context of paul's original ministry - gal 4.12-20
TRANSCRIPT
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[JSNT52(1993) 93-126]
ILLORILL-TREATED? CONFLICT AND PERSECUTION
AS THE CONTEXT OF PAUL'S ORIGINALMINISTRYIN GALATIA
(GALATIANS 4.12-20)
"A.J. Goddard and S.A. Cummins
St John's College, Oxford, OX1 3JP
Worcester College, Oxford, 2HB
Given the veritable growth industrythat is NewTestament scholarship
on Paul's letter to the Galatians, it is all the more remarkable that solittle attention has been paid to one of its most intriguing and prob
lematic texts, Gal. 4.12-20. This versight is largely attributable to the
widespread estimation of this passage as a rather opaque parenthetica
and personal appeal which is of uncertain relation to the letter's mor
weighty theological argumentation.1 This article intends to challeng
such a view by demonstrating that there is an inner coherence to Gal
4.12-20which proves to be a text of greater historical and theolo
gical significance than is normally allowedin that its determinativappeal is not, as is commonly thought, to some unspecified illness, bu
1. Thus Longenecker (1990: 188, citing Burton, Schlier and Mussner) can sa
'Commentators have often treated 4.12-20 as a passionate and emotional, though
also somewhat erratic and irrational, outburst, which largely defies analysis*. Whil
not to be discounted entirely, the attempt by Betz (1979: 220-37) to arrive at a mor
unified reading by viewing the section as 'a string oftopoi belonging to the theme o
"friendship" ( )' (p. 221) is weakened by various difficulties: e.g., disproportionate dependencyupon possible Graeco-Roman parallels at the expens
f ti t di bibli l t i l i bilit t t f th
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94 Journal for the Studyof the NewTestament52 (1993)
to a context of conflict and persecution which attended Paul's origin
mission among the Galatian Christians. This claim will (1) be esta
lished primarily through a detailed exegesis of the passage in questioand will then (2) be corroborated by locating the new reading with
the wider contexts of the argument of Galatians 4, and the addition
evidence for persecution in both Galatians and Paul's missiona
experiences elsewhere.
1. An Exegesis ofGalatians4.12-20
1.1. IntroductionInasmuch as there is a scholarly consensus on these verses it is th
Paul is endeavouring to dissuade the Galatians from their current pr
occupation with the Torah-based demands of the so-called 'Agitator
by appealing to their former devotion to him during the illness th
caused him first to preach his Christ-centred gospel to them.2
T
predominance of this 'illness' interpretation is evident from t
English translations of the important vv. 13-14a; thus, for examp
the Revised Standard Version: 'You know it was because of a bod
ailment that I preached the gospel to you at first; and though m
condition was a trial to you, you did not scorn or despise me. .
Such a rendering is replicated in modern English and Germ
language commentaries.4
2. Note however the alternative proposal ofGiittgemanns (1966: 170-94) wwhile never contesting the illness interpretation (nor suggesting an alternative per
cution hypothesis), argues that *the weakness of the flesh ('
)' in Gal. 4.13 constitutes not the reason {Grund) but the way (Modus)
Paul's proclamation: i.e., as a manifestation of the crucified Christ Cals Epipha
des ', p. 185). Initially the Galatians accepted both the apostle a
his gospel but now, under the influence of the opponents, they have rejected both
favour ofa heavenly Spirit-Christ. Giittgemanns's close association with Schmitha
now discredited thesis concerning the identity of the Galatian opponents as Jewi
Christian Gnostics has compromised his observations in several important respe(e.g., his exegesis of * in 4.13 and in 4.14, and his sugg
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIor Ill-Treated? 95
There has, of course, been much disagreement over the exact nature
of the illness, with malaria, epilepsy, ophthalmia, rheumatism, and
severe neuralgia or hysteria comprising the major proposals onoffer.5 Many commentators now caution that the compressed nature of
Paul's remarks require agnosticism concerning the precise diagnosis.
Nevertheless, it remains widely accepted that Paul is referring to some
form of sickness, and various attempts have been made to corroborate
this by reference to his 'thorn in the flesh* (2 Cor. 12.7), likewise
interpreted as a thinly-veiled reference to illness.6 The alternative
proposed herebodily weakness due to the trauma of persecution
has been suggested in the past,7 but with little acceptance and noattempt to ground it in a thorough exegesis of the relevant verses.8
Bruce, Fung and Longenecker); 'Krankheit [des Fleisches]' (Lietzmann, Schlier),
'[kranken] Krper' (Becker), but more literally 'Schwache/Schwachheit des Fleisches'
(Oepke, Mussner, Lhrmann, Borse, Rohde)although the last group then
explicates the phrase as *ein[e] Krankheit/Erkrankung'.
5. Amongst the many discussions on this matter, see, e.g., Ramsay 1899: 94-
97; Gttgemanns 1966: 162-65,173-77; and Borse 1984: 153-56.
6. Contrast the various compelling arguments of Mullins 1957; Binder 1976: 7-
11; Barr 1980, et aL, to the effect that 2 Cor. 12.7 and context must be viewed as an
allusion to Paul's persecution by certain adversaries.
7. Significantly by a number of the Church Fathers (Chrysostom, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, Augustine), Aquinas, and Luther. Cf. additional
references in Schlier 1949: 148 . 5. Among more recent commentators, see
Ridderbos 1953: 30, 166-67; Bligh 1966: 380; and Longenecker 1990: 191, whoequivocates. See also Menoud 1953: 165-67; and Lyons 1985: 149, 166. Perhaps
the most compelling, but extremelybrief, advocacyof this position is that of Harvey
1985: 88.
8. It is worth emphasizing at the outset that our proposalbodily weakness
due to the trauma of persecutionis so formulated in order to emphasize that Paul's
condition is a direct result of being ill-treated, and that the argument of 4.12-20 as a
whole can onlybe properlyunderstood in the light of this scenario. Thus, while the
evidence is such that the precise source, nature and physical consequences of this ill-
treatment upon Paul can never be known, it is likelythat it took the form of imme
diate and significant bodily harm (analogous to the nature and traumatic effect of
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96 Journal for the Studyof the New Testament52 (1993)
1.2. *Become as 1. . .'(Galatians4.12)
While G.W. Hansen and Richard Longenecker have perhaps over
emphasized the importance of Gal. 4.12,
9
nevertheless the fact that itcontains the first imperative of the letterreinforced by the vocative
and the verbal petition suggests that it is
programmatic for what follows and warrants careful scrutiny. It is,
however, fraught with difficulties ofboth translation and interpretation.
In the history of the exegesis of this verse, two main problems have
been identified. Most commentators posit that the first problem is the
need to clarify the initial request ( ) by supplying the
two unstated verbs which, they believe, are assumed by the justification which immediately follows ( ). Most then settle
for an amplified reading such as [or ]
.10
The second problem is to determine both the exact nature
of the shared experience being recollected in the second clause, and
what it is that has since transpired among the Galatians such that it
necessitates Paul's present appeal. Once these difficulties have been
addressed, commentators have then offered the following three (often
overlapping) interpretations.11
1. Paul is appealing to the Galatians as a father who cherishes and
longs for the reciprocal love of his children so that there might be
mutual friendship and confidence (Bruce 1982: 208). This reading
serves to highlight the strong relational element within Paul's appeal,
but there is no apparent textual justification for the shared experience
which it posits as the basis of that relation.
2. The vast majority of commentators maintain that Paul is urgingthe Galatians to free themselves from the Law. On this reading, the
first clause ( ) calls the Galatian^ to emulate Paul's own
current Law-free state. The second clause ( ) may be
taken either (a) as drawing an analogy between Paul's former life in
Judaism (cf. 1.13-14) and the Galatians' preoccupation with the Law,
or (b) more probably, as an allusion to the fact that when Paul first
preached the gospel to the Galatians, he abandoned any pretentious
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 97
claims to his Jewish status and lived as a Gentile among them (cf.
