EatingFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search "Eat" redirects here. For other uses of "eat", or "EAT" as an abbreviation or acronym, see EAT (disambiguation). "Feeding" redirects here. For other uses, see Feeding (disambiguation).

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Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food to provide for all organisms their nutritional or medicinal needs, particularly for energy and growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive: carnivores eat other animals, herbivores eat plants, omnivores consume a mixture of both plant and animal matter, and detritivores eat detritus. Fungi digest organic matter outside of their bodies as opposed to animals that digest their food inside their bodies. For humans, eating is an activity of daily living.

Contents[hide] 1 Eating practices among humans o o o o 1.1 Eating positions 1.2 Development of eating in humans 1.3 Emotional eating 1.4 Hunger and Satiety 2 Disorders 3 See also 4 References 5 External links 1.4.1 Initiation of Eating 1.4.2 Termination of Eating 1.4.3 The Role of the Brain in Eating

[edit] Eating practices among humansMany homes have a kitchen room or outside (in the tropics) kitchen area devoted to preparation of meals and food, and may have a dining room, dining hall, or another designated area for eating. Some trains have a dining car. Dishware, silverware, drinkware, and cookware come in a wide array of forms and sizes. Most societies also have restaurants, food courts, and/or food vendors, so that people may eat when away from home, when lacking time to prepare food, or as a social occasion (dining club).[1] At their highest level of sophistication, these places become "theatrical spectacles of global cosmopolitanism and myth."[2] At picnics, potlucks, and food festivals, eating is in fact the primary purpose of a social gathering. At many social events, food and beverages are made available to attendees. People usually have two or three meals a day regularly. Snacks of smaller amounts may be consumed between meals. Some propose not snacking, yet advocate three meals a day (of 600 kcal per meal) with four to six hours between.[3] Having three well-balanced meals (thus 1/2 of the plate with vegetables,[4] 1/4 protein food as meat, ... and 1/4 carbohydrates as pasta, rice, ...) will then account to some 18002000 kcal; which is the average requirement for a regular person.[5] The issue of healthy eating has long been an important concern to individuals and cultures. Among other practices, fasting, dieting, and vegetarianism are all techniques employed by individuals and encouraged by societies to increase longevity and health Some religions promote vegetarianism, considering it wrong to consume animals. Leading nutritionists believe that instead of indulging oneself in three large meals each day, it is much healthier and easier on the metabolism to eat five smaller meals each day (e.g. better digestion, easier on the lower intestine to deposit wastes; whereas larger meals are tougher on the digestive tract and may call for the use of laxatives)[citation

. However, psychiatrists with Yale Medical School have found that people who suffer from Binge Eating Disorder (BED) and consume three meals per day weigh less than those who have meals that are more frequent. Eating can also be a way of making money (see competitive eating).needed]

[edit] Eating positionsThis section requires expansion with: Additional information regarding Far East, Europe and America.

Eating positions vary according to the different regions of the world where many cultures influence the way people eat their meals. In most of the Middle Eastern countries eating while sitting on the floor is considered the most common way to eat and it's believed to be healthier than eating while sitting to a table.[citation needed]Babies begin eating finger foods between 8 and 12 months. It is often a messy affair.

[edit] Development of eating in humansNewborn babies do not eat adult foods. They survive solely on breast milk or formula. Small amounts of pureed food are sometimes fed to young infants as young as 2 or 3 months old, but most infants don't really show interest in food until they are between 6 and 8 months old. Young babies eat pureed baby foods because they have few teeth and immature digestive systems. Around 8 months of age, many babies begin eating finger foods, though their diet is still limited because they generally do not have molars or canines at this age. By 18 months babies often have enough teeth to eat the same foods as adults. Learning to eat is a messy process for children and children often do not master neatness and etiquette when eating until they are 5 or 6 years old.

[edit] Emotional eatingEmotional eating is the tendency to eat in response to negative emotions.[6] Empirical studies have indicated that anxiety leads to decreased food consumption in people with normal weight and increased food consumption in the obese.[7] Many laboratory studies showed that overweight individuals are more emotionally reactive and are more likely to overeat when distressed than people of normal weight. Furthermore, it was consistently found that obese individuals experience negative emotions more frequently and more intensively than do normal weight persons.[8] The naturalistic study of Lowe and Fisher compared the emotional reactivity and emotional eating of normal and overweight female college students. The study confirmed the tendency of obese individuals to overeat, but these findings applied only to snacks, not to meals. That means that obese individuals did not tend to eat more while having meals rather, the amount of snacks they ate between meals was greater. One possible explanation that Lowe and Fisher suggest is that obese individuals often eat their meals with others and do not eat more than average due to the reduction of distress because of the presence of other people. Another possible explanation would be that obese individuals do not eat more than the others while having meals due to social desirability. Conversely, snacks are usually eaten alone.[8]

[edit] Hunger and SatietyFurther information: Hunger#Biological mechanisms

There are many physiological mechanisms that control starting and stopping a meal. The control of food intake is a physiologically complex, motivated behavioral system. Hormones such as cholecystokinin, bombesin, neurotensin, anorectin, calcitonin, enterostatin, leptin and corticotropin-releasing hormone have all been shown to suppress food intake.[9][10]

[edit] Initiation of EatingThere are numerous signals given off that initiates what we feel as hunger. There are environmental signals, signals from the gastrointestinal system, and metabolic signals that trigger hunger. The environmental signals come from the bodys senses. The feeling of hunger could be triggered by the smell and thought of food, the sight of a plate, or hearing someone talk about food [11] . The signals from the stomach are initiated by the release of the peptide hormone ghrelin. Ghrelin is a hormone that increases appetite by signaling to the brain that a person is hungry [12] . Environmental signals and ghrelin are not the only signals that initiate hunger, there are other metabolic signals as well. As time passes between meals, the body starts to take nutrients from long-term reservoirs [11] . When the glucose levels of cells drop (glucoprivation), the body starts to produce the feeling of hunger. The body also stimulates eating by detecting a drop in cellular lipid levels (lipoprivation) [11] . Both the brain and the liver monitor the levels of metabolic fuels. The brain checks for glucoprivation on its side of the blood-brain barrier (since glucose is its fuel), while the liver monitors the rest of the body for both lipoprivation and glucoprivation [13] .

[edit] Termination of EatingThere are short-term signals of satiety that arise from the head, the stomach and intestines, and also the liver. The long-term signals of satiety come from adipose tissue [11] . The taste and odor of food can contribute to short-term satiety. It allows the body to learn when to stop eating. The stomach contains receptors to allow us to know when we are full. The intestines also contain receptors that send satiety signals to the brain. The hormone cholecystokinin is secreted by the duodenum, and it controls the rate at which the stomach is emptied [14] . This hormone is thought to be a satiety signal to the brain. Peptide YY 3-36 is a hormone released by the small intestine and its also used as a satiety signal to the brain [15] . Insulin also serves as a satiety signal to the brain. The brain detects insulin in the blood, which indicates that nutrients are being absorbed by cells and a person is getting full. Long-term satiety comes from the fat stored in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue secretes the hormone leptin, and leptin suppresses appetite. Long-term satiety signals from adipose tissue regulates short-term satiety signals [11] .

[edit] The Role of the Brain in EatingThe brain stem can control food intake, because it contains neural circuits that detect hunger and satiety signals from other parts of the body [11] . The brain stems involvement of food intake has been researched using rats. Rats that have had the motor neurons in the brain stem disconnected from the neural circuits of the cerebral hemispheres (decerebration), are unable to approach and eat food [11] . Instead they have to obtain their food in a liquid form. This research shows that the brain stem does in fact play a role in eating.

There are two peptides in the hypothalamus that produce hunger, melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) and orexin. MCH plays a bigger role in producing hunger. In mice, MCH stimulates feeding and a mutation causing the overproduction of MCH led to overeating and obesity [16] . Orexin plays a greater role in controlling the relationship between eating and sleeping. Other peptides in the hypothalamus that induce eating are neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related protein (AGRP) [11] . Satiety in the hypothalamus is stimulated by leptin. Leptin targets the receptors on the arcuate nucleus and suppresses the secretion of MCH and orexin. The arcuate nucleus also contains two more peptides that suppress hunger. The first one is CART (cocaine and amphetamineregulated transcript), the second is -MSH (-melanocyte-stimulating hormone) [11] .

[edit] DisordersMain article: Eating disorder

Physiologically, eating is generally triggered by hunger, but there are numerous physical and psychological conditions that can affect appetite and disrupt normal eating patterns. These include depression, food allergies, ingestion of certain chemicals, bulimia, anorexia nervosa, pituitary gland malfunction and other endocrine problems, and numerous other illnesses and eating disorders. A chronic lack of nutritious food can cause various illnesses, and will eventually lead to starvation. When this happens in a locality on a massive scale, it is considered a famine. If eating and drinking is not possible, as is often the case when recovering from surgery, alternatives are enteral nutrition and parenteral nutrition.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

How to Make Scrambled EggsEdited byBex and 96 others Article Edit Discuss History

Scrambled eggs is a quick, easy and popular breakfast dish. It is called the perfect English Breakfast by some, and is absolutely delicious. Eggs do not have to be limited to only eating at breakfast time, but make a tasty, easy to prepare, and healthy dinner. Ads by Google Ham and Egg Cheese Cups Egg Beaters Ham & Cheese Egg Cups - Made with Real, All-Natural Eggs. www.eggbeaters.com/ham-cups

Edit Ingredients

2 eggs per person Salt and pepper (optional) Butter Cheddar cheese (optional) Milk (optional)

Edit Steps 1. 1Prepare the eggs. Break two eggs per person into a bowl or jug. Add one tablespoon of milk, water, or sour cream per egg if you prefer a more tender moist dish; adding liquid to the eggs means the dish is less likely to turn out tough or rubbery.

