context of paul's original ministry - gal 4.12-20

7/31/2019 Context of Paul's Original Ministry - Gal 4.12-20

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[JSNT52(1993) 93-126]

ILLORILL-TREATED? CONFLICT AND PERSECUTION

AS THE CONTEXT OF PAUL'S ORIGINALMINISTRYIN GALATIA

(GALATIANS 4.12-20)

"A.J. Goddard and S.A. Cummins

St John's College, Oxford, OX1 3JP

Worcester College, Oxford, 2HB

Given the veritable growth industrythat is NewTestament scholarship

on Paul's letter to the Galatians, it is all the more remarkable that solittle attention has been paid to one of its most intriguing and prob

lematic texts, Gal. 4.12-20. This versight is largely attributable to the

widespread estimation of this passage as a rather opaque parenthetica

and personal appeal which is of uncertain relation to the letter's mor

weighty theological argumentation.1 This article intends to challeng

such a view by demonstrating that there is an inner coherence to Gal

4.12-20which proves to be a text of greater historical and theolo

gical significance than is normally allowedin that its determinativappeal is not, as is commonly thought, to some unspecified illness, bu

1. Thus Longenecker (1990: 188, citing Burton, Schlier and Mussner) can sa

'Commentators have often treated 4.12-20 as a passionate and emotional, though

also somewhat erratic and irrational, outburst, which largely defies analysis*. Whil

not to be discounted entirely, the attempt by Betz (1979: 220-37) to arrive at a mor

unified reading by viewing the section as 'a string oftopoi belonging to the theme o

"friendship" ( )' (p. 221) is weakened by various difficulties: e.g., disproportionate dependencyupon possible Graeco-Roman parallels at the expens

f ti t di bibli l t i l i bilit t t f th


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94 Journal for the Studyof the NewTestament52 (1993)

to a context of conflict and persecution which attended Paul's origin

mission among the Galatian Christians. This claim will (1) be esta

lished primarily through a detailed exegesis of the passage in questioand will then (2) be corroborated by locating the new reading with

the wider contexts of the argument of Galatians 4, and the addition

evidence for persecution in both Galatians and Paul's missiona

experiences elsewhere.

1. An Exegesis ofGalatians4.12-20

1.1. IntroductionInasmuch as there is a scholarly consensus on these verses it is th

Paul is endeavouring to dissuade the Galatians from their current pr

occupation with the Torah-based demands of the so-called 'Agitator

by appealing to their former devotion to him during the illness th

caused him first to preach his Christ-centred gospel to them.2

T

predominance of this 'illness' interpretation is evident from t

English translations of the important vv. 13-14a; thus, for examp

the Revised Standard Version: 'You know it was because of a bod

ailment that I preached the gospel to you at first; and though m

condition was a trial to you, you did not scorn or despise me. .

Such a rendering is replicated in modern English and Germ

language commentaries.4

2. Note however the alternative proposal ofGiittgemanns (1966: 170-94) wwhile never contesting the illness interpretation (nor suggesting an alternative per

cution hypothesis), argues that *the weakness of the flesh ('

)' in Gal. 4.13 constitutes not the reason {Grund) but the way (Modus)

Paul's proclamation: i.e., as a manifestation of the crucified Christ Cals Epipha

des ', p. 185). Initially the Galatians accepted both the apostle a

his gospel but now, under the influence of the opponents, they have rejected both

favour ofa heavenly Spirit-Christ. Giittgemanns's close association with Schmitha

now discredited thesis concerning the identity of the Galatian opponents as Jewi

Christian Gnostics has compromised his observations in several important respe(e.g., his exegesis of * in 4.13 and in 4.14, and his sugg


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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIor Ill-Treated? 95

There has, of course, been much disagreement over the exact nature

of the illness, with malaria, epilepsy, ophthalmia, rheumatism, and

severe neuralgia or hysteria comprising the major proposals onoffer.5 Many commentators now caution that the compressed nature of

Paul's remarks require agnosticism concerning the precise diagnosis.