2.17; 1 Cor. 9.19-23).12
This interpretation has the advantage of recalling the context ofPaul's original preaching which is clearly a focus of the following
verses. Even more significant is that it relates the appeal of 4.12 to the
problem which Paul is addressing in the epistle as a whole: the
Judaizing of the Galatian Christians. However, it entails a convoluted
and inexplicable shift from that which Paul has in view in the first
clause (the Galatians as Judaizers or about to Judaize) to that in view
in the second clause (the Galatians as Gentiles).13
3. Paul is not simply calling the Galatians to adopt his Law-freeexistence but is also urging them 'to become like him in his loyalty to
the gospel of Christ. . . to protect and defendthe freedom gained by
faith in Christ'.14
As with reading 2, this interpretation has the merit of its applica
bility to the situation in Galatia, although now with a more direct
reference to the conflict involved. However, there is no consideration
as to what verbs are necessarily presupposed by this reading, and no
discussion as to how the current conflict might be related to the
circumstances that attended Paul's original ministry in Galatia.
We now intend to offer an alternative reading which develops the
strengthswhile avoiding the weaknessesof the foregoing interpre
tations, and which more fully integrates the appeal of 4.12a into the
argument of this part of the letter.
First it is necessary to address the near universal desire of commen
tators to supply verbs in 4.12a. This is a strange tendency, not onlybecause neither Paul nor later copyists appear to have thought them
necessary, but also because all of the proposals currently on offer face
insurmountable difficulties.
12. Stated most succinctly in Lightfoot 1890: 174, nuanced variations of thisinterpretation are arrived at in virtually all ofthe modern commentaries (with Betz
[1979: 222-23] taking the most circuitous route via Lucian's Toxarisi). Occasionallythis reading is tied to the suggestion that Paul is also urging the Galatians to imitatehis t li l ( f M 1974 305 306 Rohde 1989 183)
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98 Journal for the Studyof the NewTestament52 (1993)
As noted earlier, by far the predominant 'solution' proffered is to
establish a correspondence with the imperative in the first clause
( ) by adding either the perfect or second aorist middle
ofthe same verb in the second clause ( [or ]
). This interpretation postulates that, at some point in the
history of his relationship with the Galatians, Paul consciously took
upon himself their status or situation. The appeal of 4.12a thus
depends for its force upon either (a) the fact that the Galatians have
now moved away from that shared situation and that Paul is now
calling them to return to it: 'Become again as I am [and as you were]
because I became as you were', or (b) Paul is simply asking for areciprocal response but in a new and unrelated area: 'Become as I [in
new situation Y] because I became as you were [in former situation
XT-
Option (a) is impossible to sustain for it demands that, at some
stage, Paul positively embraced an element in the Galatians' situation
which he at that time lacked and which, although they have now
rejected it, Paul has come to value so highly that he wishes them to
return to it. It is impossible to provide a plausible scenario which
meets all ofthese requirements. Some scholars have posited a scenario
involving the Law (namely, option 2 as critiqued above) but this is
implausible because in 4.8-11 Paul has just characterized the former
state of the Galatian Christians not as a positive (or even a neutral)
state outside the Law, but as a negative existence in pagan enslave
ment. Thus it is not easy to see how or why Paul could so readily
claim [or ] .Option (b) is also very weak: the exact substance ofPaul's appeal is
far from self-evident, requiring hypotheses concerning two unstated
and differentcontexts. Even if two different contexts could be sup
plied, it is clear that the force of the appeal is severely undermined by
the lack of correspondence between the two clauses.
In the light ofthese difficulties, the main alternativesupplying the
present tense ()might appear more appealing: 'Become as I
because I am as you are'. However, the major obstacle with this solution is that the appeal is then exclusively focused upon the present,
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 99
of the appeal is intelligible when the present tense is supplied.
Given that the attempt to supplyverbs where Paul has omitted them
only serves to complicate the exegesis, it may be that 4.12a is in someway coherent as it stands. We suggest that this is indeed the case if
Paul is understood to be referring, in his use of and , to the
whole historyboth past and presentof his relationship with the
Galatians and to their shared identity within that relationship. Thus,
Paul's appeal may be taken as a reiteration of his long-standing desire
that, as both he and they have beenand remainin the same situa
tion ( ), they must continue to take him as their
paradigm and imitate his response to that ongoing shared situation( ).
The second problem must now be addressed: the exact nature of the
shared experience being recollected, and what has since transpired
among the Galatians such that it necessitates Paul's present appeal.
Building upon option 3 above, we would argue that the shared experi
ence which is referred to in the second clause of the appeal must be
understood as conflict and persecution. That this is an integral part of
the history of Paul's dealings with the Galatians will be confirmed by
the exegesis which follows, where it is demonstrated that Paul's
remarks in 4.13-15 allude to a context of conflict and persecution
within which he first established a relationship with the Galatians.
That such conflict, suffering and persecution is also a current problem
for Paul is confirmed by 5.11, and that Paul believes the Galatians'
present difficulties stem from such hostility is a recurring theme
throughout the epistle (e.g. 1.7-8; 3.4; 4.17, 29-30; 5.1, 7-12, 15;6.12).
Therefore, Paul's appeal in 4.12a concerns the fact that, in the face
of the current opposition, the Galatians have ceased to follow his
paradigmatic example of faithfulness in sufferingitself based upon
that of Christ (2.19-20)and have instead accepted the demands of
the Agitators and begun to Judaize. Having originally embraced Paul's
gospel and pattern of life (e.g., 4.14, 15, 18) they have now
succumbed and fallen back into slavery (4.8-11) such that Paul
despairs of them ever again modelling themselves on him and so
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this verse is consonant with other such appeals in which Paul exhorts
his churches to imitate him in his faithful suffering (e.g. 1 Thess. 1.6;
Phil. 3.17; 1 Cor. 4.16).This interpretation of 4.12a above therefore recognizes the
relational element of the appeal (cf. 1) and, in addition to acknowl
edging that it is addressed to the Galatians because they have accepted
the Law rather than being faithful to the gospel of Christ (cf. 2 and 3
above), it postulates a context of suffering and persecution in both the
past and the present. This enables the verse to stand without the addi
tion of verbs, to follow coherently upon Paul's prior account of the
Galatians' present behaviour (4.8-11), and to introduce his recollection of the circumstances which attended his original preaching
(4.13-15).
This reading now allows a coherent rendering of the otherwise
obscure statement which immediately follows: .16
The forceful verb , infrequent in Paul's letters, means 'to act
unjustly, harm in relation to other men'.17
Evidently Paul believes
that, in his earlier dealings with them, the Galatians could havewronged himalways a distinct possibility inasmuch as others some
times did. If Paul's appeal is taken as a call to faithfulness in the face
of hostility, then it makes sense for Paul to follow it with the
affirmation that the Galatians did not wrong him, because, rather than
actively opposing and rejecting him, they actually accepted his gospel
(1.9).18
Confirmation that this is indeed the scenario in view will be
found in the exegesis of Gal. 4.13-15 which now follows in sections
1.3 and 1.4 below.
those who compel circumcision in order to avoid persecution with the remark 'Butfar be it from me to gloryexcept in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by which the
world has been crucified to me, and I to the world (' )'. Cf. the reciprocal and polemical use of at
2 Cor. 11.21D-22.16. Most commentators see no link with Paul's initial appeal. Cf. the succinct
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS 111 orIll-Treated? 101
1.3. On Account of the Weakness of the Flesh' (Galatians4.13-14a)
Commentators have rightly noted that the limited and tacit nature of
the information supplied in Gal. 4.13-15 renders any reconstructionof the circumstances of Paul's initial ministry in Galatia problematic.