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2. 2Mix well until the color and texture are uniform throughout. Add salt and pepper to season, if desired.

3. 3Select the right sized pan for the number of eggs you will scramble. Two eggs will require a very small pan, while a dozen eggs requires a much larger one.

4. 4Heat a pat of butter (2 teaspoons) or bacon grease in a frying pan. Move the pan by its handle, so that the melted fat glides around the surface and coats the entire pan.

5. 5Flick some tap water onto the skillet from your fingertips to test the heat. When small droplets sizzle and evaporate, the pan is just hot enough to pour in the egg mixture. Continue to whisk as you pour the egg mixture into the pan. Set the burner on low.

6. 6Watch that as the eggs start to cook, the mixture solidifies. As soon as this starts happening, move the mixture around the pan with a spatula to scrape the cooked eggs from the bottom to the top of the mixture and expose the still-wet portions to the heat. This keeps the eggs from developing a leathery brown skin on the bottom.

7. 7Look to see if your eggs are almost cooked; when they are, take them off the heat, as the hot pan will continue to cook them. If you prefer drier-textured eggs, leave them on the heat as required. Your eggs are done after there's no liquid of any kind left in the skillet. Remove your eggs from the pan before they lose their moist appearance.You can also add strips of cheese to the eggs to get a more vibrant flavor out of them. Make sure to add cheese when the eggs are still hot so it will all melt onto the eggs.

Tips Use one tablespoon of cottage cheese per egg rather than milk or water. A good addition for flavor is a bit of garlic powder added while mixing the eggs or adding salt and pepper.

For large mounds of fluffy eggs, let the eggs sit in the pan after pouring and resist any urges to whisk or agitate the mixture. Only put the eggs in motion when it looks as though the mixture on the bottom and sides is in danger of overcooking.

Halfway through the cooking process, rocking the pan will help any remaining liquid to cook up. Overheating will result in hard, rubbery eggs. Near the end of the cooking process you can prevent the pan from overheating by lifting it off the burner for a few moments at a time.

Cooking eggs for too long causes the proteins in the eggs to squeeze out the moisture and you'll end up with your eggs floating on a puddle of water on your plate.

The better you whisk the eggs, the fewer whites will show up after they've been cooked.

Add parsley for an attractive garnish. Try adding chopped, cooked ham, bacon or smoked salmon to scrambled eggs to add flavor and color. Many stores sell meat substitutes suitable for vegetarians.

For something a little different, finely chop some onions, cook them in butter with salt and a pinch of sugar, and then add a beaten egg. Delicious!

Serve with toast or a bagel. For a less fattening dish, use less butter or a substitute. Better yet, if you have a decent non-stick pan (Teflon), no butter or oil at all is needed. Try it - it works! (though keep in mind that a good butter or a high quality oil can work wonders on your eggs).

Add extra flavor by mixing herbs like dill, oregano or basil into the egg mixture or sprinkling on top after cooking.

If you want eggs to be less runny on top, you can flip them over and cook them on the other side for a few seconds.

Add chives for added flavor. A good rule of thumb for determining if the eggs are done: if it looks done in the pan, it's too done in your plate.

Add barbecue sauce when whipping the eggs or a salsa for something a little different.

WarningsWhenever cooking on a range, be careful. If small children are around, you might want to point pot handles where they can't reach.

Make sure you don't leave the stove on after you're done. Eating too many eggs is a known contributor to constipation! To reduce the risk, try increasing your fiber intake by eating more fruit and vegetables.

Things You'll Need Skillet of the appropriate size for the number of eggs to be scrambled Tablespoon measure Fork or whisk Spatula Stove Large bowl

TomatoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected from Tomatoe) Jump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation). Tomato

Cross-section and full view of a hothouse (greenhouse-grown) tomato.Scientific classification Kingdom: (unranked): (unranked): (unranked): Order: Family: Genus: Species: Plantae Angiosperms Eudicots Asterids Solanales Solanaceae Solanum S. lycopersicum

Binomial name Solanum lycopersicum L. Synonyms

Lycopersicon lycopersicum Lycopersicon esculentum[1] The word "tomato" may refer to the plant (Solanum lycopersicum) or the edible, typically red, fruit that it bears. Originating in South America, the tomato was spread around the world following the Spanish colonization of the Americas, and its many varieties are now widely grown, often in greenhouses in cooler climates. The tomato fruit is consumed in diverse ways, including raw, as an ingredient in many dishes and sauces, and in drinks. While it is botanically a fruit, it is considered a vegetable for culinary purposes (as well as by the United States Supreme Court, see Nix v. Hedden), which has caused some confusion. The fruit is rich in lycopene, which may have beneficial health effects. The tomato belongs to the nightshade family. The plants typically grow to 13 meters (310 ft) in height and have a weak stem that often sprawls over the ground and vines over other plants. It is a perennial in its native habitat, although often grown outdoors in temperate climates as an annual.

Contents[hide] 1 History o o o o 1.1 Spanish distribution 1.2 Britain 1.3 Middle East 1.4 North America

2 Cultivation o o o o o o o 2.1 Varieties 2.2 Diseases and pests 2.3 Companion plants 2.4 Pollination 2.5 Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivation 2.6 Picking and ripening 2.7 Genetic modification

3 Consumption o o o o 3.1 Nutrition 3.2 Medicinal properties 3.3 Storage 3.4 Safety 3.4.1 Plant toxicity 3.4.2 Salmonella

4 Botanical description 5 Botanical classification 6 Breeding 7 Fruit or vegetable? 8 Names o 8.1 Pronunciation

9 Tomato records 10 Cultural impact

HistoryThe tomato is native to South America. Genetic evidence shows the progenitors of tomatoes were herbaceous green plants with small green fruit and a center of diversity in the highlands of Peru.[2] [3] One species, Solanum lycopersicum, was transported to Mexico, where it was grown and consumed by Mesoamerican civilizations. The exact date of domestication is not known. The first domesticated tomato may have been a little yellow fruit, similar in size to a cherry tomato, grown by the Aztecs of Central Mexico.[4][unreliable source?] The word "tomato" comes from the Nahuatl word tomatl, literally "the swelling fruit".[5] Spanish explorer Corts may have been the first to transfer the small yellow tomato to Europe after he captured the Aztec city of Tenochttlan, now Mexico City, in 1521, although Christopher Columbus, a Genoese working for the Spanish monarchy, may have taken them back as early as 1493. The earliest discussion of the tomato in European literature appeared in an herbal written in 1544 by Pietro Andrea Mattioli, an Italian physician and botanist, who named it pomo doro, or "golden apple".[3]:13 Aztecs and other peoples in the region used the fruit in their cooking; it was cultivated in southern Mexico and probably other areas by 500 BC. The Pueblo people are thought to have believed that those who witnessed the ingestion of tomato seeds were blessed with powers of divination.[6] The large, lumpy tomato, a mutation from a smoother, smaller fruit, originated in Mesoamerica, and may be the direct ancestor of some modern cultivated tomatoes.[3]

Spanish distributionAfter the Spanish colonization of the Americas, the Spanish distributed the tomato throughout their colonies in the Caribbean. They also took it to the Philippines, from where it spread to southeast Asia and then the entire Asian continent. The Spanish also brought the tomato to Europe. It grew easily in Mediterranean climates, and cultivation began in the 1540s. It was probably eaten shortly after it was introduced, and was certainly being used as food by the early 17th century in Spain. The earliest discovered cookbook with tomato recipes was published in Naples in 1692, though the author had apparently obtained these recipes from Spanish sources.[3]:17 In certain areas of Italy, such as Florence, however, the fruit was used solely as a tabletop decoration before it was incorporated into the local cuisine in the late 17th or early 18th century.

BritainTomatoes on display at Borough Market in London

Tomatoes were not grown in England until the 1590s.[3]:17 One of the earliest cultivators was John Gerard, a barber-surgeon.[3]:17 Gerard's Herbal, published in 1597, and largely plagiarized from continental sources,[3]:17 is also one of the earliest discussions of the tomato in England. Gerard knew the tomato was eaten in Spain and Italy.[3]:17 Nonetheless, he believed it was poisonous[3]:17 (in fact, the plant and raw fruit do have low levels of tomatine, but are not generally dangerous; see below). Gerard's views were influential, and the tomato was considered unfit for eating (though not necessarily poisonous) for many years in Britain and its North American colonies.[3]:17 By the mid-18th century, tomatoes were widely eaten in Britain, and before the end of that century, the Encyclopdia Britannica stated the tomato was "in daily use" in soups, broths, and as

a garnish.

Middle EastThe tomato was introduced to cultivation in the Middle East by John Barker, British consul in Aleppo circa 1799 to 1825.[7][8] Nineteenth century descriptions of its consumption are uniformly as an ingredient in a cooked dish. In 1881, it is described as only eaten in the region "within the last forty years".[9] The tomato entered Iran through two separate routes;[citation needed] one was through Turkey and Armenia, and the other was through the Qajar royal family's frequent travels to France. The early name used for tomato in Iran was Armani badenjan (Armenian eggplant). Currently, the name used for tomato in Iran is gojeh farangi [foreign (literally, European) plum].

