 14-17

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Deviance and the Athlete: Causes in Sports Society

Introduction

The forms and causes of deviance in sport are so diverse that no single theory can

explain all of them (Blackshaw and Crabbe, 2004). What is accepted in sports as the norm

may be seen as deviant in other spheres of society and what is seen as the norm in society

can largely be seen as deviant in sports. Only on a racing track can you drive at speeds over

200 miles per hour at high risk of collision, outside the racing track it would be seen as a

criminal offence. The social vacuum that has been created around sports is significantly

proven to be different from the society we live in day by day. Deviance in sport can be

argued, involves unquestioned acceptance of what is termed as the norms, when a social

world accepts actions performed as routine and normal.

Actions as such in a sporting society may involve hatred and physical contact as

means of motivation, treatment by coaches and actions from spectators that would be

rejected as the norm in another social world. Athletes usually commit to accept advice from

important people in their lives without questioning them, and it is overconforming to these

norms that can result in an athlete being too committed to the goals and norms of sport

usually leading to extreme actions.

Throughout their whole careers athletes hear again and again the need to keep

setting new targets, and for them to reach their targets they need to do whatever it takes

and by whatever means possible (Atkinson and Young, 2008). Historically, deviance in sport

has changed shapes. Links to gambling, throwing a game or match, unsporting behavior,

fighting, taking performance enhancing drugs and a general lack of respect for rules have

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always been ubiquitous. New rules and regulations are always introduced, usually from

television and media pressures, and usually result in tougher punishment for deviant

actions. Rio Ferdinand was banned for 8 months and fined £50,000 after being found guilty

of missing a drugs test in 2003, although 2 days later he tested negative, the pressures put

on authorities for tougher measures set out to make an example of a guiltless athlete.

Although Ferdinand was guilty of missing a test, if the same applied in normal society a

person would not be vilified in the same way.

Blaming television and media may not have justification as these have not always

been as prevalent in the past (Houlihan, 2003). The emergence of rule changes in any sport

is often met with initial hostility. The rules sometimes discriminate against athletes who

conform to deviate, journalist Paula Parrish stated in 2002:

‘Where do acceptable practices end and cheating begin? Why is it okay for a cyclist to sleep

in an oxygen tent but not okay to inject EPO?’

(Coakley, 1991: 150)

To deviate away from the dominant norms of any society or sport takes courage and

conviction and is often the key part of the process of change as stated in the conflict theory.

From this sense deviance may be viewed as behavior that transgresses commonly held

norms in any culture or society but it need not be viewed in a negative way (Joovie, 2006).

Causes of sporting deviance carry many arguments, some show early signs of preferential

treatment in high school, making future deviant actions natural acts for athletes and these

will be discussed.

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Theories behind Deviance in Sport

The conflict theory suggests that the violators of rules are the exploited victims.

Groups of people with power are able to manipulate others to accept their views of the

world and any athlete that violates those norms are seen as deviant. Athletes are seen as

the victims of a profit driven system where the emphasis is placed solely on the success they

achieve and deviance is forced on athletes as a result of the rules discriminating against

them. These rules can cause an athlete to be deviant to secure sponsorship funds, where

only the successful and elite athletes get sponsored. A limitation behind this deviance is

that both sponsored and non-sponsored athletes are deviant, which ignores how they

identify themselves and what factors drive them to be deviant (Coakley, 1991).

Critical theory implies that dominant forms of social constructions can privilege

people over others (Blackshaw & Crabbe, 2004). Sport includes aggression, competition and

the pursuit of goals through the use of performance and technology with the athletes

making their own choices. Although the conflict theory ignores overconformity to rules and

sport ethic, the critical theory involves overconformity and also underconformity (going

against/rejecting the norms). Values in sport never stay the same as these depend on

negotiation, compromise and coercion but significant evidence in recent times suggest sport

can reflect society and even cause change to society. What the critical theory cannot

determine is when sports produce dominant forms of social relations in society, although

these may be gradual happenings.

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Causes of Deviance

Athletes have historically been given second, third and fourth chances in sport

because of their skills. The preferential treatments athletes receive don’t just come from

coaches, media and spectators but also unpredictably from the sporting system and even in

recent times the legal system (Joovie, 2006). Best examples of these behaviours are in the

educational system where athletes are usually the subject of higher class treatment from

coaches, teachers and even fellow students. This form of pampering and favouritism can

cause greater departure from cultural ideals resulting in greater deviance from the athletes,

who detach from normal society and take on a social world likened to a ‘sporting vacuum’

where only other athletes can understand them. Deviance caused amongst these athletes

become social in nature rather than individually and they become further detached from

normal society when they get less severe punishments then normal people caught

performing these deviant acts (see Appendix A).

