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DESIGNUL INSTRUCTIONAL TEHNOLOGIA EDUCATIONAL

ROBERT M. GAGNE BENJAMIN BLOOM LEV VIGOTS! JEROME S. BRUNER JOHN B. CARROLL MODELE DE PROIECTARE INSTRUCIONAL TEORIILE "NVRII #I TEORIILE INSTRUIRII CONDUCEREA #I DIRIJAREA PROCESELOR DE

"NVARE "N CLAS LEARNING THEORIES $OR EDUCATION ACTIVE LEARNING METHODS COOPERATIVE LEARNING MODELE DE TIP MASTERY LEARNING MODERNISM versus POSTMODERNISM IN

DESIGNUL INSTRUCTIONAL AUTO-COMPROMITEREA PEDAGOGICA A

POSTMODERNISMU-LUI % &A$ACEREA SOAL'

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Instructional Design is the practice of creating instructional tools and content to help

facilitate learning most effectively. The process consists broadly of determining the currentstate and needs of the learner, defining the end goal of instruction, and creating some
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"intervention" to assist in the transition. Ideally the process is informed by pedagogicallytested theories of learning and may take place in student-only, teacher-led or community-

based settings. The outcome of this instruction may be directly observable and scientificallymeasured or completely hidden and assumed. There are many instructional design models butmany are based on the ADDIE model ith the phases analysis, design, development,

implementation, and evaluation.

As a field, instructional design is historically and traditionally rooted in cognitive andbehavioral psychology. !oever, because it is not a regulated, ell-understood field, the terminstructional design has been co-opted by or confused ith a variety of other ideologically-

based and # or professional fields. Instructional design, for e$ample, is not graphic design,although graphic design %from a cognitive perspective& could play an important role inInstructional Design. Preparing instructional text by E. 'isanchuk, Instructional-DesignTheories and Modelsedited by (harles '. )eigeluth, and publications by *ames !artley areuseful in informing the distinction beteen instructional design and graphic design.

History

'uch of the foundation of the field of instructional design as laid in +orld +ar II, hen the.. military faced the need to rapidly train large numbers of people to perform comple$technical tasks, from field-stripping a carbine to navigating across the ocean to building a

bomber see "Training +ithin Industry%T+I&". Draing on the research and theories of /.0.kinner on operant conditioning, training programs focused on observable behaviors. Tasksere broken don into subtasks, and each subtask treated as a separate learning goal.Training as designed to reard correct performance and remediate incorrect performance.'astery as assumed to be possible for every learner, given enough repetition and feedback.

After the ar, the success of the artime training model as replicated in business andindustrial training, and to a lesser e$tent in the primary and secondary classroom. 123 Theapproach is still common in the .. military.143

In 2566 /en7amin /loom published an influential ta$onomy of hat he termed the threedomains of learning8 Cognitive %hat e kno or think&, Psychootor %hat e do,

physically& and A!!ective%hat e feel, or hat attitudese have&. These ta$onomies stillinfluence the design of instruction.193

During the latter half of the 4:th century, learning theories began to be influenced by thegroth of digital computers.

In the 25;:s, many instructional design theorists began to adopt an information-processing-based approach to the design of instruction. David 'errill for instance developed (omponentDisplay Theory %(DT&,hich concentrates on the means of presenting instructional materials%presentation techniater in the 25?:s and throughout the 255:s cognitive loadtheory began to find empiricalsupport for a variety of presentation techni


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effects of orking memoryload, and found that the format of instructional materials has adirect effect on the performance of the learners using those materials.1;31?3153

+hile the media debates of the 255:s focused on the influences of media on learning,cognitive load effects ere being documented in several 7ournals. )ather than attempting to

substantiate the use of media, these cognitive load learning effects provided an empirical basisfor the use of instructional strategies. 'ayer asked the instructional design community toreassess the media debate, to refocus their attention on hat as most important learning. 12:3

/y the mid to late 255:s, eller and his associates had discovered several learning effectsrelated to cognitive load and the design of instruction %e.g. the split attention effect,redundancy effect, and the worked-example effect). >ater, other researchers like )ichard'ayer began to attribute learning effects to cognitive load.12:3'ayer and his associates soondeveloped a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia earning.122312431293

In the past decade, cognitive load theory has begun to be internationally accepted 12=3 and

begun to revolutioniBe ho practitioners of instructional design vie instruction. )ecently,human performance e$perts have even taken notice of cognitive load theory, and have begunto promote this theory base as the science of instruction, ith instructional designers as the

practitioners of this field.1263 0inally (lark, Cguyen and eller12@3 published a te$tbookdescribing ho Instructional Designers can promote efficient learning using evidence basedguidelines of (ognitive load theory.

Learning Design

TheIM! earning Design12;3specification supports the use of a ide range of pedagogies in

online learning. )ather than attempting to capture the specifics of many pedagogies, it doesthis by providing a generic and fle$ible language. This language is designed to enable manydifferent pedagogies to be e$pressed. The approach has the advantage over alternatives in thatonly one set of learning design and runtime tools then need to be implemented in order tosupport the desired ide range of pedagogies. The language as originally developed at thepen niversity of the Cetherlands %C>&, after e$tensive e$amination and comparison ofa ide range of pedagogical approaches and their associated learning activities, and severaliterations of the developing language to obtain a good balance beteen generality and

pedagogic e$pressiveness.

A criticism of >earning Design theory is that learning is an outcome. +hile instructional

theory Instructional Designfocuses on outcomes, hile properly accounting for a multi-variate conte$t that can only be predictive, it acknoledges that %given the variabilities inhuman capability& a guarantee of reliable learning outcomes is improbable. +e can onlydesign instruction. +e cannot design learning %an outcome&. Automotive engineers can designa car that, under specific conditions, ill achieve 6: miles per gallon. These engineers cannotguarantee that drivers of the cars they design ill %or have the capability to& operate thesevehicles according to the specific conditions prescribed. The former is the metaphor forinstructional design. The latter is the metaphor for >earning Design.

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN #ODELS

ADDIE o"el
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Chandler_Sweller_1991-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Sweller_Cooper_1985-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Cooper_Sweller_1987-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_1997-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_1997-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_2001-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_Bove_Mars_Tapangco_1996-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_Steinhoff_Bower_Mars_1995-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Paas_Renkl_Sweller_2004-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Clark_Mayer_2002-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Clark_Nguyen_Sweller_2006-15http://www.amazon.com/dp/0787977284http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMS_Learning_Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Chandler_Sweller_1991-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Sweller_Cooper_1985-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Cooper_Sweller_1987-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_1997-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worked-example_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_1997-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_2001-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_Bove_Mars_Tapangco_1996-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Mayer_Steinhoff_Bower_Mars_1995-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Paas_Renkl_Sweller_2004-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Clark_Mayer_2002-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-Clark_Nguyen_Sweller_2006-15http://www.amazon.com/dp/0787977284http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IMS_Learning_Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_Design


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erhaps the most common model used for creating instructional materials is the ADDIE'odel.This acronym stands for the 6 phases contained in the model8

Analy$e- analyBe learner characteristics, task to be learned, etc. Design- develop learning ob7ectives, choose an instructional approach

Develo%- create instructional or training materials

I%leent- deliver or distribute the instructional materials

Evaluate- make sure the materials achieved the desired goals

'ost of the current instructional design models are variations of the ADDIE model.