North AmericaThe earliest reference to tomatoes being grown in British North America is from 1710, when herbalist William Salmon reported seeing them in what is today South Carolina.[3]:25 They may have been introduced from the Caribbean. By the mid-18th century, they were cultivated on some Carolina plantations, and probably in other parts of the Southeast as well. Possibly, some people continued to think tomatoes were poisonous at this time; and in general, they were grown more as ornamental plants than as food. Thomas Jefferson, who ate tomatoes in Paris, sent some seeds back to America.[3]:28 Because of the long growing season needed for this heat-loving crop, several states in the US Sun Belt became major tomato-producers, particularly Florida and California. In California, tomatoes are grown under irrigation for both the fresh fruit market and for canning and processing. The University of California, Davis (UC Davis) became a major center for research on the tomato. The C.M. Rick Tomato Genetics Resource Center at UC Davis is a gene bank of wild relatives, monogenic mutants and miscellaneous genetic stocks of tomato.[10] The Center is named for the late Dr. Charles M. Rick, a pioneer in tomato genetics research.[11] Research on processing tomatoes is also conducted by the California Tomato Research Institute in Escalon, California. In California, growers have used a method of cultivation called dry-farming, especially with Early Girl tomatoes.[12] This technique encourages the plant to send roots deep to find existing moisture in soil that retains moisture, such as clayey soil.

CultivationTomato output in 2005

The tomato is now grown worldwide for its edible fruits, with thousands of cultivars having been selected with varying fruit types, and for optimum growth in differing growing conditions. Cultivated tomatoes vary in size, from tomberries, about 5 mm in diameter, through cherry tomatoes, about the same 12 centimeters (0.40.8 in) size as the wild tomato, up to beefsteak tomatoes 10 centimeters (4 in) or more in diameter. The most widely grown commercial tomatoes tend to be in the 56 centimeters (2.02.4 in) diameter range. Most cultivars produce red fruit, but a number of cultivars with yellow, orange, pink, purple, green, black, or white fruit are also

available. Multicolored and striped fruit can also be quite striking. Tomatoes grown for canning and sauces are often elongated, 79 centimeters (34 in) long and 45 centimeters (1.62.0 in) diameter; they are known as plum tomatoes, and have a lower water content. Roma-type tomatoes are important cultivars in the Sacramento Valley.[13]Tomato seedlings growing indoors

Tomatoes are one of the most common garden fruits in the United States and, along with zucchini, have a reputation for outproducing the needs of the grower.Green tomatoes nestled on the vine

Quite a few seed merchants and banks provide a large selection of heirloom seeds. The definition of an heirloom tomato is vague, but unlike commercial hybrids, all are self-pollinators that have bred true for 40 years or more.[13] About 150 million tons of tomatoes were produced in the world in 2009. China, the largest producer, accounted for about one quarter of the global output, followed by United States and India. For one variety, plum or processing tomatoes, California accounts for 90% of U.S. production and 35% of world production.[14] According to FAOSTAT, the top producers of tomatoes (in tonnes) in 2009 were:[15]Top Tomato Producers 2009 (in tonnes) China United States India Turkey Egypt World Total 45,365,543 14,141,900 11,148,800 10,745,600 10,000,000 152,956,115

Within the EU, there are several areas that grow tomatoes with Protected Geographical Status. These include: Pomodoro di Pachino (PGI), in Sicily Pomodoro S. Marzano dell'Agro Sarnese-Nocerino (PDO), in south Italy Tomaten von der Insel Reichenau (PGI), from Reichenau Island, Germany

VarietiesFor a more comprehensive list, see List of tomato cultivars.

Cherry tomatoes Cherry tomatoes various colors upon ripening

There are around 7500 tomato varieties grown for various purposes. Heirloom tomatoes are becoming increasingly popular, particularly among home gardeners and organic producers, since they tend to produce more interesting and flavorful crops at the cost of disease resistance and productivity.[13]Roma or Bangalore Tomatoes (Indian hybrid)

Hybrid plants remain common, since they tend to be heavier producers, and sometimes combine unusual characteristics of heirloom tomatoes with the ruggedness of conventional commercial tomatoes.Various heirloom tomato cultivars

Tomato varieties are roughly divided into several categories, based mostly on shape and size. "Slicing" or "globe" tomatoes are the usual tomatoes of commerce, used for a wide variety of processing and fresh eating. Beefsteak tomatoes are large tomatoes often used for sandwiches and similar applications. Their kidneybean shape, thinner skin, and shorter shelf life makes commercial use impractical. Oxheart tomatoes can range in size up to beefsteaks, and are shaped like large strawberries. Plum tomatoes , or paste tomatoes (including pear tomatoes), are bred with a higher solids content for use in tomato sauce and paste, and are usually oblong. Pear tomatoes are obviously pear-shaped, and are based upon the San Marzano types for a richer gourmet paste. Cherry tomatoes are small and round, often sweet tomatoes generally eaten whole in salads. Grape tomatoes , a more recent introduction, are smaller and oblong, a variation on plum tomatoes, and used in salads. Campari tomatoes are also sweet and noted for their juiciness, low acidity, and lack of mealiness. They are bigger than cherry tomatoes, but are smaller than plum tomatoes.

Early tomatoes and cool-summer tomatoes bear fruit even where nights are cool, which usually discourages fruit set. There are also varieties high in beta carotenes and vitamin A, hollow tomatoes and tomatoes that keep for months in storage. Tomatoes are also commonly classified as determinate or indeterminate. Determinate, or bush, types bear a full crop all at once and top off at a specific height; they are often good choices for container growing. Determinate types are preferred by commercial growers who wish to harvest a whole field at one time, or home growers interested in canning. Indeterminate varieties develop into vines that never top off and continue producing until killed by frost. They are preferred by home growers and local-market farmers who want ripe fruit throughout the season. As an intermediate form, there are plants sometimes known as vigorous determinate or semideterminate;

these top off like determinates, but produce a second crop after the initial crop. The majority of heirloom tomatoes are indeterminate, although some determinate heirlooms exist.A variety of specific cultivars, including Brandywine (biggest red), Black Krim (lower left) and Green Zebra (top left)

Most modern tomato cultivars are smooth surfaced, but some older tomato cultivars and most modern beefsteaks often show pronounced ribbing, a feature that may have been common to virtually all pre-Columbian cultivars. While virtually all commercial tomato varieties are red, some cultivars especially heirlooms produce fruit in other colors, including green, yellow, orange, pink, black, brown, ivory, white, and purple. Such fruits are not widely available in grocery stores, nor are their seedlings available in typical nurseries, but they can be bought as seed. Less common variations include fruit with stripes (Green Zebra), fuzzy skin on the fruit (Fuzzy Peach, Red Boar), multiple colors (Hillbilly, Burracker's Favorite, Lucky Cross), etc. There is also a considerable gap between commercial and home-gardener cultivars; home cultivars are often bred for flavor to the exclusion of all other qualities, while commercial cultivars are bred for such factors as consistent size and shape, disease and pest resistance, suitability for mechanized picking and shipping, and ability to be picked before fully ripening.[citation needed] Tomatoes grow well with seven hours of sunlight a day. A fertilizer with an NPK ratio of 5-10-10 is often sold as tomato fertilizer or vegetable fertilizer, although manure and compost are also used.

Diseases and pestsFor a more comprehensive list, see List of tomato diseases.

Tomato cultivars vary widely in their resistance to disease. Modern hybrids focus on improving disease resistance over the heirloom plants. One common tomato disease is tobacco mosaic virus, so smoking or use of tobacco products are discouraged around tomatoes, although there is some scientific debate[citation needed] over whether the virus could possibly survive being burned and converted into smoke.[16] Various forms of mildew and blight are also common tomato afflictions, which is why tomato cultivars are often marked with a combination of letters that refer to specific disease resistance. The most common letters are: V verticillium wilt, F fusarium wilt strain I, FF fusarium wilt strain I and II, N nematodes, T tobacco mosaic virus, and A alternaria.Tomato fruitworm eating unripe tomato

Another particularly dreaded disease is curly top, carried by the beet leafhopper, which interrupts the lifecycle, ruining a nightshade plant as a crop. As the name implies, it has the symptom of making the top leaves of the plant wrinkle up and grow abnormally. Some common tomato pests are stink bugs, cutworms, tomato hornworms and tobacco hornworms, aphids, cabbage loopers, whiteflies, tomato fruitworms, flea beetles, red spider mite, slugs,[17] and Colorado potato beetles. When insects attack tomato plants, they produce the plant peptide hormone, systemin, which activates defensive mechanisms, such as the production of protease inhibitors to slow the growth of insects. The hormone was first identified in tomatoes, but similar proteins have been identified

in other species since.[18]

Companion plantsSee also: List of companion plants and List of beneficial weeds

Tomatoes serve, or are served by, a large variety of companion plants. In fact, one of the most famous pairings is the tomato plant and carrots;studies supporting this relationship having produced a popular book about companion planting, Carrots Love Tomatoes.[19]

Additionally, the devastating tomato hornworm has a major predator in various parasitic wasps, whose larvae devour the hornworm, but whose adult form drinks nectar from tiny-flowered plants like umbellifers. Several species of umbellifer are therefore often grown with tomato plants, including parsley, queen anne's lace, and occasionally dill. These also attract predatory flies that attack various tomato pests[2]. On the other hand, borage is thought to actually repel the tomato hornworm moth[3]. Other plants with strong scents, like alliums (onions, chives, garlic) and mints (basil, oregano, spearmint) are simply thought to mask the scent of the tomato plant, making it harder for pests to locate it, or to provide an alternative landing point, reducing the odds of the pests from attacking the correct plant[4]. These plants may also subtly impact the flavor of tomato fruit[5]. Ground cover plants, including mints, also stabilize moisture loss around tomato plants and other solaneae, which come from very humid climates, and therefore may prevent moisture-related problems like blossom end rot. Finally, tap-root plants like dandelions break up dense soil and bring nutrients from down below a tomato plant's reach, possibly benefiting their companion. Tomato plants, on the other hand, protect asparagus from asparagus beetles, because they contain solanum that kills this pest, while asparagus plants (as well as marigolds[6]) contain a chemical that repels root nematodes known to attack tomato plants.