However, some reconstruction is required if any sense is to be made
of Gal. 4.12-20 as a whole, and (as will be seen) a viable hypothesis is
by no means impossible.
We begin with the key phrase * (4.13a).
This is the lynchpin of the traditional illness' reading. However, any
such interpretation of this phrase is immediately suspect because of the
problem ofjust how a reference to illness could be connected to theinitial appeal and statement concerning possible wrongdoing.
19An
alternate understanding of the term (and of our key phrase) seems
desirable, and for this we turn to its significant usage within Paul's
Corinthian correspondence.20
While it is important to be sensitive to the semantic range of
(and ) within the Pauline corpus, it may be argued
that at the heart of Paul's understanding of and its cognatesis the crucified Christ in whose flesh weakness is revealed (1 Cor.
1.18-2.5; 2 Cor. 13.4). Paul, however, insists that Christ's weakness is
replicated in the humiliation and suffering endured by his faithful
disciples, not least himself. The clearest extended expression of this is
to be found in 2 Corinthians 10-1321
whereto quote from David
Alan Black's study ofPaul can claim that 'My weakness is
Christ's weakness, the only legitimate representation of the crucified
Messiah and his gospel, the assurance that God is now manifesting hisSon in and through my life...' (Black 1984: 132).
22It is also evident
19. Betz (1979: 224) opens his remarks on 4.13-14 with the acknowledgmentthat they are 'atfirstpuzzling*.
20. The occurrence of the phrase at Rom.6.19 is cited by Binder (1976) in arguing that what is at issue in Gal. 4.13-16 is
Paul's existence apart from God. While no doubt Paul would readilyconcur that thegeneral phenomenon of humanity apart from God is a contributing factor to that in
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that a central element of this weakness for Paul is that it is exhibited in
the suffering endured as a result of his faithfulness to the gospel.
Thus, to take account of a particularly difficult but significantexample from 2 Corinthians 10-13, Paul concludes one of his so-
called 'trial lists' (2 Cor. 11.21b-29)23
that is, a catalogue of various
hardships that he has undergonewith the rhetorical questions:
, ; ,
; Commentators have long debated the precise meaning of
this text. However, Michael Barr has cogently argued that the verbs
and are to be taken as synonymous references
to 'stumbling';24 that, by comparison with Dan. 11.33-35(Theodotion),
25it becomes clear that Paul is viewing himself as
among the wise and faithful who stumble under the weight of their
persecution at the hands of the wicked;26
and that this stumbling is
understood to be a function of the great eschatological trial which is
experienced byand 'refines' (thus )all those who are
faithful to God. Barr goes on to argue that this understanding of
at 2 Cor. 11.29 is also evident in Paul's use of the noun in the verses that follow.
27
Given the above, it is prima facie possible that in his use of the
phrase ' at Gal. 4.13 Paul is reminding the
Galatians that it was on account of bodilyweakness due to some form
* weakness' language is employed (e.g., 1 Cor. 2.3; 4.10) and where it is not (e.g.,Phil. 3.10).
23. Cf. Rom. 8.35-39; 1 Cor. 4.9-13; 2 Cor. 4.7-12; 6.4-10; 12.10a; on whichsee Schrge 1974 and, more recently, Fitzgerald 1988.24. Barr 1975: 510, noting that in 55 per cent of instances in the LXX where
translates a Hebreworiginal, the underlying word is some form ofthe verb'XD, 'to stumble'.
25. 'And those among the people who are wise shall understand many things;and they shall stumble/fall () bythe sword andflame,bycaptivity,and bythe plunder ofdays. When they stumble/fall ( )theyshall receive a little help... and some ofthose who are wise shall stumble/fall
() to refine them ( ) and that they may bechosen and revealed, until the end-time; for it is yet for the time appointed.'ET from
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIor Ill-Treated? 103
of persecution that he first28 preached the gospel to them.29 Further
more, following Barr's nuanced interpretation of 2 Cor. 11.29with
its evocation of the Maccabaean martyrsit is likewise possible thatboth Paul and the Galatians accepted this 'weakness of the flesh' as the
burden of the suffering righteous, and as exemplifying the efficacious
self-sacrifice of Christ himself.30 We shall seek to substantiate such an
interpretation in the detailed exegesis that follows.
We may pursue this matter by now undertaking a careful assessment
of the peculiarly forceful language of4.14a,
and 31
which Paul uses in reminding the Galatians that, at the
time of his initial contact, he brought with him (in his flesh)
something that amounted to a temptation/trial for them:
\ .3 2
First, we may note that the
noun is used elsewhere in Paul's undisputed letters onlyat
1 Cor. 10.13 where it refers to the dangers of idolatrywhether
28. Commentators are generally agreed that the adjective is to be
taken as 'first* orOriginally* rather than 'the former(oftwo)*, thus excluding the
possibility ofmore than one visit byPaul to the Galatians. See the discussions inBurton 1921: 239-41; Mussner 1974: 307; and contrast Lightfoot 1890:175.
29. Successive commentators rightly note that grammatically plus the
accusative can only refer to the ground/reason ofPaul*s initial preaching,
as opposed to the state/condition, which would require plus the genitive
. Indeed, Lightfoot (1890: 174) chastizes the Latin Church Fathers for
taking refuge in the ambiguous Latin preposition per (= 'through')as in 'per
infrmitatem', which a number ofthem took as a reference to persecution (cf. . 7above). However, it needs to be stressed that plus the accusative
taken causally as in 'because of/on account ofweakness*, does not exclude from
view anyattendant circumstances that may have contributed to that cause (such asthat argued forhere: bodily weakness due to persecution). Cf. Longenecker 1990:
190, who sensibly avoids any confusion bynoting that plus the accusative
'expresses the occasion ofthe preaching... not the means... or limiting condition*.
30. It is one ofthe characteristics ofthe messiah inPss. Sol. 17.37-42 that,
blessed by God's wisdom and righteousness, neither he nor his flock will'weaken/stumble' in the midst ofaffliction. Cf. also the collocation of,
and at Mk 14 38 = Mt 26 41
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pagan or Jewish (cf. Gal. 4.8-11)which threaten apostasyfrom the
one true God.33
The cognate verb is found more
frequently34
and carries equally serious implications. Of particularsignificance to our thesis concerning Gal. 4.12-20 is the situation in
view at 1 Thess. 3.4-5. There Paul is concerned that testing in the
form of opposition and persecution may have nullified his original
workamongst the Thessalonians:
For when we were with you, we told you beforehand that we were tosuffer affliction; just as it has come to pass, and as you know. For thisreason, when I could bear it no longer, I sent that I might know your
faith, for fear that somehowthe tempter had tempted [tested] you and thatour labour would be in vain ( ).
Given the theological significance of, and by analogywith
Paul's remarks in 1 Thess. 3.4-5 in particular, it may be suggested
that in Gal. 4.14 the apostle is likewise reminding the Galatians that
when he first ministered among them there was a distinct danger that
they would fall away from God because of the attendant threat ofopposition and persecution.
Secondly, the focal point of the Galatians' is Paul's own
flesh/body: .35
Although it is to anticipate our dis
cussion in section 2.2 below, it is important to note at this point
certain evidence in Galatians and elsewhere which strengthens our
claim that this temptation in Paul's flesh/body must be understood in
relation to persecution. Thus, for example, Paul concludes his letter
with the injunction 'Henceforth let no one cause me trouble, because I
bear the marks of Jesus in my body ( )' (6.17).