Ra%i" %rototy%ing

A sometimes utiliBed adaptation to the ADDIE model is in a practice knon as rapidprototyping"

!oever, rapid prototyping is considered a somehat simplistic type of model. At the heart ofInstructional Design is the analysis phase. After you thoroughly conduct the analysis--you canthen choose a model based on your findings. That is the area here most people get snagged--they simply do not do a thorough enough analysis. %art of Article /y (hris /ressi on>inkedIn&

roponents suggest that through an iterative process the verification of the design documentssaves time and money by catching problems hile they are still easy to fi$. This approach is

not novel to the design of instruction, but appears in many design-related domains includingsoftare design, architecture, transportation planning, product development, message design,user e$perience design, etc.12?31253

Dic& an" Carey

Another ell-knon instructional design model is The Dic& an" Carey Systes A%%roach#o"el14:3. The model as originally published in 25;? by +alter Dick and >ou (arey in their

book entitled The !ystematic Design of Instruction"

Dick and (arey made a significant contribution to the instructional design field by

championing a systems vie of instruction as opposed to vieing instruction as a sum ofisolated parts. The model addresses instruction as an entire system, focusing on theinterrelationship beteen conte$t, content, learning and instruction. According to Dick and(arey, "(omponents such as the instructor, learners, materials, instructional activities,delivery system, and learning and performance environments interact ith each other andork together to bring about the desired student learning outcomes" 14:3. The components ofthe ystems Approach 'odel, also knon as the Dick and (arey 'odel, are as follos.

Identify Instructional Foal%s& (onduct Instructional Analysis

AnalyBe >earners and (onte$ts
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+rite erformance b7ectives

Develop Assessment Instruments

Develop Instructional trategy

Develop and elect Instructional 'aterials

Design and (onduct 0ormative Evaluation of Instruction

)evise Instruction

Design and (onduct ummative Evaluation

+ith this model, components are e$ecuted iteratively and in parallel rather than linearly 14:3.

Other o"els

ome other useful models of instructional design include8 the mith#)agan 'odel, the'orrison#)oss#Gemp 'odel.

>earning theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theoriessuch as #ehaviorism$ constructivism$ social learningand cognitivismhelp shape and definethe outcome of instructional materials.

Ro'ert #( Gagn)Ro'ert #ills Gagn) %August 42, 252@April 4?, 4::4& as an American educational

psychologistbest knon for his "(onditions of >earning". FagnH pioneered the science ofinstruction during ++IIfor the air force ith pilot training. >ater he ent on to develop aseries of studies and orks that helped codify hat is no considered to be good instruction.!e also as involved in applying concepts of instructional theory to the design of computer

based trainingand multimediabased learning.

A ma7or contribution to the theory of instruction as the model "Nine Events o!Instruction*(

Fain attention Inform learner of ob7ectives

timulate recall of prior learning

resent stimulus material

rovide learner guidance

Elicit performance

rovide feedback
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-DickCarey2005-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditions_of_Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_design#cite_note-DickCarey2005-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviorismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1916http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditions_of_Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia


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discriminations

concept formation

rule application

problem solving

The primary significance of this hierarchy is to provide direction for instructors so that theycan "identify prereearning hierarchies define a seearning hierarchies define hat intellectual skills are to be learned.

9. Different instruction is re


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4. I"enti!y o'+ective- pose


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A%%lication 4 /e able to use a nail to fasten something competently, andactually do so.

Analysis 4/e able to determine hat kind of nail and nailing techni


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5. Enhance retention and transfer to the 7ob )etrieval and generaliBation of learned skill tone situation

8( Gain attention

In order for any learning to take place, you must first capture the attention ofthe student. A multimedia program that begins ith an animated title screense


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their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihoodof retention.

@( Provi"e !ee"'ac&

As learners practice ne behavior it is important to provide specific andimmediate feedback of their performance. nlike


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During the simulations, students are given guidance as needed. If they are performingoperations correctly, the simulated TA) system behaves 7ust as the live applicationould. If the student makes a mistake, the tutorial immediately responds ith anaudible cue, and a pop-up indo e$plains and reinforces the correct operation.

( Assess %er!orance

After all lessons are completed, students are re


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ne of the conse


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'ost references to the /looms Ta$onomy only notice the Cognitive domain. There is also aso far less referred, revised version of the Ta$onomy, published in 4::2 under the name of /'Taxonomy for earning$ Teaching$ and assessing/( )d*. And)r*on( Lorin +.( r,/o0(D,vid R.( Air,*i,n( P))r +.( Cr1i2*,n2( ,0))n A.( M,3)r( Ri4,rd E.( Pinri4(P,10 R.( R,*( J,5)* ,nd +iro42( M)r0in C.

A!!ective Doain

kills in the a!!ective "oaindescribe the ay people react emotionally and their ability tofeel another living things pain or 7oy. Affective ob7ectives typically target the aareness andgroth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.

There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the loest order processes to the

highest8Receiving

The loest levelJ the student passively pays attention. +ithout this level no learningcan occur.

Res%on"ingThe student actively participates in the learning process, not only attends to a stimulus,the student also reacts in some ay.

6aluingThe student attaches a value to an ob7ect, phenomenon, or piece of information.

Organi$ing

The student can put together different values, information, and ideas andaccommodate them ithin his#her on schemaJ comparing, relating and elaboratingon hat has been learned.

Characteri$ingThe student has held a particular value or belief that no e$erts influence on his#her

behaviour so that it becomes a characteristic.

Psychootor Doain

kills in the %sychootor "oaindescribe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or

instrument like a hand or a hammer. sychomotor ob7ectives usually focus on change and#ordevelopment in behavior and#or skills.

/loom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain,but since then other educators have created their on psychomotor ta$onomies123.

Cognitive Doain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives#cite_note-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_of_Educational_Objectives#cite_note-0


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(ategories in the cognitive domainof /looms Ta$onomy %Anderson K Grathohl, 4::2&

kills in the cognitive "oain revolve around knoledge, comprehension, and "thinking

through" a particular topic. Traditional education tends to emphasiBe the skills in this domain,particularly the loer-order ob7ectives.

There are si$ levels in the ta$onomy, moving through the loest order processes to thehighest8

2no3le"geE$hibit memory of previously-learned materials by recalling facts, terms, basicconcepts and ansers

Gnoledge of specifics - terminology, specific facts Gnoledge of ays and means of dealing ith specifics - conventions, trends

and se


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E$amine and break information into parts by identifying motives or causes. 'akeinferences and find evidence to support generaliBations

Analysis of elements Analysis of relationships

Analysis of organiBational principles

Puestions like8 !o ould you classify...L

Synthesis(ompile information together in a different ay by combining elements in a ne

pattern or proposing alternative solutions roduction of a uni


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The /looms +heelaccording to /looms verbs and matching assessment types

, and including only feasible and measurable verbs.