The Santana High School tragedy was linked to athletes, this followed acts of deviant

behaviour from athletes who it is believed, started to believe they were invincible and could

do what they wanted and barely get a slap on the wrist (see Appendix B). Following the

shootings, friends of Williams claimed he was a huge fan of Linkin Park and one of his

favourite tracks contained the lyric ‘Cause I’m one step closer to the edge, and I’m about to

break’. These killings were linked to favouritism shown towards athletes at the high school

and these lyrics shows signs that helplessness from a sensitive young individual could have

been evident in his extreme actions. His friend, Alex Ribble, described Williams as a small

geeky boy who was constantly bullied by the school jocks (athletes) and never stuck up for

himself but always swore revenge (Demiro, 2002).

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Deviant overconformity can arise from athletes who show eagerness to be accepted

by their peers. To do this they must adopt behaviours that will be accepted by the other

athletes and coaches which can make them vulnerable to group demands to please these

people (see Appendix B). The highest performing athletes tend to bond the most and

detach from normal society and in some cases create their own rules because they sense

they are unique. As Howard Becker articulated in his study, Outsiders: Studies in the

Sociology of Deviance:

‘Social groups create deviance by making the rules and then applying those rules to

particular people and labelling them outsiders. This point of view signifies deviance is not

the action committed by the person, but rather the application by others of the rules and

sanctions to an offender. The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been

applied; deviant behaviour is behaviour that people so label.

(Becker, 1963: 9)

Off field deviance such as gambling became familiar in the late 1990s. The sports

betting market comprises of bets that can be placed at the venue, in betting shops, over the

telephone and over the internet. In Australia alone the sports betting market has

experienced an increased growth of approximately 12 percent per year since the mid-1990’s

(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1999). The easy access to betting, mainly from the

introduction of online betting in the late 1990’s, has shown patterns of deviant behaviour

amongst athletes. Increased attempts by players and coaches to influence the outcome of

scores have in recent years undermined the integrity of sports which has created suspicion

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from spectators who feel outcomes can be pre-arranged. In 2000, Pakistan’s Salim Malik

and South Africa’s Hansie Cronje were found guilty of accepting sums of money for allegedly

giving information on team morale, tactics and pitch conditions and other cricketer’s were

also implicated in the scandal.

Sport Ethic

The sport ethics are the norms in sport that are defined by the dominant groups in

sports and consist of rules that set the criteria of defining an athlete. Athletes that do not

conform to these norm set of rules usually do not last very long in their sport and history

can prove this. George Best did not show the correct attitude and commitment

(underconformity) expected by his coaches and fellow pros and adapted the behaviour of

retreatism (Coakley, 1991). Not only did he give up on his goals, but also the means to his

deviant actions such as partying and alcoholism led to an early retirement from football.

The sport system in place that defines the norms relate to the addiction like

overconformity to sports that include self injurious overtraining (Nash, 1987), unhealthy

eating strategies (Franseen & McCann, 1996) and the willingness to still compete regardless

of pain and injury, which in some circumstances can result in athletes getting pain injections

(Dimeo, 2007; Nixon, 1993, 1996; Young and White, 1995). These are identified as ‘positive

deviance’ to achieve the success in sport the athletes’ desire. Positive deviance is

overconforming to the norms of sport that consist of risks (Hughes and Coakley, 1991).

If a deviant athlete becomes successful others will follow, winning symbolizes progress

and establishes distinction (Blackshaw and Crabb, 2004; Jarvie, 2006)). Athletes will accept

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the risks of injuries and play through them, this sets an example to other athletes that to

pursue success they must overcome situations and beat the odds. Deviance such as playing

with torn ligaments and having surgery after surgery to continue competing will occur when

these norms are accepted uncritically unquestioned and are even glorified by those involved

in sport such as coaches, journalists, spectators and sponsors (see Appendix D).

Commentators echo these words and praise such athletes as ‘dedicated to the game’ and

‘heroes’ (Glifford and Mangel, 1977).

Athletes can be seen as victims of a profit driven business in which they must conform to

or risk losing their ability to earn (Blackshaw & Crabbe, 2004). Again the conflict theory

emphasizes this social order where athletes are used as robots to profit others. In the

movie Varsity Blue (Tova Laiter Productions, 1999) an American football team is under the

regime of a coach whose philosophy is ‘win at all costs’. The movie is based on

intercollegiate sports and portrays a compelling incite of athletes as robots to profit a coach

who manipulates the athletes to play through pain regardless of long term consequence to

profit his winning statistics (see Appendix C). This health abuse includes using tough dietary

measures to speed up rehabilitation and psychodoping (Coakley, 1992). To overconform

means an athlete will usually pursue their dream without questioning methods and exclude

family and health. Successful American long distance track athlete Mary Decker Slaney’s

coach Alberto Salazar stated in his Guide to Road Racing:

‘The greatest athletes run themselves to death. You have got to have an obsession, but if

unchecked it can become destructive. That’s what it is with Slaney. She will kill herself

unless you pull the reigns back’

(Salazar, 2002)

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Training in sports has become medicalised to the point that the athletes use medical

technology in ways to push beyond normative limits (Beamish and Ritchie, 2006). Slaney

was found guilty of failing a testosterone to epitestosterone test in 1996 during the Atlanta

Olympic trials at the age of 37. Her age might suggest overconformity to stay involved in

sport for as long as possible. As Slaney was a very successful athlete who had in her career

broken world records in long distance, it is possible these exhilarating experiences and also

those around her may have contributed to creating a context where taking natural

chemicals such as testosterone seems normal.