Although is here replaced with , there is an obvious
parallel with 4.14a, and Paul is indisputably referring to marks of
persecution about which the Galatians appear to have some knowl
edge. With the usual provisos concerning authorship, the other text of
note is Col. 1.24 where Paul claims to 'fill up the shortfall of the
sufferings of Christ '. Whatever else this difficult
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 105
verse might mean, it employs the identical phrase \ in
reference to the apostle's suffering and affliction in the course of his
apostolic ministry.Thirdly, Paul resorts to two extremely forceful verbs to describe
how the Galatians might have rejected the in his own
flesh/body: and . The latter verb is not found in
the LXX, and is also a NT hapax legomenon. However, various com
mentators, predisposed to the traditional illness interpretation, and
influenced by Schlier's word study (1964: 448-49), have taken it to
mean that the Galatians did not 'spit out' at Paul in a gesture of
defence against his sickness and the related threat of demonic activity.
It is true that certain Graeco-Roman sources do attest to such an
understandingprincipally in their use of the Latin verb despuo,36
but also the Greekverb .37
However, it has to be said that Schlier
has overplayed his case, ignoring other instances where the pertinent
terms are employed either literally with no reference to illness ('spit
out...breath, water, wine, oil, venom', etc.)38
or metaphorically
("despise, detest, spurn', etc.)
39
The metaphorical use is especiallydominant in classical usage of the cognate verb .40 And,
significantly, the only extant instance of the latter in ancient Jewish
Greek literature is to be found in Jos. Asen. 2.1, where it is employed
in parallel with our second key term to convey disdain:
'And Aseneth was despising and scorning every man... '4 l
36. Cf. Plautus, Captivi 550; Asinaria 38; Varro,D* Re Rustica 1.2.28;Tibullus, Elegiae 1.2.56,98; and Pliny, Naturalis Historia 10.69; 24.172; 25.167;26.93; 27.131; 28.35-36.
37. Cf. Theophrastus, Characteres 16; Lucan, Apologia de Mercede Conductis6see also in his Menippius7.
38. On , cf. Homer, Odyssey 5.322; Aristophanes, Vespae 792;Theocritus, Idyllia 24.19; Meleager, inAnthologia Graeca 5.197; Plutarch, Moralia328C; Epictetus, Dissertiones3.12.17, Encheiridion 47; and Oppianus, Haliutica5.646. On despuo, see Petronius, Satyricon 135.6.
39. On despuo, cf. Catullus, Carmen 50.19; and Persius, Saturae 3.3,4.35. On, see Plutarch, Moralia 801 A.
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Conversely, while is rare in classical Greek literature,42
it is found frequently in die sense of 'despise, reject, count as nothing'
in the LXX and the OT pseudepigrapha. Often the context concerns diemutual rejection of God and the ungodly (whether Israel or her
enemies),43
sometimes in circumstances which involve disdain directed
at God's representatives.44
Thus T. Levi. 16.2 witnesses to the terrible
events that transpired within Israel at the time of the Maccabaean
crisis: 'You shall set aside the Law and nullify () the
words of die prophets by your wicked perversity. You persecute just
men: and you hate the pious; the word of the faithful you regard with
revulsion'. 4 5 It is possible that Testament of Levi 16 has beenreworked by a later Christian editor,
46and certainly this is the case in
another instance of used in manuscript ofT. Ben. 9.3
concerning a 'unique prophet': 'He will enter the first temple, and
there the Lord will be abused and despised (
), and will be raised up on wood.'47
Not surpris
ingly, then, in the NT is employed to indicate the con
tempt directed at Jesus (Mk 9.12; Lk. 23.11; Acts 4. II).
4 8
In Paul is found in reference to the *despised' followers ofJesus
(1 Cor. 1.28).49
Given our earlier consideration of 2 Corinthians
3, it is worth noting in particular its occurrence at 2 Cor. 10.10
42. There are variant forms of the verb: , and.
43. Especiallyin the Psalms: 52 (53).5; 58 (59).8; 59 (60).12; 77 (78).59; 107
(108).13; 118 (119X118. Cf. also T. Levi7.1; Pss. Sol. 2.32.44. Cf. 1 Sam. 8.7; 10.19; 2 Chron. 36.16; Ezra 21.10 (cf. 1 Cor. 4.21); Wis.
3.11, 4.18.
45. ET Kee in Charlesworth 1983: 794. Thus, likewise within a Maccabaeancontext, / is also found both in reference to the afflictedfaithful as 'those who are rejected and despised ( )'(2 Mace. 1.27), and to their oppressor, Antiochus IVEpiphanes, as 'contemptible()' (Dan. 11.21, Theodotion).
46. This is suggested by the remark which immediately follows the above
quotation: man who by the power ofthe Most High renews the Law you name"Deceiver", andfinallyyou shall plot to kill him, not discerning his eminence... *
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 107
where, in a context of conflict, it denotes the disdain directed at Paul
by certain detractors who characterize his "bodilypresence [as] weak
and his speech of no account ()'.We conclude that the available lexographical evidence stronglyindi
cates that the verbs and in Gal. 4.14 are to be
taken as synonymous and forceful expressions of disdain and rejec
tion. Furthermore, they may also suggest that Paul's arrival in Galatia
as a representative of the gospel of Jesus Christ was attended by
circumstances of conflict and persecution. Such an interpretation
corroborates our antecedent arguments concerning and
: Paul's own persecutionthe evidence of which was
visible on his bodylikewise constituted a 'test' for the Galatians as to
whether or not they, under the threat of comparable hardship, would
remain faithful to the gospel and its apostle.
1.4. 'Receivedasan Angel, asChristJesus'(Galatians4.14b)
This argument may be developed further by considering Paul's
description of how, in actual fact, the Galatians did initially respond tohim: ,
(4.14b). It is likely that the first comparison ( ) is an
intentional echo of 1.8, and refers not simply to a messenger of God,
but rather to a superhuman representative, an angel.50 While commen
tators have often noted the similarity in terminology to Paul's 'thorn
in the flesh' ( , 2 Cor. 12.7), and this may well be
potentially illuminating,51
Paul's self-description as 'an angelof God'
at Gal. 4.14b has remained particularly enigmatic. There are, however, two possible lines of interpretation which may be offered.
First, though often ignored, the LXX usage deserves close attention.
Here [] is used in reference to the angel of the
Lord52
who "appears almost always to help either Israel or an indi
vidual' and i s virtually a hypostatic appearance of Yahweh, the
personified help of God for Israel' (So Brown 1975: 101). The possi
ble implicationof significance for the argument of Galatians as a
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108 Journal for the Studyof the New Testament52 (1993)
wholeis that, notwithstanding his weakness due to persecution, the
Galatians ('Israel of God', Gal. 6.16) gladly recognized Paul's divine
commission and authority.We mayalso consider a second possibility which, given the disparate
and difficult nature of the evidence, must be offered more tentatively,
and which cannot be pursued in any detail here. In addition to the
LXX's interchangeable use of the terms and ("holy
ones') to denote angels,53
there is also some indication in the Jewish
literature of a developing interplay between the afflicted saints on
earth and their angelic counterparts in heaven. Thus, in the dramatic
vision of Daniel 7, God (the Ancient)together with his thousands of
ministering angels54
brings an end to the persecution of the faithful
among Israel at the hands of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and inaugurates
an everlasting dominion which is given to "the saints of the Most High'
(7.18, 22, 25, 28).55 Likewise, in the later Similitudes of Enoch
(c. first century CE),56
the prayers and the blood of the persecuted
righteous ascend to heaven, where theyare joined by the supplications
of 'the holy ones who dwell in the heavens above'. These intercessionsdo not cease until God executes judgment for them (47.1-4; cf. 97.5;
99.3), at which time the saints above and below are incorporated
together.57
A similar vision of the eschatological vindication of the oppressed
faithful is discernible in the NT.58
Given our earlier claim of an
analogy between 1 Thess. 3.4-5 and Gal. 4.14, it is of particular
53. Cf. Job 5.1; 15.15.54. Dan. 7.10; cf. Deut. 33.2; Ps. 67.18 (68.17); Zech. 14.5.55. Whether the latter denote persecuted Jews or celestial beings is much debated
(see Goldingay 1989:176-78). We arc predisposed to followCollins (1977:127-52)and his contention that anyantithesis is false, and would suggest that in Daniel's
vision ofthe everlasting dominion, the glorified saints and the heavenlyangels aretransposed together (see further below). For the evidence ofa comparable interplayin the Qumran literature (e.g., 1QM 12), see especially Dequeker 1973.