/looms ta$onomy in theory helps teachers better prepare ob7ectives and, from there, deriveappropriate measures of learned capa#ility and igher order thinking skills. (urriculum-design, usually a tate %governmental& practice, did not reflect the intent of such a ta$onomyuntil the late 255:s. Cote that /loom, as an American academic, lacks universal approval ofhis constructs.

The curriculum of the (anadian rovince of ntariooffers a good e$ample of the applicationof a ta$onomy of educational ob7ectives8 it provides for its teachers an integrated adaptationof /looms ta$onomy. ntarios 'inistry of Educationspecifies as its ta$onomic categories8Gnoledge and nderstandingJ ThinkingJ (ommunicationJ Application. Teachers can classifyevery specific learning ob7ective, in any given course, according to the 'inistrys ta$onomy.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_order_thinking_skillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Ontario)http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Blooms_rose.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_order_thinking_skillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curriculumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontariohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Ontario)


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re!erences

/loom, /en7amin . %25?:&.'ll +ur Children earning. Ce Rork8 'cFra-!ill. /loom, /en7amin . Taxonomy of *ducational +#,ectives. ublished by Allyn and

/acon, /oston, 'A. (opyright %c& 25?= by earson Education.

#ASTER LEARNING

(u toate cS paradigma mastery learning s-a impus n pedagogia modernS princontribu ii de mare valoare n anii ;:-?:, se cuvine sS atribuim paternitatea U lansSrii

pe pia S V a acestei e$presii fabuloase lui *ohn /. (arroll care a folosit-o pentru primadatS n 25@9 pentru a desemna posibilitatea de a alcStui modele instruc ionale apte sSdetermine U eficacitatea generalS a instruiriiVJ adicS U reu ita tuturor elevilor lanvS SturSV, realiBarea U visului lui (omeniusV % U arta de a-i nvS a pe to i totulV &.

0rom +ikipedia, the free encyclopedia

#astery Learningis an instructional method that presumes all children can learn if they areprovided ith the appropriate learning conditions. pecifically, mastery learning is a methodhereby students are not advanced to a subse


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documentation" %e.g., CoacByk K *ames, 2559, van der 'ei7, K (arroll, 2556, as cited inGearsley 255=d&. It is based upon studies of people learning a ide range of computerapplications including ord processors and databases.

As Gearsley %255=d& e$plains, this theory suggests that8

2. All learning activities should be meaningful and self-contained.4. Activities should e$ploit the learners prior e$perience and knoledge.

9. >earners should be given realistic pro7ects as


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Pro'le- /elo is a screen shot of The 2I3De4 !earch *ngine located athttp8##inde$.daci.net. This site allos softare developers to submit shareare andfreeare to be stored in their database. This page hoever has four serious designflas8 >a?the banners occupy too much valuable space at the top of the screenJ >'?"The +inde$ Inde$" image banner runs a lake ripple*ava applet hich is highly

distractingJ >c? the lake ripple*ava applet significantly increases the time it takes todonload the pageJ >"? the hite te$t on a blue background is difficult to read,especially considering that the site uses four colors for te$t8 red, blue, hite and black.

Solution- >a?(arroll advises that learners should be alloed to start right aay onmeaningful tasks" *ones and 0ar'? >c? >"?(arroll advises that eb-design should minimiBe the e$tent to hich instructionalmaterials o#structlearning. Fillani K )elan %255;& advise that frames should be keptsimple and be consistent in design of te$t, graphics and sound to limit cognitiveoverload. imilarly, Fuay %2556, as cited in 0ahy 2555& advises that +eb pages shouldreduce clutterand donload in 56 seconds or lessith a 2=.= modem. (onsidering

this advice, to improve the design of this eb page, the *ava applet should be removedas it greatly increases the time to donload the entire page ithout adding to itsusability. 0urthermore, the ripple effect distracts from the content of the site and is 7ust

plain "annoying." (ontent that is not essential, such as the "redesign notice" shouldalso be removed or shrunk in siBe. 0urthermore, the range of te$t colors should bereduced and a more suitable background chosen to improve reada#ility"

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

2. 2ee% i%ortant in!oration at the to% o! the %age( +hen learners come to a page,they immediately scan for interesting and important information. Food eb-designdemands that you give your learners the information they ant right aay and in ahurry. >arge graphics at the top of a page may be aesthetically pleasing, but take uptoo much of the immediate vieable space to be considered instructionally useful

%*ones and 0ar


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4. 2ee% !raes si%le an" 'e consistent in "esign o! te1tF gra%hics an" soun" toliit cognitive overloa"( Fuay advises that "cognitive bandidth should beminimiBed to ensure users easily and accurately grasp the message" %as cited in 0ahy2555, 252&. !e also recommends that graphics and other enhancements should "neverobscure the central message of the page" %p. 252&. *ones and 0ar& ith

vertical and horiBontal siBe can speed donload. (ommercial graphics tools such asAdobe Image)eady 4.: can also reduce graphics siBe by among other things reducingthe color pallet.

@. Screen e1cess in!oration(Food design, as (arroll recommends, must reduce excessinformationand allo learners to fill in the gaps. In support of this, Dede %255@, 29&maintains that the curriculum is "overcroded ith lo-level information" and as aresult, "teachers 1must3 frantically race through re


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"to harvest patterns of knoledge 7ust as fish e$tract o$ygen from ater via their gills"%p. @&.

;. Structure aterials as to%ical o"ules(This "simplifies selective reuse of coursematerials" %/utler 255;, =44&.

?. Strive !or uality not uantity()ockley %255;, as cited in 0ahy 2555, 25@-25;& givesthe folloing advice for the planning and management of +eb-based resources8

Design sall('ake hat you have effective, then add to it. Dont attempt to doeverything at once.

2ee% e!!ects si%le( Assure effects ADD to the message#content.

#a% out the 3hole site(/oth for development and maintenance.

Plan !or gro3th(Anticipate and direct it.

Get !ee"'ac& !ro users(And pay attention to it.

Test any outsi"e lin&s regularly(Dont link to sites hich do not appear to be illmaintained or stable.

Give only one %erson e"it %rivileges(nly one person should have site maintenanceresponsibilities.

Don0t %ost any %art o! a site 3hile it is still $nder constr$ction(Everything on yoursite should ork no. Instead of "under construction, put up announcements of thee$pected availability of "coming" or "ne" features.

EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOG


E"ucational technology%also called learning technology& is the study and ethical practice offacilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriatetechnological processes and resources." 123The term educational technology is often associatedith, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory" +hile instructionaltechnology covers the processes and systems of learning and instruction, educationaltechnology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability.

o

Pers%ectives an" eaning

Educational technology is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools thatmight prove helpful in advancing student learning. Educational Technology relies on a broad
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definition of the ord "technology". Technology can refer to material ob7ects of use tohumanity, such as machines or hardare, but it can also encompass broader themes, includingsystems, methods of organiBation, and techniarry (ubans+versold and %nderused - Computers inthe Classroom.163

0or several decades, vendors of e


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THEORIES AND PRACTICES

Three main theoretical schools or philosophical frameorks have been present in theeducational technology literature. These are /ehaviorism, (ognitivism and (onstructivism.Each of these schools of thought are still present in todays literature but have evolved as the

sychologyliterature has evolved.