Drug Use

Banned substances were not tested for until the Mexico Olympics in 1968, this followed

the development of steroids and amphetamines during the 1940s. One of the most

controversial incidents involving banned substances occurred in 1967 when British cycling

star Tom Simpson died of exhaustion during the Tour de France. A post mortem revealed

he had taken amphetamines and alcohol and this proved fatal in the heat. Other substances

that have caused controversy include beta blockers, these slow down the heart rate and

were rife in snooker and golf in the 1980s (Dimeo, 2007).

An athlete has to decide whether to ingest or inject a banned substance, this is a

conscious act where the athlete is fully aware it is an illegal act in the world of sport

(Houlihan, 2003). It is easy to point the finger towards the athlete and blame their actions

solely on their shoulders, citing it as an act of weakness, but in the modern society we live in

there are influences surrounding the athlete that are making decisions like these the norm

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in sport that now include, medicalisation of sport, public demand for more spectacular

performances and culture of winning values that encourage risks.

Athletes share an information network concerning who is taking drugs, what they are

using, what dosage they use and how they are getting away with it (Dimeo, 2007). This form

of deviance has to be fully considered before the blame is put on the athlete because of the

system of sport we have created and the choices the athlete makes in light of the

circumstances surrounding them. Interactionism theory explains that an athlete will learn

the norms and expectations in their sport after becoming associated with a group of other

athletes in their sport, but the process of choice making make this theory limited as the

athlete must make a conscious choice.

Conclusion

Deviance in sport is more likely to occur when athletes are separated from the rest of

community and get self-indulgent on the idea that they are extraordinary and unique and

above normal people. To prevent deviance sporting programs need to be put in place for

young athletes that cover drugs, injury, the body, rules of the game and risks associated

with deviant behaviour. There is a need to create new norms within sport to prevent

athletes from entering a ‘sporting vacuum’ and becoming distanced from normal society. It

is crucial to know that athletes are not the sole perpetrators in deviance, coaches, teachers,

administrators, sponsors, journalists and agents provide a long list of people who engage

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deviance in sport. It is important to remember sport is not above society, it is just a part of

society whose sole purpose is to entertain the general public and those who are elite

performers need to be surrounded with people who can ground people on these norms.

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References

Atkinson, M & Young, K. (2008). Deviance and Social Control in Sport. Human Kinetics Europe Ltd.

Baker, J. (1999). Varsity Blues. Pocket Books.

Beamish, R & Ritchie, I. (2006). Fastest, Highest, Strongest: a critique of high performance sport. Routledge.

Blackshaw, T & Crabbe, T. (2004). New Perspectives on Sport and Deviance: Consumption, Performativity and Social Control. Routledge

Clement, J. (1995). Contributions of the Sociology of Pierre Bourdieu to the Sociology of Sport. Sociology of Sport Journal. 12, 2: 147-158.

Coakley, J. (1998). Sport in Society: Issues & Controversies. 6th Edition. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

DeMiro, D. (2002). Too High a Price for Harmony: A Perspective on School Shootings. AuthorHouse.

Dimeo, P. (2007). A History of Drug Use in Sport 1876-1976: Beyond Good and Evil. Routledge.

Hasday, J. (2002). Columbine High School Shooting: Student Violence. Enslow Publishers.

Hines, B. (1968). A Kestral for Knave. London: Penguin.

Horne, J. (2005). Sport in Consumer Culture, Palgrave.

Houlihan, B. (2003). Sport and Society, Sage.

Hughes, R. and Coakley, J. (1991). Positive Deviance Amongst Athletes. Sociology of Sport Journal. 8: 307-25.

Jarvie, G. (2006). Sport, Culture and Society: An Introduction. Routledge.

Lefkowitz, B. (1997). Our Guys: The Glen Ridge Rape and the Secret Life of the Perfect Suburb. University of California Press.

Lenk, H. (1981). Sport Achievement & Social Criticism: Handbook of Social Sciences of Sport. Publishing Co.