Nevertheless, it remains widely accepted that Paul is referring to some

form of sickness, and various attempts have been made to corroborate

this by reference to his 'thorn in the flesh* (2 Cor. 12.7), likewise

interpreted as a thinly-veiled reference to illness.6 The alternative

proposed herebodily weakness due to the trauma of persecution

has been suggested in the past,7 but with little acceptance and noattempt to ground it in a thorough exegesis of the relevant verses.8

Bruce, Fung and Longenecker); 'Krankheit [des Fleisches]' (Lietzmann, Schlier),

'[kranken] Krper' (Becker), but more literally 'Schwache/Schwachheit des Fleisches'

(Oepke, Mussner, Lhrmann, Borse, Rohde)although the last group then

explicates the phrase as *ein[e] Krankheit/Erkrankung'.

5. Amongst the many discussions on this matter, see, e.g., Ramsay 1899: 94-

97; Gttgemanns 1966: 162-65,173-77; and Borse 1984: 153-56.

6. Contrast the various compelling arguments of Mullins 1957; Binder 1976: 7-

11; Barr 1980, et aL, to the effect that 2 Cor. 12.7 and context must be viewed as an

allusion to Paul's persecution by certain adversaries.

7. Significantly by a number of the Church Fathers (Chrysostom, Theodore of

Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, Augustine), Aquinas, and Luther. Cf. additional

references in Schlier 1949: 148 . 5. Among more recent commentators, see

Ridderbos 1953: 30, 166-67; Bligh 1966: 380; and Longenecker 1990: 191, whoequivocates. See also Menoud 1953: 165-67; and Lyons 1985: 149, 166. Perhaps

the most compelling, but extremelybrief, advocacyof this position is that of Harvey

1985: 88.

8. It is worth emphasizing at the outset that our proposalbodily weakness

due to the trauma of persecutionis so formulated in order to emphasize that Paul's

condition is a direct result of being ill-treated, and that the argument of 4.12-20 as a

whole can onlybe properlyunderstood in the light of this scenario. Thus, while the

evidence is such that the precise source, nature and physical consequences of this ill-

treatment upon Paul can never be known, it is likelythat it took the form of imme

diate and significant bodily harm (analogous to the nature and traumatic effect of


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96 Journal for the Studyof the New Testament52 (1993)

1.2. *Become as 1. . .'(Galatians4.12)

While G.W. Hansen and Richard Longenecker have perhaps over

emphasized the importance of Gal. 4.12,

9

nevertheless the fact that itcontains the first imperative of the letterreinforced by the vocative

and the verbal petition suggests that it is

programmatic for what follows and warrants careful scrutiny. It is,

however, fraught with difficulties ofboth translation and interpretation.

In the history of the exegesis of this verse, two main problems have

been identified. Most commentators posit that the first problem is the

need to clarify the initial request ( ) by supplying the

two unstated verbs which, they believe, are assumed by the justification which immediately follows ( ). Most then settle

for an amplified reading such as [or ]

.10

The second problem is to determine both the exact nature

of the shared experience being recollected in the second clause, and

what it is that has since transpired among the Galatians such that it

necessitates Paul's present appeal. Once these difficulties have been

addressed, commentators have then offered the following three (often

overlapping) interpretations.11

1. Paul is appealing to the Galatians as a father who cherishes and

longs for the reciprocal love of his children so that there might be

mutual friendship and confidence (Bruce 1982: 208). This reading

serves to highlight the strong relational element within Paul's appeal,

but there is no apparent textual justification for the shared experience

which it posits as the basis of that relation.