56. The current consensus is that the Similitudesare to be dated from the firstcentury, and that 1 Enoch as a whole is a composite workreflectingthe events before
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS 111 orIll-Treated? 109
interest that Paul's remarks to the Thessalonians have their immediate
conclusion in his prayer that, in spite of their testing, they remain
steadfast and "unblamable in holiness before our God and Father, atthe coming of our Lord Jesus '
(1 Thess. 3.13; cf. Zech. 14.5). Likewise in 2 Thess. 1.3-10 the Thessa
lonians are encouraged to be faithful amidst persecution, assured that
theywill be vindicated when 'the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven
with his mighty angels ()' on the day 'when he comes...to be
glorified with all his saints ( )' (cf. Rom. 8.17). We thus
have the same interplay between the saints below and the angels/saints
above, who are both transfigured together at the eschaton.Indeed, there is some indication that the persecuted Christian saints
belownot least because they might soon be translated to be with the
saints above via martyrdomare in some sense already regarded as
'angels'. Thus Stephen, 'his face...like that of an angel' (Acts 6.15)
testifies to the long history of God's faithfulness to his people before
he is killed even as he gazes into heaven to see the coming vindication
ofGod (Acts 7.55-56). This identification of the martyrs and angels is
also found in later Christian literature.59
It is thus just possible that
Paul's use of in Gal. 4.14b ought to be plotted on this trajec
tory of (admittedly) disparate evidence. If so, then it would suggest
that, confronted with his , the Galatians received Paul 'as
an angel' because his faithfulness in the midst of conflict and persecu
tion had him on the verge of martyrdom and eschatological
vindication.60
Such an interpretation also allows a natural correlation with theclimactic second comparison: the Galatians received Paul
. Elsewhere Paul often speaks of his imitation of Christ,
59. So, in Mart. Pol. 2.3, in reference to 'the noble martyrs of Christ' on the
verge of death, who 'looked up to the good things which are preserved for those
who have endured...shown by the Lord to them who were no longer men but
already angels*. Cf. Herrn. Vis. 2.2.7 and Herrn. Sim. 9.25.2. See also Cyprian,Ep. 31.3 (c. 250CE), regarding those who 'have forsaken men...to stand among
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110 Journal for the Study of the New Testament52 (1993)
frequently with reference to his sufferings.61
Of particular signifi
cance are such references in Galatians: in his person, he has been
'crucified with Christ' who now lives in him (2.19, 20; cf. 6.14).
62
Indeed, "throughout this letter [Christ is] above all the crucified
Christ' (Cosgrove 1988: 186), and it is thus highly likely that Paul is
reminding the Galatians that it was because of his suffering that it was
'as Christ Jesus' that they first accepted him.63
1.5. 'Where is your Blessedness?'(Galatians4.15-16)
To Paul's dismay, his current reception is different. He momentarily
alludes to the Galatians' present disposition with an ironical andrhetorical question: ; (4.15a). While
commentators have laboured long in trying to decide whether
is a subjective, objective or possessive genitive,64
little or no attention has been devoted to determining the precise
nature of itself. However, as Baasland has observed in
his little noticed article:
It seems natural to assume that Paul here follows the tradition of happiness in suffering which wefindin primitive Christianity(James 1.2,12; 1
Pet 1.6,4.13; Rom. 5ff.). In Matthew5.11, for example, the Beatitudesapply exactly to those who are persecuted (NB ), insulted andslandered... (Baasland 1984: 146).
65
Viewed within this context, Paul's question makes perfect sense.
Confronted with the Galatians' actual or impending Judaizing under
the influence of the Agitators, he is compelled to ask what has become
of their former capacity to experience blessing even in the midst of
61. E.g. 2 Cor. 2.14-17; 5.18-20; 13.3-4; Phil. 3.10-11; cf. Col. 1.23-25.
62. Note also Gal. 3.1: Paul 'portrayed Christ crucified' to the Galatians. Thevivid and visual (rather than aural) language might possiblysuggest that Paul himselftangibly represented the crucified Christ before the Galatiansnot least in the marksof persecution upon his body(cf. 6.17).
63. There may even be more to the Galatians' enthusiastic reception of (and
devotion to, cf. 4.15) Paul 'as an angel, as Christ Jesus' than has been venturedhere. On the important role ofJewish angelologyfor Christologynot least within
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS /// orIll-Treated? 111
conflict and persecution. The question is all the more pressing if, as a
comparative analysis of Paul's only other use of (in
Rom. 4.6, 9) might suggest, the apostle believes that the Galatians'failure to be numbered among the suffering righteous calls into ques
tion their covenantal status as the true children ofAbraham.
This understanding of may also provide die key to an
intelligible interpretation of the interrelated (N.B. die ) but much
debated remark, Tor I bear you witness that, if possible, you would
have plucked out your eyes and given them to me (
)' (4.15b). Commentators agree that the opening disclosureformula ( ) serves to emphasize the Galatians'
former resolute commitment to Paul, but disagree as to what the
obscure reference to 'plucking out [their] eyes' tells us about the exact
nature of that commitment. There are three main proposals on offer:
1. It is a measure of the Galatians' concern about Paul's eye
infirmity.66
2. The eye being the most precious part of the body, it is ametaphorical expression of the Galatians' devotion to Paul
and his ministry.67
3. It is an allusion to a common literary topos which espouses
that true friendship requires a readiness to make the highest
sacrifice.68
None of the above propositions is at variance with the argument we
have developed thus far: it is at least conceivable that Paul sustained aneye injury in the course of ill-treatment, or that he is employing a
metaphor or literary topos to indicate the extent of the Galatians'
commitment to himself in the midst of his suffering. However, we
now offer two further proposals, the second of which in particular
merits serious consideration in that it appears to explain with greater
66. So O'Neill 1972: 61. Mussner 1974: 309 suggests that unless some suchreading is adopted, and remain problematic. Cf. also Paul's
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112 Journal for the Studyofthe NewTestament52 (1993)
precision the full force of the expression in question.
4. There are certain references in the OT to Israel's enemies as
'barbs' or 'thorns' in her eyes; that is, as a source of her affliction.69
Num. 33.55 is especially noteworthy:
But ifyou do not drive out the inhabitants ofthe land from before you,then those ofthem whom you let remain shall be as pricks in your eyesand thorns in your sides, and theyshall trouble you in the land where youdwell.
In addition to the reference to eyes, one also thinks of Paul's charac
terization of his Galatian opponents as 'those who trouble' (Gal. 1.7;
5.10, 12); the thinly-veiled injunction to 'cast out' those who persecute
(Gal. 4.30); and his 'thorn in the flesh' (2 Cor. 12.7).70
It might be
suggested, then, that the 'barb/thorn' metaphor provides another
possible interpretation of this difficult verse: Paul is expressing the
Galatians' former preparedness to emulate Israel in their endurance of
suffering and persecution. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the
metaphor remains somewhat imprecise: a 'barb/ thorn' in the eye is
not quite the same thing as plucking out one's eyes! Thus, we offeranother proposal.