PollinationThe flower and leaves are visible in this photo of a tomato plant.

In the wild, original state, tomatoes required cross-pollination; they were much more selfincompatible than domestic cultivars. As a floral device to reduce selfing, the pistil of wild tomatoes extends farther out of the flower than today's cultivars. The stamens were, and remain, entirely within the closed corolla. As tomatoes were moved from their native areas, their traditional pollinators, (probably a species of halictid bee[citation needed]) did not move with them. The trait of self-fertility became an advantage, and domestic cultivars of tomato have been selected to maximize this trait. This is not the same as self-pollination, despite the common claim that tomatoes do so. That tomatoes pollinate themselves poorly without outside aid is clearly shown in greenhouse

situations, where pollination must be aided by artificial wind, vibration of the plants (one brand of vibrator is a wand called an "electric bee" that is used manually), or more often today, by cultured bumblebees.[citation needed] The anther of a tomato flower is shaped like a hollow tube, with the pollen produced within the structure, rather than on the surface, as in most species. The pollen moves through pores in the anther, but very little pollen is shed without some kind of outside motion. The best source of outside motion is a sonicating bee, such as a bumblebee, or the original wild halictid pollinator. In an outside setting, wind or animals provide sufficient motion to produce commercially viable crops.

Hydroponic and greenhouse cultivationTomatoes are often grown in greenhouses in cooler climates, and there are cultivars such as the British 'Moneymaker' and a number of cultivars grown in Siberia that are specifically bred for indoor growing. In more temperate climates, it is not uncommon to start seeds in greenhouses during the late winter for future transplant. Hydroponic tomatoes are also available, and the technique is often used in hostile growing environments, as well as high-density plantings.

Picking and ripeningTomatoes are often picked unripe (and thus colored green) and ripened in storage with ethylene. Unripe tomatoes are firm. As they ripen they soften until reaching the ripe state where they are red or orange in color and slightly soft to the touch.[citation needed] Ethylene is a hydrocarbon gas produced by many fruits that acts as the molecular cue to begin the ripening process. Tomatoes ripened in this way tend to keep longer, but have poorer flavor and a mealier, starchier texture than tomatoes ripened on the plant.[citation needed] They may be recognized by their color, which is more pink or orange than the other ripe tomatoes' deep red, depending on variety.[citation needed] A machine-harvestable variety of tomato (the "square tomato") was developed in the 1950s by University of California, Davis's Gordie C. Hanna, which, in combination with the development of a suitable harvester, revolutionized the tomato-growing industry.[citation needed] In 1994, Calgene introduced a genetically modified tomato called the 'FlavrSavr', which could be vine ripened without compromising shelf life. However, the product was not commercially successful, and was sold only until 1997.[citation needed] Recently, stores have begun selling "tomatoes on the vine", which are determinate varieties that are ripened or harvested with the fruits still connected to a piece of vine. These tend to have more flavor than artificially ripened tomatoes[citation needed] (at a price premium). Slow-ripening cultivars of tomato have been developed by crossing a nonripening cultivar with ordinary cultivars. Cultivars were selected whose fruits have a long shelf life and at least reasonable flavor. At home, fully ripe tomatoes can be stored in the refrigerator, but are best kept at room temperature. Tomatoes stored cold will still be edible, but tend to lose flavor;[20] thus, "Never Refrigerate" stickers are sometimes placed on tomatoes in supermarkets.[citation needed]

Genetic modificationMain article: Genetically modified tomato

Tomatoes that have been modified using genetic engineering have been developed, and although none are commercially available now, they have been in the past. The first commercially available genetically modified food was a variety of tomato named (the Flavr Savr), which was engineered to have a longer shelf life.[21] Scientists are continuing to develop tomatoes with new traits not found in natural crops, such as increased resistance to pests or environmental stresses. Other projects aim to enrich tomatoes with substances that may offer health benefits or provide better nutrition.

ConsumptionTomato soup

The tomato is now grown and eaten around the world. It is used in diverse ways, including raw in salads, and processed into ketchup or tomato soup. Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to make salsa, or pickled. Tomato juice is sold as a drink, and is used in cocktails such as the Bloody Mary. Tomatoes are acidic, making them especially easy to preserve in home canning whole, in pieces, as tomato sauce or paste. The fruit is also preserved by drying, often in the sun, and sold either in bags or in jars with oil. Tomatoes are used extensively in Mediterranean cuisine, especially Italian and Middle Eastern cuisines. They are a key ingredient in pizza, and are commonly used in pasta sauces. They are also used in gazpacho (Spanish cuisine) and pa amb tomquet (Catalan cuisine). Though it is botanically a berry, a subset of fruit, the tomato is a vegetable for culinary purposes, because of its savory flavor (see below).

Red tomatoes, rawNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy Carbohydrates - Sugars - Dietary fiber Fat 74 kJ (18 kcal) 3.9 g 2.6 g 1.2 g 0.2 g

Protein Water Vitamin A equiv.

0.9 g 94.5 g 42 g (5%) 123 g

- lutein and zeaxanthin 14 mg (17%) Vitamin C 0.54 mg (4%) Vitamin E 237 mg (5%) PotassiumPercentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.Source: USDA Nutrient Database

NutritionTomatoes are now eaten freely throughout the world, and their consumption is believed to benefit the heart, among other organs. They contain the carotene lycopene, one of the most powerful natural antioxidants. In some studies, lycopene, especially in cooked tomatoes, has been found to help prevent prostate cancer,[22] but other research contradicts this claim.[23] Lycopene has also been shown to improve the skin's ability to protect against harmful UV rays.[24] A study done by researchers at Manchester and Newcastle universities revealed that tomato can protect against sunburn and help keeping the skin looking youthful.[25] Natural genetic variation in tomatoes and their wild relatives has given a genetic plethora of genes that produce lycopene, carotene, anthocyanin, and other antioxidants. Tomato varieties are available with double the normal vitamin C (Doublerich), 40 times normal vitamin A (97L97), high levels of anthocyanin (resulting in blue tomatoes), and two to four times the normal amount of lycopene (numerous available cultivars with the high crimson gene).

Medicinal propertiesLycopene has also been shown to protect against oxidative damage in many epidemiological and experimental studies. In addition to its antioxidant activity, other metabolic effects of lycopene have also been demonstrated. The richest source of lycopene in the diet is tomato and tomato derived products.[26] Tomato consumption has been associated with decreased risk of breast cancer, [27] head and neck cancers[28] and might be strongly protective against neurodegenerative diseases. [29][30][31] Tomatoes and tomato sauces and puree are said to help lower urinary tract symptoms (BPH) and may have anticancer properties.[32] Tomato consumption might be beneficial for reducing cardiovascular risk associated with type 2 diabetes.[33]

StorageTomatoes that are not yet ripe are optimally stored at room temperature uncovered, out of direct sunlight, until ripe.[34] In this environment, they have a shelf life of three to four days.[34] When ripe, they should be used in one to two days.[34] Tomatoes should only be refrigerated when well ripened, but this will affect flavor.[34]

Safety Plant toxicityLike many other nightshades, tomato leaves and stems contain atropine and other tropane alkaloids that are toxic if ingested. Ripened fruit does not contain these compounds[citation needed]. Leaves, stems, and green unripe fruit of the tomato plant contain small amounts of the poisonous alkaloid tomatine.[35] Use of tomato leaves in tea (tisane) has been responsible for at least one death.[36] However, levels of tomatine are generally too small to be dangerous.[35][37] Tomato plants can be toxic to dogs if they eat large amounts of the fruit, or chew plant material.[38]

SalmonellaA sign posted at a Havelock, North Carolina Burger King tells customers that no tomatoes are available due to the salmonellosis outbreak.

On October 30, 2006, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) announced tomatoes might have been the source of a salmonellosis outbreak causing 172 illnesses in 18 states.[39] Tomatoes have been linked to seven salmonella outbreaks since 1990.[40] The 2008 United States salmonellosis outbreak caused the removal of tomatoes from stores and restaurants across the United States and parts of Canada,[41] although other foods, including jalapeo and serrano peppers, may have been involved.