2. The vast majority of commentators maintain that Paul is urgingthe Galatians to free themselves from the Law. On this reading, the

first clause ( ) calls the Galatian^ to emulate Paul's own

current Law-free state. The second clause ( ) may be

taken either (a) as drawing an analogy between Paul's former life in

Judaism (cf. 1.13-14) and the Galatians' preoccupation with the Law,

or (b) more probably, as an allusion to the fact that when Paul first

preached the gospel to the Galatians, he abandoned any pretentious


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GODDARD AND CUMMINS IIIorIll-Treated? 97

claims to his Jewish status and lived as a Gentile among them (cf.

2.17; 1 Cor. 9.19-23).12

This interpretation has the advantage of recalling the context ofPaul's original preaching which is clearly a focus of the following

verses. Even more significant is that it relates the appeal of 4.12 to the

problem which Paul is addressing in the epistle as a whole: the

Judaizing of the Galatian Christians. However, it entails a convoluted

and inexplicable shift from that which Paul has in view in the first

clause (the Galatians as Judaizers or about to Judaize) to that in view

in the second clause (the Galatians as Gentiles).13

3. Paul is not simply calling the Galatians to adopt his Law-freeexistence but is also urging them 'to become like him in his loyalty to

the gospel of Christ. . . to protect and defendthe freedom gained by

faith in Christ'.14

As with reading 2, this interpretation has the merit of its applica

bility to the situation in Galatia, although now with a more direct

reference to the conflict involved. However, there is no consideration

as to what verbs are necessarily presupposed by this reading, and no

discussion as to how the current conflict might be related to the

circumstances that attended Paul's original ministry in Galatia.

We now intend to offer an alternative reading which develops the

strengthswhile avoiding the weaknessesof the foregoing interpre

tations, and which more fully integrates the appeal of 4.12a into the

argument of this part of the letter.

First it is necessary to address the near universal desire of commen

tators to supply verbs in 4.12a. This is a strange tendency, not onlybecause neither Paul nor later copyists appear to have thought them

necessary, but also because all of the proposals currently on offer face

insurmountable difficulties.

12. Stated most succinctly in Lightfoot 1890: 174, nuanced variations of thisinterpretation are arrived at in virtually all ofthe modern commentaries (with Betz

[1979: 222-23] taking the most circuitous route via Lucian's Toxarisi). Occasionallythis reading is tied to the suggestion that Paul is also urging the Galatians to imitatehis t li l ( f M 1974 305 306 Rohde 1989 183)


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As noted earlier, by far the predominant 'solution' proffered is to

establish a correspondence with the imperative in the first clause

( ) by adding either the perfect or second aorist middle

ofthe same verb in the second clause ( [or ]

). This interpretation postulates that, at some point in the

history of his relationship with the Galatians, Paul consciously took

upon himself their status or situation. The appeal of 4.12a thus

depends for its force upon either (a) the fact that the Galatians have

now moved away from that shared situation and that Paul is now

calling them to return to it: 'Become again as I am [and as you were]

because I became as you were', or (b) Paul is simply asking for areciprocal response but in a new and unrelated area: 'Become as I [in

new situation Y] because I became as you were [in former situation

XT-

Option (a) is impossible to sustain for it demands that, at some

stage, Paul positively embraced an element in the Galatians' situation

which he at that time lacked and which, although they have now

rejected it, Paul has come to value so highly that he wishes them to

return to it. It is impossible to provide a plausible scenario which

meets all ofthese requirements. Some scholars have posited a scenario

involving the Law (namely, option 2 as critiqued above) but this is

implausible because in 4.8-11 Paul has just characterized the former

state of the Galatian Christians not as a positive (or even a neutral)

state outside the Law, but as a negative existence in pagan enslave

ment. Thus it is not easy to see how or why Paul could so readily

claim [or ] .Option (b) is also very weak: the exact substance ofPaul's appeal is

far from self-evident, requiring hypotheses concerning two unstated

and differentcontexts. Even if two different contexts could be sup

plied, it is clear that the force of the appeal is severely undermined by

the lack of correspondence between the two clauses.