/ehavioris

This theoretical frameork as developed in the early 4:th century ith the animal learninge$periments of Ivan avlov, Edard Thorndike, Edard (. Tolman, (lark >. !ull, /.0.kinner and many others. 'any sychologists used these theories to describe and e$perimentith human learning. +hile still very useful this philosophy of learning has lost favor ithmany educators.

Skinner's Contributions

/.0. kinnerrote e$tensively on improvements of teaching based on his functional analysisof Nerbal /ehavior,1@3 and rote "The Technology of Teaching",1;3 an attempt to dispel themyths underlying contemporary education, as ell as promote his system he called

programmed instruction. gden >indsley also developed the (eleration learning systemsimilarly based on behavior analysis but


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(onstructivist learning environments reeod. 1?3'any of these blogs arerecogniBed by their peers each year through the edublogger aards.153+eb 4.:technologieshave led to a huge increase in the amount of information available on this topic and thenumber of educators formally and informally discussing it. 'ost listed belo have beenaround for more than a decade, hoever, and fe ne thinkers mentioned above are listedhere.

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Technology plays an essential role in teaching and learning noadays. In recent years, hattechnologies offered us has significantly increased, along ith the introductions of needucational terms, such as "virtual education," "virtual universities," "electronic universities,"and "cyberspace institutions." Educational tools can help individuals ac


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COOPERATI6E LEARNING


Coo%erative learningas proposed in response to traditional curriculum-driven education.In cooperative learning environments, students interact in purposely structured heterogeneousgroups to support the learning of oneself and others in the same group.

In online education, cooperative learning focuses on opportunities to encourage bothindividual fle$ibility and affinity to a learning community %aulsen 4::9&. (ooperativelearning seeks to foster some benefits from the freedom of individual learning and other

benefits from collaborative learning. (ooperative learning thrives in virtual learningenvironments that emphasiBe individual freedom ithin online learning communities.(ooperative learning e$plicitly builds cooperation skills by assigning roles to team membersand establishing norms for conflict resolution via arbitration. (ooperative learning should also

provide the means for group reflection and individual self-assessment.
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"(ooperative learning %(>& is an instructional paradigm in hich teams of studentsork on structured tasks %e.g., homeork assignments, laboratory e$periments, ordesign pro7ects& under conditions that meet five criteria8 positive interdependence,individual accountability, face-to-face interaction, appropriate use of collaborativeskills, and regular self-assessment of team functioning. 'any studies have shon that

hen correctly implemented, cooperative learning improves information ac


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o >o Achievers fastest to earning Episodes

/uil"ing /etter Grou%s

utcome Interdependenceo

Foal attainment depends on group 'eans Interdependence

o 'embers carry out vital, distinct yet overlapping roles

Individual Accountability

o 0eedback from members

o +hen needed assistance

o )eassign tasks to promote balance

Task (omple$ity

o Task is too comple$ for any single member to complete it.

Coo%erative vs( Co%etitive Learning

In (ooperative >earning, learners must ork together in order to succeed and personalsuccess only springs from group success.

In (ompetitive >earning, in order to succeed, other learners must fail.

LEARNING THEOR

>EDUCATION?


In psychology and education, a common definition of learning is a process that brings

together cognitive, emotional, and enviromental influences and e$periences for ac


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%Illeris,4:::Jrmorod, 2556&. >earning as a process focuses in hat happens hen thelearning takes place. E$planations of hat happens are called learning theories. A learningtheoryis an attempt to describe ho people and animals learn, thereby helping us understandthe inherently comple$ process of learning. Learning theories have to chief valuesaccording to !ill%4::4&. ne is in providing us ith vocabulary and a conceptual frameork

for interpreting the e$amples of learning that e observe. The other is in suggesting here tolook for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they dodirect our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions.

There are three main categories or philosophical frameorks under hich learning theoriesfall8 behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. /ehaviorism focuses only on theob7ectively observable aspects of learning. (ognitive theories look beyond behavior toe$plain brain-based learning. And constructivism vies learning as a process in hich thelearner actively constructs or builds ne ideas or concepts.

It is also important to take account of the udbury 'odel learning theory, that adduces that

learning is a process you do, not a process that is done to you, and shos that there are manyays to learn ithout the intervention of a teacher being imperative, of informal learningtheories, and to consider the philosophical anthropology implied by any theory.

/ehavioris

/ehavorism as a theory as most developed by /( 7( S&inner. It loosely includes the ork ofsuch people as Thorndike, Tolman, Futhrie, and !ull. +hat characteriBes these investigators

is their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three 'asicassu%tions are held to be true. 0irst, learning is manifested by a change in behavior.econd, the environment shapes behavior. And third the principles of contiguity %ho close intime to events must be for a bond to be performed & and reinforcement %any means ofincreasing the likelihood that an event ill be repeated & are central to e$plaining the learning

process. 0or behaviorism, learning is the ac


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likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, hich decreases the likelihood of thebehavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishmentif it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment andreinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. +ithin this frameork, behavioristsare particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.

Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement,and direct instructionhave emerged from this model.1citation needed3

Cognitivis

The earliest challenge to the 'ehavoristscame in a publication in 2545 by /ode, a Festaltpsycologist. !e criticised 'ehavioristsfor being too dependent on overt behavior to e$plainlearning. Festalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events.Festalts vies of learning have been incorporated into hat have come to be labeled

cogniti%e theories. To key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach8%2& that the memorysystem is an active organiBed processor of information and %4& that prior knoledge plays animportant role in learning. (ognitive theories look beyond behavior to e$plain brain-basedlearning. (ognitivists consider ho human memory orks to promote learning. 0or e$ample,the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short termmemoryand long term memoryare important to educators orking under the cognitive theory.The ma7or difference beteen Festaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over thelearning activity . 0or Gestaltistsit lies ith the individual learnerJ for 'ehaviorists it liesith the environment.

nce memory theories like the 'tkinson-!hiffrin memory model and /addeleys 2orking

memory model ere established as a theoretical frameork in (ognitive sychology, necognitive frameorks of learning began to emerge during the 25;:s, ?:s, and 5:s. Todayresearchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information ProcessingTheory. These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design3.Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning ho to learn, social role ac


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can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning,e$periential learning, situatedcognition, and reflective practice.

Learning as a %rocess you "oF

not a %rocess that is "one to you

D/)R 'DE>

ome critics of todays schools, of the concept of learning disabilities, of special education,and ofresponse to intervention,take the position that every child has a different learning styleand pace and that each child is uni


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Informal theories of education deal ith more practical breakdon of the learning process.ne of these deals ith hether learning should take place as a building of concepts toardan overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea ith the details filled in later. 'odernthinkers favor the latter, though ithout any basis in real orld research. (ritics believe thattrying to teach an overall idea ithout details %facts& is like trying to build a masonry structure

ithout bricks.

ther concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split off fromthe mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the ideallearning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its basic levelis all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit the perfect modelof self learning. !oever, real orld results indicate that isolated students fail. ocial supportseems crucial for sustained learning.