Botanical descriptionTomato flower

Tomato plants are vines, initially decumbent, typically growing six feet or more above the ground if supported, although erect bush varieties have been bred, generally three feet tall or shorter. Indeterminate types are "tender" perennials, dying annually in temperate climates (they are originally native to tropical highlands), although they can live up to three years in a greenhouse in some cases. Determinate types are annual in all climates. Tomato plants are dicots, and grow as a series of branching stems, with a terminal bud at the tip that does the actual growing. When that tip eventually stops growing, whether because of pruning or flowering, lateral buds take over and grow into other, fully functional, vines.[42] Tomato vines are typically pubescent, meaning covered with fine short hairs. These hairs facilitate the vining process, turning into roots wherever the plant is in contact with the ground and

moisture, especially if the vine's connection to its original root has been damaged or severed. Most tomato plants have compound leaves, and are called regular leaf (RL) plants, but some cultivars have simple leaves known as potato leaf (PL) style because of their resemblance to that close cousin. Of RL plants, there are variations, such as rugose leaves, which are deeply grooved, and variegated, angora leaves, which have additional colors where a genetic mutation causes chlorophyll to be excluded from some portions of the leaves.[43] The leaves are 1025 centimetres (410 in) long, odd pinnate, with five to 9 leaflets on petioles,[44] each leaflet up to 8 centimetres (3 in) long, with a serrated margin; both the stem and leaves are densely glandular-hairy. Their flowers, appearing on the apical meristem, have the anthers fused along the edges, forming a column surrounding the pistil's style. Flowers in domestic cultivars tend to be self-fertilizing. The flowers are 12 centimetres (0.40.8 in) across, yellow, with five pointed lobes on the corolla; they are borne in a cyme of three to 12 together. Tomato fruit is classified as a berry. As a true fruit, it develops from the ovary of the plant after fertilization, its flesh comprising the pericarp walls. The fruit contains hollow spaces full of seeds and moisture, called locular cavities. These vary, among cultivated species, according to type. Some smaller varieties have two cavities, globe-shaped varieties typically have three to five, beefsteak tomatoes have a great number of smaller cavities, while paste tomatoes have very few, very small cavities. For propagation, the seeds need to come from a mature fruit, and be dried or fermented before germination.

Botanical classificationIn 1753, Linnaeus placed the tomato in the genus Solanum (alongside the potato) as Solanum lycopersicum. In 1768,though, Philip Miller moved it to its own genus, naming it Lycopersicon esculentum.[45] This name came into wide use, but was in breach of the plant naming rules. Technically, the combination Lycopersicon lycopersicum (L.) H.Karst. would be more correct, but this name (published in 1881) has hardly ever been used (except in seed catalogs, which frequently used it and still do). Genetic evidence has now shown that Linnaeus was correct to put the tomato in the genus Solanum, making Solanum lycopersicum the correct name.[1][46] Both names, however, will probably be found in the literature for some time. Two of the major reasons some still consider the genera separate are the leaf structure (tomato leaves are markedly different from any other Solanum), and the biochemistry (many of the alkaloids common to other Solanum species are conspicuously absent in the tomato). Hybrids of tomato and diploid potato can be created in the lab by somatic fusion, and are partially fertile,[47] providing evidence of the close relationship between these species. An international consortium of researchers from 10 countries, among them researchers from the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research, began sequencing the tomato genome in 2004, and is creating a database of genomic sequences and information on the tomato and related plants.[48][49] A prerelease version of the genome was made available in December, 2009.[50] The genomes of its

mitochondria and chloroplasts are also being sequenced as part of the project.

BreedingActive breeding programs are ongoing by individuals, universities, corporations, and organizations. The Tomato Genetic Resource Center, Germplasm Resources Information Network, AVRDC, and numerous seed banks around the world store seed representing genetic variations of value to modern agriculture. These seed stocks are available for legitimate breeding and research efforts. While individual breeding efforts can produce useful results, the bulk of tomato breeding work is at universities and major agriculture-related corporations. These efforts have resulted in significant regionally adapted breeding lines and hybrids, such as the Mountain series from North Carolina. Corporations including Heinz, Monsanto, BHNSeed, Bejoseed, etc., have breeding programs that attempt to improve production, size, shape, color, flavor, disease tolerance, pest tolerance, nutritional value, and numerous other traits.

Fruit or vegetable?Botanically, a tomato is a fruit: the ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering plant. However, the tomato has a much lower sugar content than other fruits, and is therefore not as sweet. Typically served as part of a salad or main course of a meal, rather than at dessert, it is considered a vegetable for most culinary purposes. One exception is that tomatoes are treated as a fruit in home canning practices: they are acidic enough to be processed in a water bath rather than a pressure cooker as "vegetables" require. Tomatoes are not the only foodstuff with this ambiguity: eggplants, cucumbers, and squashes of all kinds (such as zucchini and pumpkins) are all botanically fruits, yet cooked as vegetables. This argument has had legal implications in the United States. In 1887, U.S. tariff laws that imposed a duty on vegetables, but not on fruits, caused the tomato's status to become a matter of legal importance. The U.S. Supreme Court settled the controversy on May 10, 1893, by declaring that the tomato is a vegetable, based on the popular definition that classifies vegetables by use, that they are generally served with dinner and not dessert (Nix v. Hedden (149 U.S. 304)).[51] The holding of the case applies only to the interpretation of the Tariff Act of March 3, 1883, and the court did not purport to reclassify the tomato for botanical or other purposes. Tomatoes have been designated the state vegetable of New Jersey. Arkansas took both sides by declaring the "South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato" to be both the state fruit and the state vegetable in the same law, citing both its culinary and botanical classifications. In 2009, the state of Ohio passed a law making the tomato the state's official fruit. Tomato juice has been the official beverage of Ohio since 1965. A.W. Livingston, of Reynoldsburg, Ohio, played a large part in popularizing the tomato in the late 19th century; his efforts are commemorated in Reynoldsburg with an annual Tomato Festival.

NamesThe scientific species epithet lycopersicum means "wolf peach", and comes from German werewolf myths. These said that deadly nightshade was used to summon werewolves, so the tomato's similar, but much larger, fruit was called the "wolf peach" when it arrived in Europe.[52]

The Aztecs called the fruit xitomatl (pronounced [itomat]), meaning plump thing with a navel. Other Mesoamerican peoples, including the Nahuas, took the name as tomatl, from which some European languages derived the name "tomato".

PronunciationThe pronunciation of tomato differs in different English-speaking countries; the two most common variants are /t m to/ (T-MAH-TOH) and /tmeto/ (T-MAY-TOH). Speakers from the British Isles, most of the Commonwealth, and speakers of Southern American English typically say /tmto/, while most North American speakers usually say /t The word's dual pronunciations were immortalized in Ira and George Gershwin's 1937 song Let's Call the Whole Thing Off ("You like /pteto/ and I like /ptto/ / You like /t meto/ and I like /tmto/") and have become a symbol for nitpicking pronunciation disputes. In this capacity, it has even become an American and British slang term: saying /tmeto, tmto/ when presented with two choices can mean "What's the difference?" or "It's all the same to me."

Tomato recordsThe "tomato tree" as seen by guests on the Living with the Land boat ride at Epcot, Lake Buena Vista, Florida

The heaviest tomato ever, weighing 3.51 kg (7 lb 12 oz), was of the cultivar 'Delicious', grown by Gordon Graham of Edmond, Oklahoma in 1986.[4][unreliable source?] The largest tomato plant grown was of the cultivar 'Sungold' and reached 19.8 m (65 ft) in length, grown by Nutriculture Ltd (UK) of Mawdesley, Lancashire, UK, in 2000.[53] The massive "tomato tree" growing inside the Walt Disney World Resort's experimental greenhouses in Lake Buena Vista, Florida may be the largest single tomato plant in the world. The plant has been recognized as a Guinness World Record Holder, with a harvest of more than 32,000 tomatoes and a total weight of 522 kg (1,150 lb).[54] It yields thousands of tomatoes at one time from a single vine. Yong Huang, Epcot's manager of agricultural science, discovered the unique plant in Beijing, China. Huang brought its seeds to Epcot and created the specialized greenhouse for the fruit to grow. The vine grows golf ball-sized tomatoes, which are served at Walt Disney World restaurants. Unfortunately, the world record-setting tomato tree can no longer be seen by guests along the Living With the Land boat ride at Epcot, as the tree developed a disease and was removed in April 2010 after approximately 13 months of life.[54] On August 30, 2007, 40,000 Spaniards gathered in Buol to throw 115,000 kilograms (250,000 lb) of tomatoes at each other in the yearly Tomatina festival.[55]

Cultural impactThe town of Buol, Spain, annually celebrates La Tomatina, a festival centered on an enormous tomato fight. Tomatoes are also a popular "nonlethal" throwing weapon in mass protests, and there was a common tradition of throwing rotten tomatoes at bad performers on a stage during the 19th

century; today this is usually referenced as a mere metaphor. Embracing it for this protest connotation, the Dutch Socialist party adopted the tomato as their logo. The US city of Reynoldsburg, Ohio calls itself "The Birthplace of the Tomato", claiming the first commercial variety of tomato was bred there in the 19th century.[56] Several US states have adopted the tomato as a state fruit or vegetable (see above).

BasilFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search For other uses, see Basil (disambiguation).

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.Basil

Scientific classification Kingdom: (unranked): (unranked): (unranked): Order: Family: Genus: Species: Plantae Angiosperms Eudicots Asterids Lamiales Lamiaceae Ocimum O. basilicum

Binomial name

Ocimum basilicum L.