5. Paul's exact terminologythat is, the verb and the
noun is to be found in a number of Jewish and Graeco-
Roman texts to describe the 'plucking/gouging out of eyes' that was
one of the many cruel tortures which might be imposed upon a help
less victim by his oppressor.71
So, for example, we note that Paul's
namesake, King Saul, overcomes the 'disdain'72
of certain detractors
and earns the devotion of Israel by defeating the cruel Nahash theAmmonite, who agreed to enter into a treaty/covenant with besieged
Jabesh-gilead only 'On the condition...that [he] gouged out all [their]
right eyes ( )'
69. Num. 33.55; Josh. 23.13.
70. Further to . 6, Mullins (1957) has convincingly demonstrated that Paul's'thorn in the flesh' draws upon Num. 33.55 and other OT references, and refers not
ill b ti b t i d i Lik i B 1980 226 27
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIor Ill-Treated? 113
(1 Sam. 11.2).73
It may be suggested, then, that this practice provides
the most precise and forceful background for the metaphor at Gal.4.15.
74It is a measure of the Galatians' former in the
midst of suffering, their voluntary identification with and commitmentto the persecuted apostle.
75
The fact that hostility is also clearly a current problem is evidentfrom Paul's polemical juxtapositioning of the Galatians' past andpresent conduct.
76Hence his indignant exclamation in 4.16: 'So I have
become your enemy by telling you the truth! ( )'.
77Here, the term does not merely
denote "the alienated friend'78
but, consonant with biblical usage,refers to active hostility towards God and his people. The force of theword for Paul is evident in his discussions concerning humanityoutside Christ.
79Clearly he is angry at the complete reversal in the
Galatians' position vis--vis both himself and the truth of his gospel of
Christ crucified.80 It is they, not Paul, who have become enemies of
the truth, a situation that can only be rectified if they once again
become like him: faithful as Christ in the face of persecution and
suffering (4.12a).
Since Paul's climactic exclamation in 4.16 provides something of
a break in the passage, our reconstruction thus far may now be
73. Josephus replicates this terminology in his account ofthis episode (Ant.6.71).
74. Cf. also 4 Mace. 5.29-30, wherein the martyr Eleazar defies his tormentorAntiochus IV Epiphanes with the words: 'nor will I transgress the sacred oath of myancestors concerning the keeping ofthe Law, not even ifyou gouge out my eyes(' ...)*.
75. Later Christian literature attests to the 'gouging out ofeyes* as one ofthetortures endured byChristian martyrs.
76. On the past/present motif in Galatians, correlated with the paradigmaticfunction ofPauline autobiographyin the letter, see Lyons 1985:146-52.
77. Following Longenecker (1990: 193) and his linguisticallypreferredifminorityposition that 4.16 is not a rhetorical question but rather 'an indignant
exclamation that draws an inference from what is stated inw. 14-15*.78. SoBetz 1979: 229.79 R 5 10 11 28 Phil 3 18 f C l 1 21 S l th f th t t
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114 Journal for the Studyof the NewTestament52 (1993)
summarized. Paul appeals to his Galatian brethren, on the basis of
their common experience of conflict and opposition, to become as he
by remaining faithful to the gospel of Christ (4.12a). Towards this
end, he recalls his original proclamation of that gospel to them.
Although he bore upon himself the marks of persecution, and his
gospel was clearly not without adversity, the Galatians did not wrong
or despise him because of this trial, but rather received him as God's
righteous representative (4.12b-14). At that time they also
experienced the blessing that accompanies suffering, since, says Paul,
they were so committed to both him and his message that they would
even have plucked out their eyes and given them to him (4.IS). Giventheir former faithfulness under such affliction, Paul is all the more
astonished that they should now regard him as their enemy because he
insists on reasserting the truth of the gospel which they had once so
readily accepted from him (4.16).
1.6. 'In Travail until Christ be Formed in you' (Galatians4.17-20)
Given the above, Paul's polemical remarks in 4.17 no longer appear
as the sudden and harsh interruption they are often taken to be.81
Throughout the appeal both Paul and the recipients of his letter have
been broadlyconsidering the antagonism engendered by the apostle's
ministry, and will have had in near view the Agitators who are
currently leading the Galatian community awayfrom him: 'They are
zealous () towards you, but for no good purpose; rather
they want to exclude you so that you may be zealous ()
towards them'. Various attempts have been made to soften the usual
strong sense of in this verse.82
However, elsewhere it is clear
that Paul can and does use - terminology in describing a passionate
commitment to a cause which may even take the form of violent
actionhis own former life as a zealous Pharisee being a case in
point.83
In this instance Paul is concerned that the zeal is resulting in
the exclusion84
of the Galatians from Paul (4.16), Christ (5.4) and/or
81. So Betz 1979:229; Longenecker 1990:194.82. So, for example, Betz 1979:210 and Bruce 1982: 211. For the force ofthe
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 115
God (1.6), and in a concomitant misplaced zeal on behalf of the
Agitators and their Torah-based 'gospel' (1.6-9).
This rebuke and warning is followed by another enigmatic statement which recommends an alternative zeal:
(4.18a). Paul can speak positively of zeal in various
contexts, notably in 2 Corinthians 10-13 concerning his divine zeal
for his Corinthian community now being lead astray by false
teachers/apostles preaching 'another Jesus...a different gospel' (2 Cor.
11.2-4). It is this kind of zeal that is now needed to combat the debili
tating influence of the Agitators in Galatia. Unfortunately, once pre
sent during Paul's initial ministry among the Galatiansperhapsthereby implying that a context of conflict required itsuch zeal is no
longer in great supply (4.18b).85
That being the case, Paul is now "again in travail until Christ be
formed in [them]' (4.19)a metaphorical reference to die demanding
contexts of both his original (N.B. 'again') and current ministry
among them.86
Fundamentally, the 'formation' that Paul has in view
cannot be achieved simply by restoring unity within the now fracturedbody of Christ in Galatia,87
nor even by a revitalized personal
relationship between each Galatian believer and Christ88
Rather, since
'Christ in us/you' is commonly linked by Paul to Christ's suffering
and death,89
the closest parallel to 4.19 is found in Paul's earlier
remarks in 2.19-20: Christ lives in Paul because he has died to the
Law and has been crucified with Christ. Thus Paul's concern is that
the Galatians (once again) become like him (4.12) precisely in this
respect: being faithful to Christ in their lives even if this entails co-crucifixion. Unfortunately, given the situation as it currently stands,
85. If, as is likely, Gal. 1.8-9 bears upon Paul's original ministry in Galatia, its
strong condemnatory language attests both to the conflict then current and to the
depth of Paul's concern that the Galatians have moved away from their initial
commitment to his gospel towards the 'non-gospel' of the Agitators.
86. Note that the eschatological horizon of this birth imagery provides furtherevidence that Paul (and the Galatians) are caught up in the suffering and turmoil that
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116 Journal for the Studyof the NewTestament52 (1993)
he can only conclude this appeal by expressing his pain and perplexity
from afar (4.20).
1.7. Conclusion
By way of summarizing our exegesis of4.12-20, we may now itemize
the arguments which clearly negate the traditional illness' interpreta
tion and support the alternative reconstruction offered above.
1. Apart from vv. 13-14, there is absolutely no circumstantial
evidence to suggest that Paul was ill. That the illness interpretation of
these difficult verses has generated so many different hypotheses con
cerning its precise natureor constrained agnosticism on the matterin itselfraises doubts about its veracity.
2. The opening appeal of4.12 must be connected in some intelligi
ble way to what follows. While any such intelligibility is impossible
on the illness interpretation of4.13-14, it is readily achieved by means
of our alternative reading: Paul is calling upon the Galatians to resist
the present demands of the Agitators and to return to the pattern of
faithfulness in suffering which he exemplified at the time of his
original ministry amongst them.