Informal learning theory also concerns itself ith book vs real-orld e$perience learning.'any consider most schools severely lacking in the second. Cely emerging hybrid

instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instructionpromise the best of both orlds.

OTHER LEARNING THEORIES

ther learning theories have also been developed. These learning theories may have a morespecific purpose than general learning theories. 0or e$ample, andragogyis the art and scienceto help adults learn.

Connectivism is a recent theory of netorked learning hich focuses on learning as making

connectionsMultimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia inlearning.

Other interests

(ontemporary Educational sychology#(hapter 48 The >earning rocess

Notes

2. JFreenberg, D. %25?;& The udbury Nalleychool E$perience7ack to 7asics.

4. JFreenberg, D. %25?;& 0ree at >ast, Theudbury Nalley chool, (hapter 6, The +ther1(1s.

9. JFreenberg, D. %2554&, Education in America,A Nie from udbury Nalley, /!pecial

*ducation/ -- ' no#le Cause !acrificed to

!tandardi9ation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogical_learning_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_learninghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary_Educational_Psychology/Chapter_2:_The_Learning_Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_ref-0http://www.sudval.com/05_underlyingideas.html#09http://www.sudval.com/05_underlyingideas.html#09http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_ref-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andragogical_learning_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectivism_(learning_theory)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multimedia_learninghttp://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Contemporary_Educational_Psychology/Chapter_2:_The_Learning_Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_ref-0http://www.sudval.com/05_underlyingideas.html#09http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_ref-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_theory_(education)#cite_ref-2


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=. JFreenberg, D. %2554&, Education in America,A Nie from udbury Nalley, /!pecial

*ducation/ -- ' 3o#le Cause (un 'mok.

6. JFreenberg, D. %25?;&, 0ree at >ast, The

udbury Nalley chool, (hapter 2,'nd1(ithmetic.

@. JFreenberg, D. %25?;&, 0ree at >ast, Theudbury Nalley chool, (hapter 25,earning.

;. JTheodora olito,*ducational Theory asTheory of Culture& ' :ichian perspective on the

educational theories of ;ohn Dewey and


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a conte$t for the subse


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Research su%%orting active learning

/onell and Eison %2552& state that active learning strategies are comparable to lectures forachieving content mastery, but superior to lectures for developing thinking and riting skills.193

(CT)NE)R ACD ()ITI(I'

The efficacy of active instructional techni


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4. J*ean-ol 'artin8=um 'uf#au didaktischer Teilkompeten9en #eim !ch>ler"?remdsprachenunterricht auf der lerntheoretischen 7asis des

Informationsverar#eitungsansat9es. Dissertation. TXbingen8 Carr. 25?6J *ean-ol 'artin,Fuido ebel %4::;&8ernen durch ehren& Paradigmenwechsel in der Didaktik@, In8

Deutschunterricht in ;apan, 24, 4::;, =-42 %Yeitschrift des *apanischen >ehrerverbandes,I/C8 29=4-@6;6&

9. JActive >earning8 (reating E$citement in the (lassroom. E)I( Digest, /onell K Eison,2552.

=. J'artin, 0., Glein, *. D., K ullivan, !. %4::;& The impact of instructional elements incomputer-based instruction7ritish ;ournal of *ducational Technology 5A%=&, @49@9@.

Re!erences

Anderson, *. )., )eder, >. '. K imon, !. %255?&. )adical constructivism andcognitive psychology. InD" (avitch 0*d") 7rookings papers on education policy .BBA"+ashington, D(8 /rookings Institute ress.

Atkinson, ). G., Derry, . *., )enkl, A., K +ortham, D. +. %4:::&. >earning frome$amples8 Instructional principles from the orked e$amples research. (eview of

*ducational (esearch$ 6, 2?242=.

/onell, (. K Eison, *. %2552&. 'ctive earning& Creating *xcitement in theClassroom '**-*(IC igher *ducation (eport 3o".. +ashington, D.(.8 *ossey-/ass.I/C 2-?;?9?-::-?;.

/runer, *. . %25@2&. "The act of discovery". arvard *ducational (eview:8%2&8 4294.

(lark, )., Cguyen, 0., and eller, *. %4::@&. *fficiency in earning& *vidence-7aseduidelines to Manage Cognitive oad. an 0rancisco8 feiffer.I/C :-;?;5-;;4?-=.

FagnH, ). %25@@&. Narieties of learning and the concept of discovery %pp.296-26:& In!hulman$ " !" and


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'ayer, ). %4::=&. "hould there be a three-strikes rule against pure discoverylearningL The case for guided methods of instruction".'merican Psychologist


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According to /runer, the instructor should try and encourage students to construct hypotheses,makes decisions, and "iscover %rinci%les 'y theselves %Gearsley 255=b&. The instructorstask is to "translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learners currentstate of understanding" and organiBe it in a spiral manner "so that the student continually'uil"s u%on 3hat they have alrea"y learne"."

/runer %25@@, as cited in Gearsley 255=b& states that a theory of instruction should address thefolloing aspects8

2. the most effective se


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6. Ask the student to count out 8 pennies and organiBe the pennies into as manyEPA> groups as they can.

@. ho anser.

;. Ask the student to count out @pennies and organiBe the pennies into as many EPA>groups as they can.

?. ho anser.

5. Ask the student to count out 8: pennies and organiBe the pennies into as manyEPA> groups as they can.

2:. ho anser.

22. tate that ; and 29 are prime numbers, hile @, ?, and 2? are not. Ask the folloing


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more easily recalled especially if repetition is used. 0ahy believes that "events ideas,ords, concepts and stimuli in general hich are not organiBed in some meaningfulay are harder to understand and remember than those hich are embedded in someorganiBational conte$t" %p. @:&. 0ahy also advises that hen se


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learning can provide an ade


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Girschner, . A., eller, *., and (lark, ). E. %4::@&. "+hy minimal guidance duringinstruction does not ork8 an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery,

problem-based, e$periential, and in


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Inuiry'ase" learning

in science e"ucation

In


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An important aspect of in


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'ayer %4::=& asked the


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/runer, *. . %25@2&. "The act of discovery".arvard *ducational (eview:8%2&8 4294.

Deey, * %255;&ow 2e Think, Ce Rork8 Dover ublications

0reire, . %25?=&Pedagogy of the +ppressed, Ce Rork8 (ontinuum ublishing(ompany

Girschner, . A., eller, *., and (lark, ). E. %4::@&+hy minimal guidance duringinstruction does not ork8 an analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery,

problem-based, e$periential, and in


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A pioneering psychologist, Nygotsky as also a highly prolific author8 his ma7or orks span @volumes, ritten over roughly 2: years, from his sychology of Art %2546& to Thought and>anguage 1or Thinking and peech3 %259=&. Nygotskys interests in the fields ofdevelopmental psychology, child development, and education ere e$tremely diverse. !isinnovative ork in psychology includes several key concepts such as psychological tools,

mediation, internaliBation and the Bone of pro$imal development. !is ork covered suchdiverse topics as the origin and the psychology of art, development of higher mentalfunctions, philosophy of science and methodology of psychological research, the relation

beteen learningand human development, concept formation, interrelation beteen languageand thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, the study of learningdisabilitiesand abnormal human development %aka defectology&.