Nixon, H. (1993). Accepting the Risks and Pain of Injury in Sport: Mediated Cutural Influences on Playing Hurt. Sociology of Sport Journal. 10, 2: 183-196

Polley, M. (1998). Moving the Goalposts: a history of sport and society since 1945, Routledge

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Appendix A

Columbine High School

The Columbine High School massacre occurred on Tuesday, April 20, 1999, at Columbine

High School in Columbine in unincorporated Jefferson County, Colorado, United States, near

Denver and Littleton. Two students, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, embarked on a massacre,

killing 12 students and a teacher, as well as wounding 23 others, before committing suicide.

It is the fourth-deadliest school shooting in United States history, after the 1927 Bath School

disaster, 2007 Virginia Tech massacre and the 1966 University of Texas massacre, and the

deadliest for an American high school.

During the Columbine situation the two teenagers (reportedly sport dropouts) began their

rampage in the library with the words ‘all jocks stand up, we will get the guys in the white

hats’ and ‘everyone with a white cap or baseball cap stand up’. These were the trademark

clothing for athletes at the school, or jocks as the attackers referred to them. It is reported

that Columbine was a school that may have favoured the athletes. In the run up to the

massacre there were incidents such as the state wrestling champion parking his car all-day

in a 15 minute slot without being questioned, a football player on probation for burglary

and sexual harassment from an athlete going unpunished by his teacher who was also his

coach. A feeling of powerlessness, caused by the preferential treatment of athletes at

Columbine, was one reason linked to the actions of Harris and Klebold.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_school

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whitman

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Tech_massacre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_School_disaster

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bath_School_disaster

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_shooting

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suicide

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_murder

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Harris_and_Dylan_Klebold

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Littleton,_Colorado

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denver,_Colorado

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_County,_Colorado

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unincorporated_area

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbine,_Colorado

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbine_High_School

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbine_High_School


Appendix B

Santana High School

On Monday, March 5, 2001 at 9:20 a.m., 15-year-old Williams began firing a .22-caliber

revolver in a boy’s bathroom at Santana High School. Following the shootings an angry

reader wrote to the Los Angeles Times stating:

‘For school personnel to be at a loss as to the motives of the shootings at Santana High

School is hypocritical. Anyone who has attended high school knows there is the ‘in crowd’

made up of sports heroes, class officers and their entourage. To this group the teachers and

administrators pander allowing them to do pretty much as they please. Those not in the ‘in

group’ become of the subject of bullying, ridicule and taunting’ (Williams case).

Leading up to the Santana tragedy a group of high school football players sexually assaulted

a retarded woman with a baseball bat and a broomstick in the wealthy suburb of Glen Ridge

in 1989. The community was unwilling to believe its beloved high school heroes were

responsible. One excuse after another was brought forth to spare the athletes, while the

victimised woman was made into the one who coerced them into the act.

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Appendix C

Quotes from Varsity Blues movie 1999 give an insight into deviance and the role the coach

plays in sports, the sporting ethic portrayed here is one of manipulation.

‘You just listened to the coaches and tried as best you could to win’

Lead character Jonathan Mox explaining at the beginning of the movie how the coach is the

most important man in the team and you do what he says at a costs.

‘You're a gamer, Wendell. Let's do this, you'll be good to go’

This line in the movie comes from the coach Bud Kilmer who tries to manipulate a young

athlete into taking a pain injection so he can finish the game.

‘Never show weakness, the only pain that matters is the pain you inflict’

Coach Bud Kilmer explaining to his team it is okay to hurt the opposition purposefully.

‘I'm amazed he lasted this long. I removed scar tissue from his knee.’

The doctor explaining the extent of the injury suffered by lead star Lance Harbor who had

been manipulated by coach Bud Kilmer into taking pain injections to play through injury.

The cause of the injury was due to his teammate collapsing and being unable to block the

opposing teams defence, his teammate who collapsed, Billy Bob, was days earlier told by a

nurse he was not fit to play after collapsing in class but coach Bud Kilmer pressured him into

playing regardless of the nurses advice.

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Appendix D

Nike Atlantic Olympic Ad Campaign 1996

The sport ethic we have created can cause deviance to overconform, this ad campaign by

Nike in 1996 clearly shows that there is a social world in sport where only success matters.

‘Who the Hell Do You Think You Are? Are You An Athlete? Because if you are then

you know what it means to want to be better, to want to be the best. And if you are

then you understand it's not enough to just want to be the best. You can't just sit around

and b******t about how much you want it. Show me how much you want it. Dare to do

what it takes to be the best. And then, whether you win, lose, or collapse on the finish line,

at worst you will know exactly who you are. If You Can't Stand the Heat, Get Out of

Atlanta!’

(Sports Illustrated 1996).

Sponsors, as with coaches, journalists, commentators and agents all contribute this sporting

ethic to athletes who have this sentiment ringing in their ears everyday of their career.

Upon retirement athletes then use the same terminology when they enter coaching and it

causes everlasting forum of overconformity.

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