3. The peculiar and forceful terminology which Paul uses to des
cribe his 'weakness', the Galatians' potential response (,
and ), and their actual reception of him (
.,. ), is much more credible in
relation to a context of opposition and conflict than to some indeter
minate ailment.
4. That Paul's appeal throughout 4.12-20 constantly alternatesbetween past and present, indicates that he believes the Galatians'
current regrettable behaviour is unjustifiable (and, indeed, incompre
hensible) in the light of their former commendable response to him.
This notable feature makes little or no sense if he is merely recalling
their kind treatment of a sick man. However, it is much more
comprehensible if Paul's original visit was attended by hostility to his
Law-free gospel, but the Galatians accepted him in spite of this.
5. The exegesis and reconstruction provided here allows a coherentand convincing interpretation of a text which has usually been deemed
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 117
theological significance for the interpretation of Galatians and the
reconstruction ofPaul's missionary activities.
2. Galatians4.12-20in WiderContext
We now intend to corroborate and strengthen this new interpretation
of Gal. 4.12-20 by, in turn, briefly locating it within a series of wider
contexts: (2.1) the argument of Galatians 4; (2.2) additional evidence
of persecution in Galatians as a whole; and (2.3) further indications of
hardships endured elsewhere by Paul in the course of his missionary
activities.
2.1. RereadingofGalatians4
One of the strengths of the interpretation of Gal. 4.12-20 presented
here is that it enables this passage to make sense in the context of the
argument of ch. 4 as a whole and, indeed, sheds fresh light on the
central thrust of that argument. The chapter opens (4.1-7) with Paul's
expansion and application of his argument concerning the relation ofGod's new action in Christ to his action in Israel through Law and
promisean argument which climaxes with the conclusion that "There
is neither Jew nor Greek...for you are all one in Christ Jesus' (3.6-
29). Paul has taken the radical step of placing Jews apart from Christ
on the same footing as pagans: effectively as slaves (4.1) under the
(4.3). He then claims that God's way of dealing with this
situation is through Christ and the Spirit (cf. 3.1-5), offering redemp
tion to the Jewsthose (4.5a; cf. 3.13)and therebyallowing the Gentiles to join them in receiving adoption as children of
Abraham (4.5b).90
The Galatian believers, Jew and Gentile alike, are
thus able to cry out in the Spirit to God their Fathera cry that attests
to the suffering, inheritance and glorious vindication which they now
share with Christ (cf. Rom. 8.14-18).
Paul then reminds the Galatiansas former pagans (4.8-9)of
their past life of slavery, and calls for a life consonant with their new
status of freedom in the covenant community (cf. 4.12). In practice,
this will mean a refusal to be caught up in the ethnic Jewish obser
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118 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 52 (1993)
part, based upon Paul's concern that the Galatians are rejecting his
efforts, his way of life in the gospel (4.11; cf. 4.19).
Having placed these stark alternatives before the Galatians, Paulthen (in 4.12-20) appeals to them to emulate himself by standing firm
in their new covenant status, refusing to fall back under pressure into
the old ways of Judaism or paganism, both subsets of the larger cate
gory of slavery. He encourages them towards this end by recalling his
own example of faithfulness under persecution and their own initial
enthusiasm for his message despite the ever present threat of a hostile
reaction (4.12-15). He then uses the strong language of animosity and
zeal to portray the present situation as one of bitter conflict betweentwo mutually exclusive and antagonistic groups (4.16-19). In conclu
sion, he reiterates his fear that his work among them might have been
in vain (4.20).
While some ofthe Galatian Christians might well have been tempted
to return to their former paganism, the main form of slavery
currently on offer is that of Law observance. Paul therefore addresses
those who wish to be under the Law by using the Sarah/Hagarallegory to critique the Law itself. He once again argues that there are
two ways on offer, both rooted in Abraham, but leading to quite
different ends. These are characterized as either the covenant of
slavery, corresponding to the present Jerusalem (4.23a, 24-25), or the
covenant of freedom and promise (4.23b, 26-27). Paul locates the
Galatians within the latter group (4.28), but again stresses that these
two groups are in conflict (4.29; cf. 4.12-20) and that there is no
middle way. The Galatians are children of the free woman and theymust stand firm, expelling those who are children of the slave woman
(4.30-5.1).
Thus Galatians 4 as a whole shows Paul setting a sharp and painful
choice before the Galatians. He allows them no via media. Through
both Scripture and the recollection of their shared experience he
reminds them that, while the choice of Christ and freedom will result
in conflict and persecution (4.12-20, 29), the only alternativeinwhatever guise, slaverymust be rejected
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 119
Christians. However, apart from Ernst Baasland's discussion of the
matter (1984), die significance of persecution in the letter as a whole
has gone unnoticed.91
By way of corroborating our reading of 4.12-20 this additional evidence may now be brieflyreviewed.
Having initially warned the Galatians away from those now
'troubling' them with their Torah demands (1.6-9), Paul then admits
to his own former life 'in Judaism' as a persecutor of the church
(1.13, 23). Subsequently, with the conflict between Christ and the
Spirit versus the 'works of the Law' clearly in view, he refers to the
longsuffering of the Galatian believers: 'Having begun in the Spirit,
are you now completing with the flesh? Have you suffered ()so many things () in vain?'
92The obvious implication is that
the Galatians had known suffering for some time prior to the present
conflict Later, as already noted, in the course of his Sarah/Hagar
allegory, Paul draws an analogy93
between the persecution by Ishmael
(= 'the flesh') ofIsaac (= 'the Spirit'), and the current situation 'as it is
now' in Galatia (4.29). Whatever his precise justification, Paul
evidently views the conflict in Galatia as standing within the longhistory of the persecution of God's faithful people by those (whether
from within or without) who have rejected God's purposes.
The letter also contains a number of references to Paul's own
experiences of persecution, these understood as an almost inevitable
corollary to his life and ministry. Thus, in the course of trying to
safeguard his gospel against the incursion of the Agitators, he appeals
to the Galatians: 'But if, brethren, I am still preaching circumcision,
why am I still being persecuted?' (5. II). 9 4 It is likely that theGalatians were all too aware that persecution was a regular byproduct
of Paul's circumcision-free mission. This correlation between Paul's
91. Jewett 1971 treats persecution as the context within which the campaign ofthe Agitators is to be understood, but he says little about the Galatians' own experience ofpersecution or the importance ofthe theme in the letter as a whole.
92. Contrast Longenecker 1990:104, who, against the evidence in the LXX andthe NT, and the majority of commentators, prefers to take as a reference to
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120 Journal for the Study ofthe New Testament 52 (1993)
proclamation of the gospel, theological conflict, and suffering, is again
found (in an inverted form) in his claim that those wishing the
Galatians circumcised, do so 'only in order that they may not bepersecuted for the cross of Christ' (6.12). Finally, as noted earlier,
Paul's concluding appeal'Henceforth let no man trouble me; for I
bear on my body the marks of Jesus' (6.17)probably refers to
physical disfigurement due to persecution, a condition of which the
Galatians were apparently well aware.95
It may thus be concluded that the reading of 4.12-20 offered above,
rather than postulating a unique (and thus dubious) scenario, is
actually supported by the tenor of the letter as a whole. From itsinception in Galatia, Paul's gospel of the crucified Christ had
inevitably engendered hostility and persecutionboth for Paul and his
Galatian converts. Once faithful in spite of such conflict and suffering,
some of the brethren are now succumbing to the influence of certain
Agitators. Hence, it is Paul's burden to call them back to the truth of
the gospel.