Cultural e"iation an" internali$ation

Nygotsky investigated child development and ho this as guided by the role of culture andinterpersonal communication. Nygotsky observed ho higher mental functions developed

historically ithin particular cultural groups, as ell as individually through socialinteractions ith significant people in a childs life, particularly parents, but also other adults.Through these interactions, a child came to learn the habits of mind of her#his culture,including speech patterns, ritten language, and other symbolic knoledge through hich thechild derives meaning and affected a childs construction of her#his knoledge. This key

premise of Nygotskian psychology is often referred to as cultural mediation. The specificknoledge gained by children through these interactions also represented the sharedknoledge of a culture. This process is knon as internaliBation.

Internali9ationcan be understood in one respect as Wknoing hoV. 0or e$ample, riding a

bicycle or pouring a cup of milk are tools of the society and initially outside and beyond thechild. The mastery of these skills occurs through the activity of the child ithin society. Afurther aspect of internaliBation is appropriation in hich the child takes a tool and makes ithis on, perhaps using it in a ay uniesser knon is his research on play$ or child1s game as a psychological phenomenonand itsrole in the childs development. Through play the child develops abstract meaning separate

from the ob7ects in the orld hich is a critical feature in the development of higher mentalfunctions.

The famous e$ample Nygotsky gives is of a child ho ants to ride a horse but he cannot. Asa child under three, he ould perhaps cry and be angry, but around the age of three the childsrelationship ith the orld changes, "!enceforth play is such that the e$planation for it mustalays be that it is the imaginary, illusory realiBation of unrealiBable desires. Imagination is ane formation that is not present in the consciousness of the very ra young child, is totallyabsent in animals, and represents a specifically human form of conscious activity. >ike allfunctions of consciousness, it originally arises from action." %Nygotsky, 25;?&

!e ishes to ride a horse but cannot, so he picks up a stick and stands astride of it, thuspretending he is riding a horse. The stick is a pivot. "Action according to rules begins to be
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_of_proximal_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_mental_function&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_mental_function&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disabilitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disabilitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Defectology&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_mediationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(activity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_of_proximal_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology_of_arthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_mental_function&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_mental_function&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_and_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disabilitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_disabilitieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Defectology&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpersonal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_mediationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(activity)


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determined by ideas, not by ob7ects..... It is terribly difficult for a child to sever thought %themeaning of a ord& from ob7ect. lay is a transitional stage in this direction. At that criticalmoment hen a stick i.e., an ob7ect becomes a pivot for severing the meaning of horsefrom a real horse, one of the basic psychological structures determining the childsrelationship to reality is radically altered".

As children get older, their reliance on pivots such as sticks, dolls and other toys diminishes.They have internali9edthese pivots as imagination and abstract concepts through hich theycan understand the orld. "The old adage that childrens play is imagination in action can bereversed8 e can say that imagination in adolescents and schoolchildren is play ithoutaction" %Nygotsky, 25;?&.

Another aspect of play that Nygotsky referred to as the development of social rules thatdevelop, for e$ample, hen children play house and adopt the roles of different familymembers. Nygotsky cites an e$ample of to sisters playing at being sisters. The rules of

behavior beteen them that go unnoticed in daily life are consciously ac


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peaking has thus developed along to lines, the line of social communication and the line ofinner speech, by hich the child mediates and regulates her activity through her thoughtshich in turn are mediated by the semiotics%the meaningful signs& of inner speech. This is notto say that thinking cannot take place ithout language, but rather that it is mediated by it andthus develops to a much higher level of sophistication. *ust as the birthday cake as a sign

provides much deeper meaning than its physical properties allo, inner speech as signsprovides much deeper meaning than the loer psychological functions ould otheriseallo.

Inner speech is not comparable in form to e$ternal speech. E$ternal speech is the process ofturning thought into ords. Inner speech is the opposite, it is the conversion of speech intoinard thought. Inner speech for e$ample contains predicates only. ub7ects are superfluous.+ords too are used much more economically. ne ord in inner speech may be so repleteith sense to the individual that it ould take many ords to e$press it in e$ternal speech.

IN7LUENCE AND DE6ELOP#ENT

O7 6GOTS25S IDEAS

In the Soviet UnionF RussiaF an" Eastern Euro%e

In the oviet nion, the ork of the group of Nygotskys students knon as the Gharkovchool of sychologyas vital for preserving the scientific legacy of >ev Nygotsky andidentifying ne avenues of its subseeontev&, personality %>. /oBhovich,Asnin, A. C. >eontev&, ill and volition%YaporoBhets,A. C. >eontev, . Yinchenko, >. /oBhovich, Asnin&, psychology of play %F. D.>ukov,D. Elkonin& and psychology of learning %. Yinchenko,>. /oBhovich, D. Elkonin&, asell as the theory of step-by-step formation of mental actions %Falperin&, general

psychologicalactivity theory%A. C. >eontev& and psychology of action %YaporoBhets&.

In the Kest

In the +est, most attention as aimed at the continuing ork of Nygotskys +esterncontemporary *ean iaget. Nygotskys ork appeared virtually unknon until its"rediscovery" in the 25@:s, hen the interpretative translation of Thought and language

%259=& as published in English %in 25@4J revised edition in 25?@, translated by A. GoBulinJand asThinking and speechin 25?;, translated by C. 'inick&. In the end of the 25;:s, trulyground-breaking publication as the ma7or compilation of Nygotskys orks that sa the lightin 25;? under the header of 'ind in society8 The development of higher psychological

processes.

Nygotskys vies are reported to have influenced development of a ide range ofpsychological and educational theories such as Ecological ystems Theory, activity theory,distributed cognition, cognitive apprenticeship, second language ac


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GoBulin, Dorothy )obbins, Cikolai Neresov, Anna tetsenko, Gieran Egan, 0red Ceman,David 'cCeill, >ois !olBman, and 'ichael +hite.143193

+estern scholars have also begun to apply the Nygotskian paradigm to the domain of moraldevelopment. In Educational sychology, first published in English in 255;,Nygotsky devotes

a chapter to the discussion of moral development and moral education. Nygotsky vieedmoral development as involving similar processes as other areas of cognitive development.E$amples of scholars applying Nygotskian theory to moral development include 'ark Tappanand Nal D. Turner.

CRITICS O7 6GOTS2

The school of Nygotsky and, specifically, his cultural-historical psychology as muchcriticiBed during his lifetime as ell as after his death. /y the beginning of the 259:s theschool as defeated by Nygotskys scientific opponents ho criticiBed him for "idealistaberrations", hich at that time e


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+)r*4( J. V. 7>. 1ygots%y and the Social 2ormation of Mind( H,rv,rdUniv)r*i3 Pr)**( C,5?rid)( M,**.( ,nd London.

o (FCITINE DENE>'ECT

A) Description

Nygotskys theory of social cognitive development is complementary to /anduras sociallearning theory. Its ma7or thematic thrust is that "social interaction plays a fundamental role in

the development of cognition" %Gearsley 255=e&. 'ost of the original ork of this theory asdone in the conte$t of language learning in children.