Basil, or Sweet Basil, is a common name for the culinary herb Ocimum basilicum (pronounced / bzl/ or, in the US, /bezl/), of the family Lamiaceae (mints), sometimes known as Saint Joseph's Wort in some English-speaking countries. Basil, originally from India[1], is a half-hardy annual plant, best known as a culinary herb prominently featured in Italian cuisine, and also plays a major role in the Northeast Asian cuisine of Taiwan and the Southeast Asian cuisines of Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Depending on the species and cultivar, the leaves may taste somewhat like anise, with a strong, pungent, often sweet smell. There are many varieties of Ocimum basilicum, as well as several related species or species hybrids also called basil. The type used in Italian food is typically called sweet basil, as opposed to Thai basil (O. basilicum var. thyrsiflora), lemon basil (O. citriodorum) and holy basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum), which are used in Asia. While most common varieties of basil are treated as annuals, some are perennial in warm, tropical climates, including holy basil and a cultivar known as 'African Blue'. Basil is originally native to India and other tropical regions of Asia, having been cultivated there for more than 5,000 years.[2]

Contents[hide] 1 Etymology 2 Nomenclature and taxonomy o 2.1 Similar species

3 Culinary use o 3.1 Basil seeds

4 Other basils 5 Chemical components o 5.1 Aroma profiles

6 Cultivation o o 6.1 Companion planting 6.2 Diseases

7 Potential health effects 8 Cultural aspects 9 Toxicity studies 10 List of the cultivars and their nomenclature 11 Gallery 12 See also 13 References 14 External links

[edit] EtymologyThe word basil comes from the Greek (basileus), meaning "king", as it is believed to have grown above the spot where St. Constantine and his mother St. Helen discovered the Holy Cross.[citation needed] The Oxford English Dictionary quotes speculations that basil may have been used in "some royal unguent, bath, or medicine". Basil is still considered the "king of herbs" by many cookery authors.[who?]

[edit] Nomenclature and taxonomyMost commercially available basils are cultivars of sweet basil. There are over 160 named cultivars available and more new ones every year. There are also a number of species sold. Here are some basils commonly sold in the USA. [2]

For a more complete list, see List of basil cultivars African blue basil (Ocimum basilicum X O. kilimandscharicum) Camphor basil, African basil (O. kilimandscharicum) Cinnamon basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Cinnamon') Dark opal basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Dark Opal') Globe basil, dwarf basil, French basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Minimum') Hoary basil (Ocimum americanum formerly known as O. canum) Holy Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum, formerly known a O. sanctum) Spice Basil (a cultivar of Ocimum americanum, which is sometimes sold as Holy Basil) Lemon basil (Ocimum americanum) Lettuce leaf basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Crispum') Purple basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Purpurescens') Queen of Siam basil (Ocimum basilicum citriodorum) Rubin basil (Ocimum basilicum 'Rubin')

[edit] Similar species Ocimum gratissimum[3][4]

[edit] Culinary useDried basil leaves

Basil, freshNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) Energy Carbohydrates - Dietary fiber Fat Protein 94 kJ (22 kcal) 2.65 g 1.6 g 0.64 g 3.15 g

Water Vitamin A equiv.

92.06 g 264 g (33%) 3142 g (29%)

- beta-carotene 0.034 mg (3%)Thiamine (vit. B1)

0.076 mg (6%)Riboflavin (vit. B2)

0.902 mg (6%)Niacin (vit. B3)

Pantothenic acid (B5)

0.209 mg (4%) 0.155 mg (12%)

Vitamin B6

Folate (vit. B9) Choline

68 g (17%) 11.4 mg (2%) 18.0 mg (22%)

Vitamin C 0.80 mg (5%) Vitamin E 414.8 g (395%) Vitamin K 177 mg (18%) Calcium 3.17 mg (24%) Iron 64 mg (18%) Magnesium 1.148 mg (55%) Manganese 56 mg (8%) Phosphorus

295 mg (6%) Potassium 4 mg (0%) Sodium 0.81 mg (9%) ZincPercentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Basil is commonly used fresh in cooked recipes. In general, it is added at the last moment, as cooking quickly destroys the flavor. The fresh herb can be kept for a short time in plastic bags in the refrigerator, or for a longer period in the freezer, after being blanched quickly in boiling water. The dried herb also loses most of its flavor, and what little flavor remains tastes very different, with a weak coumarin flavor, like hay. Basil is one of the main ingredients in pestoa green Italian oil-and-herb sauce. Its other main ingredients are olive oil, garlic, and pine nuts. The most commonly used Mediterranean basil cultivars are "Genovese", "Purple Ruffles", "Mammoth", "Cinnamon", "Lemon", "Globe", and "African Blue". The Chinese also use fresh or dried basils in soups and other foods. In Taiwan, people add fresh basil leaves to thick soups (Chinese: ; pinyin: gngtng). They also eat fried chicken with deep-fried basil leaves. Basil (most commonly Thai basil) is commonly steeped in cream or milk to create an interesting flavor in ice cream or chocolates (such as truffles). The leaves are not the only part of basil used in culinary applications, the flower buds have a more subtle flavor and they are edible. Thai basil is also a condiment in the Vietnamese noodle soup, ph.

[edit] Basil seedsWhen soaked in water, the seeds of several basil varieties become gelatinous, and are used in Asian drinks and desserts such as falooda, sherbet or ht . They are used for their medicinal properties in Ayurveda, the traditional medicinal system of India and Siddha medicine, a traditional Tamil system of medicine. They are also used as drinks in Southeast Asia.

[edit] Other basilsSee List of basil cultivars

Several other basils, including some other Ocimum species, are grown in many regions of Asia. Most of the Asian basils have a clove-like flavor that is, in general, stronger than the Mediterranean basils. The most notable is the holy basil or tulsi, a revered home-grown plant in India and Nepal. In China, the local cultivar is called (Chinese: ; pinyin: ji cng t; literally "nine-level pagoda"), while the imported varieties are called (Chinese: ; pinyin: lu l) or (Chinese: ; pinyin: b x l), although [] often refers to a different plant parsley.

Lemon basil has a strong lemony smell and flavor very different from those of other varieties because it contains a chemical called citral. It is widely used in Indonesia, where it is called kemangi and served raw, together with raw cabbage, green beans, and cucumber, as an accompaniment to fried fish or duck. Its flowers, when broken up, are a zesty salad condiment.

[edit] Chemical componentsThe various basils have such different scents because the herb has a number of different essential oils that come together in different proportions for various breeds. The strong clove scent of sweet basil is derived from eugenol, the same chemical as actual cloves.[citation needed] The citrus scent of lemon basil and lime basil reflects their higher portion of citral, which causes this effect in several plants including lemon mint, and of limonene, which gives actual lemon peel its scent. African blue basil has a strong camphor smell because it contains camphor and camphene in higher proportions. Licorice basil contains anethole, the same chemical that makes anise smell like licorice, and in fact is sometimes called "anise basil." Other chemicals that help to produce the distinctive scents of many basils, depending on their proportion in each specific breed, include:[citation needed] citronellol (scented geraniums, roses, and citronella)[citation needed] linalool [5] (a flowery scent also in coriander) myrcene (bay leaf, myrcia)[citation needed] pinene (which is, as the name implies, the chemical that gives pine oil its scent) ocimene terpineol linalyl acetate fenchyl acetate trans-ocimene 1,8-cineole camphor octanane methyl eugenol eugenol beta-caryophyllene

Based on chemical content, basils can be divided into four groups:1. 2. 3. French; Ocimum basilicum, contains lower amounts of phenols exotic; contains methyl chavicol (40-80%) methyl cinnamate - ether 90%

4.

eugenol

Basil and oregano contain large amounts of (E)-beta-caryophyllene (BCP), which might have a use in treating inflammatory bowel diseases and arthritis. BCP is the only product identified in nature that activates CB2 selectively; it interacts with one of two cannabinoid receptors (CB2), blocking chemical signals that lead to inflammation, without triggering cannabis's mood-altering effects.[6]

[edit] Aroma profiles 1,8-cineole[7][8] Bergamotene[9][clarification needed] Eugenol [9][7] Linalool [7][9] Methyl chavicol [9][8] Methyl cinnamate [9][10] Methyl eugenol[11][7] Phenylpropanoids [7][clarification needed] trans--Ocimene[7][clarification needed]

[edit] Cultivation

Timelapse of growing basil Basil growing in the sun Basil sprout at an early stage

Most culinary and ornamental basils are cultivars of the species Ocimum basilicum, but other species are also grown and there are many hybrids between species. Traditionally a green plant, some varieties, such as 'Purple Delight' have leaves that appear purple. [12] Basil grows between 30130 cm tall, with opposite, light green, silky leaves 311 cm long and 1 6 cm broad. The flowers are small, white in color and arranged in a terminal spike. Unusual among Lamiaceae, the four stamens and the pistil are not pushed under the upper lip of the corolla, but lie over the inferior lip. After entomophilous pollination, the corolla falls off and four round achenes develop inside the bilabiate calyx. Basil is very sensitive to cold, with best growth in hot, dry conditions. It behaves as an annual if there is any chance of a frost. In Northern Europe, Canada, the northern states of the U.S., and the South Island of New Zealand it will grow best if sown under glass in a peat pot, then planted out in late spring/early summer (when there is little chance of a frost).[13] Additionally, it may be sown in

soil once chance of frost is past. It fares best in a well-drained sunny spot. Although basil grows best outdoors, it can be grown indoors in a pot and, like most herbs, will do best on an equator-facing windowsill. It should be kept away from extremely cold drafts, and grows best in strong sunlight, therefore a greenhouse or row cover is ideal if available. They can, however, be grown even in a basement, under fluorescent lights. If its leaves have wilted from lack of water, it will recover if watered thoroughly and placed in a sunny location. Yellow leaves towards the bottom of the plant are an indication that the plant has been stressed; usually this means that it needs less water, or less or more fertilizer. In sunnier climates such as Southern Europe, the southern states of the U.S., the North Island of New Zealand, and Australia, basil will thrive when planted outside. It also thrives over the summertime in the central and northern United States, but dies out when temperatures reach freezing point. It will grow back the next year if allowed to go to seed. It will need regular watering, but not as much attention as is needed in other climates. Basil can also be propagated very reliably from cuttings in exactly the same manner as 'Busy Lizzie' (Impatiens), with the stems of short cuttings suspended for two weeks or so in water until roots develop. Once a stem produces flowers, foliage production stops on that stem, the stem becomes woody, and essential oil production declines. To prevent this, a basil-grower may pinch off any flower stems before they are fully mature. Because only the blooming stem is so affected, some stems can be pinched for leaf production, while others are left to bloom for decoration or seeds. Once the plant is allowed to flower, it may produce seed pods containing small black seeds, which can be saved and planted the following year. Picking the leaves off the plant helps "promote growth", largely because the plant responds by converting pairs of leaflets next to the topmost leaves into new stems.