2.3. Persecution and Paul's Missionary Activity: the Additional
Evidence
Finally, and even more briefly, the broader NT witness to Paul's
missionary experiences further confirms the hypothesis advanced
here. The record of Acts is unlikely to have totally fabricated the
numerous accounts of Paul's physical suffering and persecution.96 Of
particular interest in relation to our reconstruction of Gal. 4.12-20 is
the account of Paul's experience in Lystra (Acts 14.8-20) where,according to Luke, he was stoned and left for dead by Jews from
Iconium and Psidian Antioch.97 As some commentators have
observed, if the south Galatian hypothesis is followed then it could be
this particular instance of persecution which lies behind the 'bodily
weakness' that resulted in Paul's original preaching to the Galatians.98
95. So Pobee 1985: 95.96. On the vexed matter ofActs and historiography, compare the representative
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIor Ill-Treated? 121
However, if the north Galatian hypothesis is adopted, there is no
difficulty in postulating that Paul experienced similar hardships in that
part of Galatia.Within Paul's own writings there is also ample evidence of persecu
tion, with the locus classicus being 2 Cor. 11.23-33:
. . . far more imprisonments, with countless beatings, and often near
death. Five times I have received at the hands ofthe Jews the forty lashes
less one. Three times I have been beaten with rods; once I was stoned...
on frequent journeys... in danger from robbers, danger from my own
people, danger from the Gentiles, danger in the city, danger in the
wilderness, danger at sea, danger from false brethren... (11.23b-26).
Significantly, in referring to the suffering which he and the Thessalo-
nians had undergone, Paul also makes the same explicit correlation
between faithfulness and persecution which we have noted in Galatians
(cf. 1 Thess. 1.6; 2.2, 14-15; 3.3-5). Thus, in sharp contrast to the
non-existent evidence for the claim that Paul preached to the Galatians
because of some illness, there is a considerable body of Pauline mate
rial which undergirds our claim that the circumstances actuallyinvolved bodily weakness due to persecution.
3. Conclusion
It has been argued that the language of Gal. 4.12-20 is most compre
hensible when these verses are taken as referring to an original
context of conflict and persecution rather than as an allusion to illness.
This reconstruction also enables the passage to be read as a coherent
whole which is fully integrated into the wider argument of the epistle
(2.1), and the possibility of such an original context is plausible given
both the evidence of Galatians (2.2) and the wider NT witness to
Paul's missionary experiences (2.3).
This argument, and the evidence presented in its defence, suggests
several important possible lines of further enquiry with respect to
both Galatians and Paul's ministry and theology more generally.These can only be noted here in the form of a cursory defence of our
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122 Journal for the Studyof the New Testament52 (1993)
Galatia. In offering evidence of a history of opposition, persecution
and suffering, this passage provides an important background against
which to reassess Paul's handling of the current situation of conflictand division.
2. Much of the evidence which supports our understanding of Gal.
4.12-20 (e.g. angels and martyrs, , travail) indicates that
Paul interprets his experience of suffering as a faithful disciple of
Christ within a decidedly eschatological framework.
3. Finally, this passage provides further evidence of the almost
normative correlation between faithfulness to the crucified Christ and
experience of persecution and suffering. Drawing on the terminologyand theology of the suffering righteous in Israel which climaxes in
that of the faithful Christ, Paul applies it to his own experience and to
that of the Galatians."
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Barr, M.L.
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'Persecution: A Neglected Feature in the Letter to the Galatians', Studia
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'Paul as "Eschatologie Person"', CBQ 37: 508-19.
'Qumran and the "Weakness" ofPaul', CBQ 42: 216-27.
'Der Briefan die Galater', in J. Becker, H. Conzelmann and G. Friedrich
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Galatians: A Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Churches in Galatia
(Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press).
'Die angebliche Krankheit des Paulus', TL 32: 1-13.
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Literature (American University Studies Series, 7.3; New York: Peter
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS III or Ill-Treated? 123
Brown, C.
1975-1978 The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (3 vols.;
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1982 The Epistle to the Galatians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmanns).
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1921 A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians
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1983, 1985 The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; Garden City, NJ:Doubleday).
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1977 The Apocalyptic Vision of the Book of Daniel (HSM, 16; Missoula,MT: Scholars Press).
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1929 Didascalia Apostolorum (Oxford: Clarendon Press).
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1913 'The Stoning of Saint Paul at Lystra and the Epistle to the Galatians',
77M? Expositor 6.34: 375-84.Dequeker, L.
1973 'The "Saints of the Most High" in Qumran and Daniel', OTS 18: 133-
62.Donaldson, T.L.
1986 'The "Curse of the Law" and Inclusion of the Gentiles: Galatians
3.13-14*, NTS 32: 94-112.
Fitzgerald, J.T.
1988 Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of the Catalogues of
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1985 77M? Name of God and the Angel ofthe Lord: The Origins ofthe Idea of
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1988 77M?Epistle to the Galatians (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmanns).
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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIor Ill-Treated? 125
Mussner, F.
1988 Der Galaterbrief (HTKNT, 9; Freiburg: Herder, 5th edn).
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1957 Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater (THKNT; Berlin: EvangelischeVerlagsanstalt).
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1972 77M? Recovery of Paul's Letter to the Galatians (London: SPCK).
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1968 Joseph et Asneth: Introduction, texte critique, traduction et notes
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Pbee, J.S.
1985 Persecution and Martyrdom in the Theology of Paul (JSNTSup, 6;
Sheffield: JSOT Press).Ramsay, W.M.
1899 A Historical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians
(London: Hodder & Stoughton).
Ridderbos, H.N.
1953 77M? Epistle of Paulto the Churches of Galatia (NICNT; Grand Rapids:
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1989 Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater (THKNT, 9; Berlin: Evangelische
Verlagsanstalt).Rowland, C.C.
1982 77M? Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early
Christianity (London: SPCK).
Schlier, H.
1949 Der Brief an die Galater (KEK, 7; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 10th edn).
1964 '', TDNT, : 448-49.
Schrge, W.
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ABSTRACT
Contrary to the scholarly consensus, Gal. 4.12-20 is not an erratic and illogical
appeal alluding to some unspecified illness suffered by Paul, but rather a thoroughlycoherent argument arising out ofthe apostle's recollection ofthe bodily trauma due to
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126 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 52 (1993)
terminology (, , , , ) and the sudden
shifts from the past to present adversityare explained; and new light is cast on Paul'sreception 'as an angel' (4.14) and the Galatian*s willingness *to pluckout their eyes'
(4.15). Furthermore, Gal. 4.12-20 may now be more easily integrated into theargument of the chapter as a whole, and can drawupon the corroborating evidence of
persecution both elsewhere in Galatians and in other accounts ofPaul's missionary
experience.
CharlesA. Kimball
JESUS' EXPOSITION
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN LUKE'S GOSPEL
This work presents an inductive, exegetical analysis of Jesus' exegetical methods andexpositions in Luke's Gospel in the light offirst-centuryJewish exegetical methods.Kimball focuses on the eight Lukan pericopes in which Jesus expounds explicit Old
Testament quotations.
This study concludes that in Luke's Gospel Jesus expounded Scripture as the basis forunderstanding his person and ministry, teaching his followers and inquirers, and debatinghis religious opponents. He employed many of the exegetical methods of ancientJudaism, yet he frequently offered interpretations of Scripture that were radically differentfrom other Jewish teachers. In turn, he influenced the early church's biblical expositionsin considerable measure.
The christobgical expositions by the Jesus of Luke's Gospel used pesher fulfilment motifsand midrashic techniques to show that the Old Testament found its typological and
prophetic fulfilment in Jesus; they are summarized in proem-like and similar commentarypatterns. The doctrinal expositions used midrashic techniques to explain Scripture for
proper doctrine and conduct; they are summarized in ye/ammedenu-ke patterns.Charles Kimball is Pastor of Calvary Baptist Church, Kingsvllle, Texas.
d 35.00/$50.00ISBN 1 85075 464 0
JSKT Supplement Series, 9 c. 330pp
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^ s
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