An important concept in Nygotskys theory is that "the potential for cognitive development islimited to a certain time span hich he calls the Bone of pro$imal development %Gearsley255=e&. !e defines the Bone of pro$imal development as having four learning stages. Thesestages "range beteen the loer limit of hat the student knos and the upper limits of hatthe student has the potential of accomplishing" %Fillani and )elan 255;, 492&. The stages can

be further broken don as follos %Tharp K Fallimore 25??, 96&8

Stage 8 assistance provided by more capable others %coaches, e$perts, teachers&J

Stage 9 assistance by selfJ
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Stage : internaliBation automatiBation %fossiliBation&J and

Stage ; de-automatiBation8 recursiveness through prior stages.

Another notable aspect of Nygotskys theory is that it claims "that instruction is most efficient

hen students engage in activities ithin a supportive learning environment and hen theyreceive appropriate guidance that is mediated by tools" %Nygotsky 25;?, as cited in Fillani K)elan 255;, 492&.These instructional tools can be defined as "cognitive strategies, a mentor,

peers, computers, printed materials, or any instrument that organiBes and provides informationfor the learner." Their role is "to organiBe dynamic support to help 1learners3 complete a tasknear the upper end of their Bone of pro$imal development 1YD3 and then to systematicallyithdra this support as the 1learner3 move to higher levels of confidence."

B) Practical Application

In applying Nygotskys theory of social cognitive development, Gearsley %255=e& suggests

keeping the folloing principles in mind8

2. 0ull cognitive development re %niform )esource >ocator&,scrollbar, and links to frames in the same document or other documents. uchinternal connections among the frames of a broser enable the designer tocreate interactive links that can update and control the content of other frames%p. 494&.


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Filanni and )elan proposed the folloing model made up of four distinct frames, ith theInstructional Model ?ramehaving four distinct phases8

VibrantFrame

Instructional Model Frame[Advance Organizer] [Mode] [E!"ore] [Genera#e]

NavigationFrame[$%##on][$%##on][$%##on][$%##on]

PresentationFrame

6i'rant 7rae 4 The small top left area frame above the navigation framedetermines the underlying theme for content. Each time the user clicks on it, a netheme ill appear hich changes the thematic nature of instruction. 0or e$ample, thisframe could be used to provide multiple versions of content %e.g., frames, no frames,modules, no modules&. This frame could also be used to sho PuickTime movies. Itshould be noted that proper use of this frame adds a considerable investment ininstructional design.

Instructional #o"el 7rae The top right frame, includes four buttons representingthe four stages of learning as proposed by Nygotskys Bone of pro$imal development8Advance rganiBer, 'odeling, E$ploring, and Fenerating. Each button in this frameupdates and controls the content of the navigation frame.

Navigation 7rae 4 The left frame 7ust belo the Nibrant 0rame is the Cavigation0rame. Depending upon hich button is clicked in the Cavigation 0rame, determinesthe content of the resentation 0rame.

The Presentation 7rae 4 The main central frame displays dynamic instructionalcontent as selected from the navigation frame.

To e$amples hich illustrate design features of Fillani and )elans instructional model areshon in the folloing links to screen shots, one of ookmyung +omens niversityContinuing Cy#er *ducation Program, and the other of the home page of this tutorial&

C) Related Theories, Pedagogical Practices and Practical Web-Design Strategies

2. Si%li!y navigation( Babo %255?& defines navigation as "the process of ac


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%255@, 66& advises8 >a? avoid using conflicting or confusing orienting devices, asdisorientation interferes ith the learning taskJ >'?develop organiBational systems thatare highly visual, interactive, and intuitiveJ >c?use embedded menus as a search aid,

but make sure these menus actually meet learning needs and do not createdisorientationJ and >"?keep menus shallo but meaningfulJ use icons supplemented

by te$t.9. Inclu"e in"e1esF ta'le o! contentsF an" search ca%a'ilities(0ahy %2555, 2??&

advises that navigation, for instructional purposes, can be aided substantially if thefolloing functions and capabilities are designed into +ebages8

in"e1 - of contents of the siteJglossary - of terms, vocabulary, etc., ith pronunciationJrelate" lin&s %age- to enable further study, but to avoid unnecessary brosingJsearching- using an efficient engineJonline hel%- to ensure no user is left ithout assistanceJ

'oo&ar&ing - to simplify return to specific parts of the siteJ andnote'oo&- to allo recording of notes, including cut-and-paste from on-linematerials.

=. Clearly i"enti!y content 3ith a%%ro%riate hea"ings an" titles( The title of the siteshould reflect its purpose and audience.

6. Place ost i%ortant in!oration on the to%le!t( I%ortant in!oration shoul"go to the to%le!t(The loer-left is the least noticed area of the page#screen %)ockley255; as cited in 0ahy 2555, 2=6&.

Conclusion

To make online teaching and training materials more effective, an agency should firstestablish suitable learning goals and ob7ectives. ince the priority of instruction is to "benefit"or "instruct" the learner, instructional designers should then strive to facilitate the learning

process i.e., make learning easier. This can be accomplished by applying proven learningtheories and pedagogical practices, as ell as, practical eb-design strategies and guidelines,to their instructional design8

!oever, "program planners need to e$ercise caution in assuming that adult developmenttheories apply 1e


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reported spending an average of 5: minutes per day visiting sites unrelated to their7obs"&.

To sum up the future of the +eb as an educational tool, 'cDonald %255@ as cited in 0ahy2555, 2?4& provides us ith the folloing insights. !e claims that the +eb ill only become

a useful educational tool hen it e$hibits the folloing characteristics8

Ease o! use-the Internet must become as easy to use as a telephone Accessi'ility-learners and teachers must have access to the Internet as convenient as

the telephone

And solves the folloing three problems8

Lac& o! s%ee"

A'sence o! security

A relatively sall nu'er o! users

Suary o! 7ive Learning Theories

2. Gagne0s Con"itions o! Learning Theoryis based on a hierarchy of intellectual skillsorganiBed according to comple$ity that can be used to identify prere


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ALTE #ODELE DE

DESIGN

INSTRUCTIONAL

GE' DEIFC 'DE>

0rom EduTech +iki

De!inition

The *erold Gemp instructional design method and model defines nine different components ofan instructional design and at the same time adopts a continous implementation#evaluationmodel.

Gemp adopts a ide vie, the oval shape of his model conveys that the design and

development process is a continuous cycle that re


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;. lan the instructional message and delivery.

?. Develop evaluation instruments to assess ob7ectives.

5. elect resources to support instruction and learning activities.

According to Elena Pureshis eb-pageon instructional design8 W The Gemp %255=& designmodel takes a holistic approach to instructional design. Nirtually all factors in the learningenvironment are taken into consideration including sub7ect analysis, learner characteristics,learning ob7ectives, teaching activities, resources %computers, books, etc.&, support servicesand evaluation. The process is iterative and the design is sub7ect to constant revision. Theimmediate feel of being iterative and inclusive, and particularly the fact that the central focusis the learner needs and goals are the strengths of this model. There is also a focus on contentanalysis, as there ould be in any educational design and a focus on support and service,hich is not present in other ID models. 'uch like the Gnirk and Fustafson design model,Gemps model is also small scale and can be used for individual lessons.V

Instructional Design

Learning Theory

/ren"a #ergel>8BB ?