[edit] Companion plantingIn double-blinded taste tests, basil has been found to not affect significantly the taste of tomatoes when planted adjacent to them.[14]

[edit] DiseasesBasil suffers from several plant pathogens that can ruin the crop and reduce yield. Fusarium wilt is a soil-borne fungal disease that will quickly kill younger basil plants. Seedlings may also be killed by Pythium damping off. A common foliar disease of basil is gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea; it can also cause infections post-harvest and is capable of killing the entire plant. Black spot can also be seen on basil foliage and is caused by the fungi genus Colletotrichum. More recently, downy mildew of basil caused by Peronospora belbahrii has been a huge problem for both commercial producers and home growers. The disease was first reported in Italy in 2004, [15] was reported in the U.S. in 2007 and 2008[16][17] and has been steadily increasing in prevalence, distribution, and economic importance since then.

[edit] Potential health effectsRecently, there has been much research into the health benefits conferred by the essential oils found in basil. Scientific studies in vitro have established that compounds in basil oil have potent antioxidant, antiviral, and antimicrobial properties, and potential for use in treating cancer.[18][19][20] [21] In addition, basil has been shown to decrease the occurrence of platelet aggregation and experimental thrombus in mice.[22] It is traditionally used for supplementary treatment of stress, asthma and diabetes in India.[23] In Siddha medicine, it is used for treating pimples on the face, but noted that intake of the seeds in large quantities is harmful for the brain.[citation needed] Basil, like other aromatic plants such as fennel and tarragon, contains estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in rats and mice. While human effects are currently unstudied, extrapolation using body weight from the rodent experiments indicates that 1001000 times the normal anticipated exposure still probably produces a minimal cancer risk.[24]

[edit] Cultural aspectsThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2011)

Female of Xylocopa pubescens foraging on basil

There are many rituals and beliefs associated with basil. The French sometimes call basil "l'herbe royale", while in Welsh it has the synonymous name "brenhinllys".[citation needed] Jewish folklore suggests it adds strength while fasting.[citation needed] In Portugal, dwarf bush basil is traditionally presented in a pot, together with a poem and a pom-pon, to a sweetheart, on the religious holidays of Saint John and Saint Anthony. However, basil represented hatred in ancient Greece, and European lore sometimes claims that basil is a symbol of Satan. African legend claims that basil protects against scorpions, while the English botanist Culpeper cites one "Hilarius, a French physician" as affirming it as common knowledge that smelling basil too much would breed scorpions in the brain. Holy basil, also called tulsi, is highly revered in Hinduism and also has religious significance in the Greek Orthodox Church, where it is used to prepare holy water.[citation needed] It is said to have been found around Christ's tomb after his resurrection.{said by who?} The Bulgarian Orthodox Church, Serbian Orthodox Church, Macedonian Orthodox Church and Romanian Orthodox Church use basil (Bulgarian and Macedonian: ; Romanian: busuioc, Serbian: ) to prepare holy water and pots of basil are often placed below church altars.[citation needed] In Europe, basil is placed in the hands of the dead to ensure a safe journey.[citation needed] In India, they place it in the mouth of the dying to ensure they reach God.[citation needed] The ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks believed it would open the gates of heaven for a person passing on.[citation needed] In Boccaccio's Decameron a memorably morbid tale (novella V) tells of Lisabetta, whose brothers slay her lover. He appears to her in a dream and shows her where he is buried. She secretly disinters the head, and sets it in a pot of basil, which she waters with her daily tears. The pot being taken from her by her brothers, she dies of her grief not long after. Boccaccio's tale is the source of John Keats' poem Isabella or The Pot of Basil - which in turn inspired the paintings Isabella

(Millais painting) and Isabella and the Pot of Basil. A similar story is told of the Longobard queen, Rosalind.

[edit] Toxicity studiesA study of the essential oil showed antifungal and insect-repelling properties.[25] A similar study reported in 2009 has confirmed that extracts from the plant are very toxic to mosquitos.[26] However, the plant is not toxic to rats.[3][clarification needed] Nevertheless, further scientific researches should be warranted, since there are no equivalent reports of its use against humans.

[edit] List of the cultivars and their nomenclature African blue Dark opal Genovese [26][27][clarification needed] Genovese Gigante [11][clarification needed]

[edit] GalleryWikimedia Commons has media related to: Basil

Flowering basil stalk and leaves

Fresh basil leaves

Basil seeds

Basil plant

A can of basil seed drink

Flowering basil stalk

Basil leaves

Ocimum basilicum

[edit] See also

SausageFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia(Redirected from Sausage patties) Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the prepared meat. For other uses, see Sausage (disambiguation). Kiebasa Biaa (white sausage), Szynkowa (smoked), lska, and Podhalaska styles (Poland)

A sausage is a food usually made from ground meat (normally pork or beef), mixed with salt, herbs, and other spices with a tough skin around it, although vegetarian sausages are available. The word sausage is derived from Old French saussiche, from the Latin word salsus, meaning salted.[1] Typically, a sausage is formed in a casing traditionally made from intestine, but sometimes synthetic. Some sausages are cooked during processing and the casing may be removed after. Sausage making is a traditional food preservation technique. Sausages may be preserved by curing, drying, or smoking.

Contents[hide] 1 History 2 Casings 3 Ingredients 4 Classifications of sausage 5 National varieties o 5.1 Europe o 5.1.1 Britain and Ireland 5.1.2 Bulgaria 5.1.3 Croatia/Serbia 5.1.4 Finland 5.1.5 France 5.1.6 Germany 5.1.7 Greece 5.1.8 Hungary 5.1.9 Italy 5.1.10 Macedonia 5.1.11 Malta 5.1.12 Netherlands 5.1.13 Nordic countries 5.1.14 Poland 5.1.15 Portugal and Brazil 5.1.16 Spain 5.1.17 Switzerland 5.1.18 Sweden

5.2 Asia Minor 5.2.1 Turkey

o o

5.3 North America 5.4 Latin America

[edit] HistoryMaking sausage at home

Sausage is a logical outcome of efficient butchery. Traditionally, sausage makers put to use tissues and organs which are edible and nutritious, but not particularly appealing[citation needed] - such as scraps, organ meats, blood, and fat - in a form that allows for preservation: typically, salted and stuffed into a tubular casing made from the cleaned intestine of the animal, producing the characteristic cylindrical shape. Hence, sausages, puddings, and salami are among the oldest of prepared foods, whether cooked and eaten immediately or dried to varying degrees. Early humans made the first sausages by stuffing roasted intestines into stomachs.[2] The Greek poet Homer mentioned a kind of blood sausage in the Odyssey, Epicharmus wrote a comedy titled The Sausage, and Aristophanes' play The Knights is about a sausage-vendor who is elected leader. Evidence suggests that sausages were already popular both among the ancient Greeks and Romans, and most likely with the illiterate tribes occupying the larger part of Europe.[2]German Wurst: liver sausage, blood sausage, and ham sausage

The most famous sausage in ancient Italy was from Lucania (modern Basilicata) and was called lucanica, a name which lives on in a variety of modern sausages in the Mediterranean. During the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, sausages were associated with the Lupercalia festival. Early in the 10th century during the Byzantine Empire, Leo VI the Wise outlawed the production of blood sausages following cases of food poisoning.

[edit] CasingsMain article: Casing (sausage)

Traditionally, sausage casings were made of the cleaned intestines, or stomachs in the case of haggis and other traditional puddings. Today, however, natural casings are often replaced by collagen, cellulose, or even plastic casings, especially in the case of industrially manufactured sausages. Some forms of sausage, such as sliced sausage, are prepared without a casing. Additionally, luncheon meat and sausage meat are now available without casings in tin cans and jars.

[edit] IngredientsThe most basic sausage consists of meat, cut into pieces or ground, and filled into a casing. The meat may be from any animal, but traditionally is pork, beef, or veal. The meat to fat ratio is dependent upon the style and producer, but in the United States, fat content is legally limited to a maximum of 30%, 35% or 50%, by weight, depending on the style. The United States Department of Agriculture defines the content for various sausages and generally prohibits fillers and extenders.[3] Most traditional styles of sausage from Europe and Asia use no bread-based filler and are 100% meat and fat excluding flavorings.[4] In the UK and other countries with English cuisine traditions, bread and starch-based fillers account for up to 25% of ingredients. The filler used in many sausages helps them to keep their shape as they are cooked. As the meat contracts in the heat, the filler expands and absorbs the moisture lost from the meat.