Intro"uction-

To students of instructional design the introduction and subse


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)eading about the development of learning theories and their connection to instructionaldesign evoked, for me, many parallels ith the development of other theories in sciences. Ihave included some of those thoughts as asides ithin the main body of te$t.

/esides behaviorism, cognitivism and constructivism one could discuss such topics as

connoisseurship, semiotics, and conte$tualism, but I decided that a clear understanding of thebasic learning theories ould be best. The main sections of this site are as follos8

Khat are Theories an" #o"elsM

The /asics o! the Learning Theories

o The /asics of /ehaviorism

o The /asics of (ognitivism

o The /asics of (onstructivism

The History o! Learning Theories in Instructional Designo /ehaviorism and Instructional Design

o (ognitivism and Instructional Design

o (onstructivism and Instructional Design

Co%aring The Develo%ent o! Learning Theories to the Develo%ent o! the Atoic

Theory

Learning Theories an" the Practice o! Instructional Design

Learning Theories Soe Strengths an" Kea&nesses

Is There One /est Learning Theory !or Instructional DesignM

Conclusion

Re!erences an" /i'liogra%hy

KHAT ARE THEORIES AND #ODELSM

Khat is a theoryM

o A theory provides a general e$planation for observations made over time.

o A theory e$plains and predicts behavior.

o A theory can never be established beyond all doubt.

o A theory may be modified.

o Theories seldom have to be thron out completely if thoroughly tested but sometimes a theory may beidely accepted for a long time and later disproved.

%Dorin, Demmin K Fabel, 255:&

Khat is a o"elL
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#What%20are%20Theories%20and%20Models?http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Constructivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Constructivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Comparing%20The%20Development%20of%20Lehttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Comparing%20The%20Development%20of%20Lehttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Learning%20Theories%20and%20the%20Practhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Learning%20Theories%20-%20Some%20Strenghttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Is%20There%20One%20Best%20Learning%20Theohttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Conclusionhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#References%20&%20Bibliographyhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#What%20are%20Theories%20and%20Models?http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Constructivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Constructivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Comparing%20The%20Development%20of%20Lehttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Comparing%20The%20Development%20of%20Lehttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Learning%20Theories%20and%20the%20Practhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Learning%20Theories%20-%20Some%20Strenghttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Is%20There%20One%20Best%20Learning%20Theohttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#Conclusionhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#References%20&%20Bibliography


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o A model is a mental picture that helps us understand something e cannot see or e$perience directly.

%Dorin, Demmin K Fabel, 255:&

/E!ANI)I', (FCITINI' ACD (CT)(TINI'

Beha%iorism&/ased on observable changes in behavior. /ehaviorism focuses on a nebehavioral pattern being repeated until it becomes automatic.

Cogniti%ism-/ased on the thought process behind the behavior. (hanges in behavior areobserved, and used as indicators as to hat is happening inside the learners mind.

Constr$cti%ism-/ased on the premise that e all construct our on perspective of the orld,through individual e$periences and schema. (onstructivism focuses on preparing the learner

to problem solve in ambiguous situations.

%chuman, 255@&

The /asics o! /ehavioris

/ehaviorism, as a learning theory, can be traced back to Aristotle, hose essay "'emory"focused on associations being made beteen events such as lightning and thunder. ther

philosophers that folloed Aristotles thoughts are !obbs %2@6:&, !ume %2;=:&, /ron%2?4:&, /ain %2?66& and Ebbinghause %2??6& %/lack, 2556&.

The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observedand measured %Food K /rophy, 255:&. It vies the mind as a "black bo$" in the sense thatresponse to stimulus can be observed 8;B 8B:=?

0or most people, the name "avlov" rings a bell %pun intended&. The )ussian physiologist isbest knon for his ork in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. avlovs mostfamous e$periment involved food, a dog and a bell.

Pa&'o&s Eperiment

B)for) 4ondiionin( rinin ) ?)00 4,1*)d no r)*@on*) fro5 ) do.P0,4in food in fron of ) do inii,)d *,0iv,ion.

D1rin 4ondiionin( ) ?)00 /,* r1n , f)/ *)4ond* ?)for) ) do /,*@r)*)n)d /i food.

Af)r 4ondiionin( ) rinin of ) ?)00 ,0on) @rod14)d *,0iv,ionD)5?o( 7=.
http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Constructivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Constructivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Behaviorismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Cognitivismhttp://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/802papers/mergel/brenda.htm#The%20Basics%20of%20Constructivism


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#timu'us and esponse !tems o* Pa&'o&s Eperiment

0ood nconditioned timulus

alivationnconditioned )esponse %natural, notlearned&

/ell (onditioned timulus

alivation (onditioned )esponse %to bell&

Ot+er Obser&ations Made b, Pa&'o&

Si5101* G)n)r,0i


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T) Q0,/ of ))4Q *,)d , /)n , 4onn)4ion ?)/))n , *i5101* ,ndr)*@on*) i* @o*iiv)03 r)/,rd)d i /i00 ?) *r)n)n)d ,nd /)n i i*n),iv)03 r)/,rd)d i /i00 ?) /),2)n)d. Torndi2) 0,)r r)vi*)d i* Q0,/Q/)n ) fo1nd , n),iv) r)/,rd( @1ni*5)n did no n)4)**,ri03/),2)n ?ond*( ,nd , *o5) *))5in03 @0),*1r,?0) 4on*)F1)n4)* do non)4)**,ri03 5oiv,) @)rfor5,n4).

T) Q0,/ of ))r4i*)Q )0d , ) 5or) ,n S-R *i5101* r)*@on*) ?ond i*@r,4i4)d ) *ron)r i /i00 ?)4o5). A* /i ) 0,/ of ))4( ) 0,/ of))r4i*) ,0*o ,d o ?) 1@d,)d /)n Torndi2) fo1nd , @r,4i4)/io1 f))d?,42 do)* no n)4)**,ri03 )n,n4) @)rfor5,n4).

T) Q0,/ of r),din)**Q ?)4,1*) of ) *r141r) of ) n)rvo1* *3*)5(4)r,in 4ond14ion 1ni*( in , iv)n *i1,ion( ,r) 5or) @r)di*@o*)d o4ond14 ,n o)r*.

Thorndikes las ere based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. !e believed that a neuralbond ould be established beteen the stimulus and response hen the response as

positive. >earning takes place hen the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior %aettler,255:&.

Katson >8@ 8Bike Thorndike, heas originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human

behavior.

+atson believed that humans are born ith a fe refle$es and the emotional reactions of loveand rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations throughconditioning.

-atsons Eperiment

+atson demonstrated classical conditioning in an e$periment involving a young child %Albert&and a hite rat. riginally, Albert as unafraid of the ratJ but +atson created a sudden loudnoise henever Albert touched the rat. /ecause Albert as frightened by the loud noise, hesoon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. The fear as generaliBed to other small

animals. +atson then "e$tinguished" the fear by presenting the rat ithout the loud noise.ome accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear as more poerful andpermane

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