[edit] Classifications of sausageSausages from Runion Swojska (Polish) Krajaska (Polish) Szynkowa (Polish) Reindeer Sausage

Sausages classification is subject to regional differences of opinion. Various metrics such as types of ingredients, consistency, and preparation are used. In the English-speaking world, the following distinction between fresh, cooked, and dry sausages seems to be more or less accepted: Cooked sausages are made with fresh meats, and then fully cooked. They are either eaten immediately after cooking or must be refrigerated. Examples include hot dogs, Braunschweiger, and liver sausage. Cooked smoked sausages are cooked and then smoked or smoke-cooked. They are eaten hot or cold, but need to be refrigerated. Examples include kielbasa, and mortadella. Some are slow cooked while smoking, in which case the process takes several days or longer, such as the case for Gyulai kolbsz. Fresh sausages are made from meats that have not been previously cured. They must be refrigerated and thoroughly cooked before eating. Examples include Boerewors, Italian pork sausage, siskonmakkara, and breakfast sausage. Fresh smoked sausages are fresh sausages that are smoked and cured. They do not normally require refrigeration and do not require any further cooking before eating. Examples include Mettwurst and Teewurst. Dry sausages are cured sausages that are fermented and dried. They are generally eaten cold and will keep for a long time. Examples include salami, Dro wors, Finnish meetvursti, Sucuk, Landjger, and summer sausage. Bulk sausage, or sometimes sausage meat, refers to raw, ground, spiced meat, usually sold without any casing. Vegetarian sausage refers to sausages made without meat, for example, with soya protein or with tofu or with herbs and spices. Vegetarian sausages are frequently sold in supermarkets, although it should be said that many vegetarian sausages sold in supermarkets may be vegetarian but are not vegan, for they may contain ingredients such as eggs.

The distinct flavor of some sausages is due to fermentation by Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, or Micrococcus (added as starter cultures) or natural flora during curing. Other countries, however, use different systems of classification. Germany, for instance, which boasts more than 1200 types of sausage, distinguishes raw, cooked and precooked sausages. Raw sausages are made with raw meat and are not cooked. They are preserved by lactic acid fermentation, and they may be dried, brined or smoked. Most raw sausages will keep for a long time. Examples include Mettwurst and salami.

Cooked sausages may include water and emulsifiers and are always cooked. They will not keep long. Examples include cervelat, Jagdwurst, and Weiwurst. Precooked sausages (Kochwurst) are made with cooked meat but may also include raw organ meat. They may be heated after casing, and they will keep only for a few days. Examples include Saumagen and Blutwurst.

In Italy, the basic distinctions are: Raw sausage (salsiccia) with a thin casing Cured and aged sausage (salsiccia stagionata or salsiccia secca) Cooked sausage (wuerstel) Blood sausage (sanguinaccio or boudin) Liver sausage (salsiccia di fegato) Salami (in Italy, salami is the plural of salame, a big, cured, fermented and air-dried sausage) Cheese sausage (casalsiccia) with cheese inside

The United States has a particular type called pickled sausages, commonly found in gas stations and small roadside delicatessens. These are usually smoked or boiled sausages of a highly processed hot dog or kielbasa style plunged into a boiling brine of vinegar, salt, spices, and often a pink coloring, then canned in Mason jars. They are available in single blister packs or sold out of a jar. They are shelf stable, and they are a frequently offered alternative to beef jerky, Slim Jims, and other kippered snacks. Certain countries classify sausage types according to the region in which the sausage was traditionally produced: France : Montbliard, Morteau, Strasbourg, Toulouse,.. Germany: Frankfurt am Main, Thuringian sausage, Nuremberg, Pomerania, .. Austria: Vienna, .. Italy: Merano (Meraner Wurst) UK: Cumberland, Chiltern, Lincolnshire, Glamorgan, .. Slovenia: Kranjska (klobasa), after the Slovenian name for the province of Carniola Spain: botifarra catalana, chorizo riojano, chorizo gallego, chorizo de Teror, longaniza de Aragn, morcilla de Burgos, morcilla de Ronda, morcilla extremea, morcilla dulce canaria, llonganissa de Vic, fuet d'Olot, sobrassada mallorquina, botillo de Len, llonganissa de Valencia, farinato de Salamanca, .. Poland : kielbasa krakowska (Krakw-style), toruska (Toru), ywiecka (ywiec), bydgoska (Bydgoszcz), krotoszyska (Krotoszyn), podwawelska (literally: "from under Wawel"), zielonogrska (Zielona Gra), rzeszowska (Rzeszw), lska (Silesia), swojska, wiejska, jaowcowa, zwyczajna, polska, krajaska, szynkowa, parwkowa, .. Hungary: kolbsz gyulai (after the town of Gyula), csabai (after the city of Bkscsaba), Debrecener (after the city of Debrecen).

Serbia: Sremska kobasica, Sremska salama, Sremski kulen (after the region of Srem/Sirmium), Poarevaka kobasica (after the city of Poarevac)

[edit] National varietiesSausage making in Russia

Many nations and regions have their own characteristic sausages, using meats and other ingredients native to the region and employed in traditional dishes.

[edit] Europe [edit] Britain and IrelandSausages, seen in The Covered Market, Oxford.

In the UK and Ireland, sausages are a very popular and common feature of the national diet and popular culture. British and Irish sausages are normally made from raw pork or beef mixed with a variety of herbs and spices and cereals, many recipes of which are traditionally associated with particular regions (for example Cumberland sausages). They normally contain a certain amount of rusk, or breadrusk, and are traditionally cooked by frying, grilling or roasting prior to eating. Due to their habit of often exploding due to shrinkage of the tight skin during cooking, they are commonly referred to as bangers, particularly when served with the most common accompaniment of mashed potatoes to form a bi-national dish known as bangers and mash. (The designation banger was in use at least as far back as 1919 and is often said to have been popularized in World War II, when scarcity of meat led many sausage makers to add water to the mixture, making it more likely to explode on heating.)[citation needed] Due to health concerns over the quality of the meat contained in many commercially produced sausages (heightened by the BSE crisis in the 1990s) there has been a marked improvement in the quality of meat content in commonly available British sausages with a return to the artisanal production of high quality traditional recipes, which had previously been in decline. However many of the cheaper sausages available use mechanically recovered meat or meat slurry. There are various laws concerning the meat content of sausages in the UK. The minimum meat content to be labelled Pork Sausages is 42% (30% for other types of meat sausages), although to be classed as meat, the Pork can contain 30% fat and 25% connective tissue. Often the cheapest supermarket pork sausages do not have the necessary meat content to be described as Pork Sausages and are simply labelled 'Sausages'. These typically contain MRM which under EU law can no longer be described as meat.[5][6] There are currently organisations in a number of UK counties, such as Lincolnshire, which are seeking European Protected designation of origin (PDO) for their sausages so that they can be made only in the appropriate region and to an attested recipe and quality.[7] Famously, they are an essential component of a full English or Irish breakfast. In the UK alone,

there are believed to be over 470 different types of sausages;[8] some made to traditional regional recipes such as those from Cumberland or Lincolnshire, and increasingly to modern recipes which combine fruit such as apples or apricots with the meat, or are influenced by other European styles such as the Toulouse or Chorizo. A popular and widespread snack is the sausage roll made from sausage-meat rolled in puff pastry; they are sold from most bakeries and often made in the home. They may also be baked in a Yorkshire pudding batter to create "toad in the hole", often served with gravy and onions. In many areas, "sausage meat" for frying and stuffing into poultry and meat is sold as slices cut from an oblong block of pressed meat without casing: in Scotland this is known as Lorne Sausage or often sliced sausage or square sausage, while the usual form is sometimes called sausage links. Lorne Sausage is very popular in and around Glasgow. It is usually grilled, though frying is not unusual. Battered sausage, consisting of a sausage dipped in batter, and fried, is sold throughout Britain from Fish and Chip shops. In England, Saveloy is a type of pre-cooked sausage, larger than a typical hot-dog which is served hot. A saveloy skin was traditionally colored with bismarck-brown dye giving saveloy a distinctive bright red color. A thin variety of sausage, known as the chipolata is often wrapped in bacon and served alongside roast turkey at Christmas time and are known as Pigs in a Blanket or "Pigs in Blankets". They are also served cold at children's parties throughout the year. As in mainland Europe, regional types of sausage often overlap with puddings such as the black pudding, white pudding, Hog's pudding and haggis. Scotland Scottish sausages are both distinct and unique. A popular breakfast food is the square sausage. This is normally eaten as part of a full Scottish Breakfast or on a Scottish morning roll. The sausage is produced in a rectangular block and individual portions are sliced off. It is seasoned mainly by pepper. Despite its unique flavor square sausage is rarely seen outside Scotland and in fact is still fairly uncommon in the Highlands. Other types of sausage include black pudding, similar to the German and Polish blood sausages. Stornoway Black Pudding is held in high regard and measures are currently being taken to bring it under EU geographical protection. Additionally a popular native variety of sausage is the red pudding. It is most common in the North-East of the country and is a chip shop favorite, where it is deep fried in batter as part of a chip supper. It is similar to other European sausages such as chorizo or baloney.

[edit] BulgariaLukanka () is a spicy salami sausage unique to Bulgarian cuisine. It is similar to sujuk, but often stronger flavored.

[edit] Croatia/SerbiaKulen is a type of flavoured sausage made of minced pork that is traditionally produced in Croatia (Slavonia) and Serbia (Vojvodina), and its designation of origin has been protected. The meat is low-fat, rather brittle and dense, and the flavor is spicy. The red paprika gives it aroma and color,

and garlic adds spice. The original kulen recipe does not contain black pepper because its hot flavor comes from hot red paprika. Other types of sausages in Serbia include Sremska, Poare