In the light ofthese difficulties, the main alternativesupplying the

present tense ()might appear more appealing: 'Become as I

because I am as you are'. However, the major obstacle with this solution is that the appeal is then exclusively focused upon the present,


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of the appeal is intelligible when the present tense is supplied.

Given that the attempt to supplyverbs where Paul has omitted them

only serves to complicate the exegesis, it may be that 4.12a is in someway coherent as it stands. We suggest that this is indeed the case if

Paul is understood to be referring, in his use of and , to the

whole historyboth past and presentof his relationship with the

Galatians and to their shared identity within that relationship. Thus,

Paul's appeal may be taken as a reiteration of his long-standing desire

that, as both he and they have beenand remainin the same situa

tion ( ), they must continue to take him as their

paradigm and imitate his response to that ongoing shared situation( ).

The second problem must now be addressed: the exact nature of the

shared experience being recollected, and what has since transpired

among the Galatians such that it necessitates Paul's present appeal.

Building upon option 3 above, we would argue that the shared experi

ence which is referred to in the second clause of the appeal must be

understood as conflict and persecution. That this is an integral part of

the history of Paul's dealings with the Galatians will be confirmed by

the exegesis which follows, where it is demonstrated that Paul's

remarks in 4.13-15 allude to a context of conflict and persecution

within which he first established a relationship with the Galatians.

That such conflict, suffering and persecution is also a current problem

for Paul is confirmed by 5.11, and that Paul believes the Galatians'

present difficulties stem from such hostility is a recurring theme

throughout the epistle (e.g. 1.7-8; 3.4; 4.17, 29-30; 5.1, 7-12, 15;6.12).

Therefore, Paul's appeal in 4.12a concerns the fact that, in the face

of the current opposition, the Galatians have ceased to follow his

paradigmatic example of faithfulness in sufferingitself based upon

that of Christ (2.19-20)and have instead accepted the demands of

the Agitators and begun to Judaize. Having originally embraced Paul's

gospel and pattern of life (e.g., 4.14, 15, 18) they have now

succumbed and fallen back into slavery (4.8-11) such that Paul

despairs of them ever again modelling themselves on him and so


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this verse is consonant with other such appeals in which Paul exhorts

his churches to imitate him in his faithful suffering (e.g. 1 Thess. 1.6;

Phil. 3.17; 1 Cor. 4.16).This interpretation of 4.12a above therefore recognizes the

relational element of the appeal (cf. 1) and, in addition to acknowl

edging that it is addressed to the Galatians because they have accepted

the Law rather than being faithful to the gospel of Christ (cf. 2 and 3

above), it postulates a context of suffering and persecution in both the

past and the present. This enables the verse to stand without the addi

tion of verbs, to follow coherently upon Paul's prior account of the

Galatians' present behaviour (4.8-11), and to introduce his recollection of the circumstances which attended his original preaching

(4.13-15).

This reading now allows a coherent rendering of the otherwise

obscure statement which immediately follows: .16

The forceful verb , infrequent in Paul's letters, means 'to act

unjustly, harm in relation to other men'.17

Evidently Paul believes

that, in his earlier dealings with them, the Galatians could havewronged himalways a distinct possibility inasmuch as others some

times did. If Paul's appeal is taken as a call to faithfulness in the face

of hostility, then it makes sense for Paul to follow it with the

affirmation that the Galatians did not wrong him, because, rather than

actively opposing and rejecting him, they actually accepted his gospel

(1.9).18

Confirmation that this is indeed the scenario in view will be

found in the exegesis of Gal. 4.13-15 which now follows in sections

1.3 and 1.4 below.

those who compel circumcision in order to avoid persecution with the remark 'Butfar be it from me to gloryexcept in the cross of our Lord Jesus Christ, by which the

world has been crucified to me, and I to the world (' )'. Cf. the reciprocal and polemical use of at

2 Cor. 11.21D-22.16. Most commentators see no link with Paul's initial appeal. Cf. the succinct


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GODDARD AND CUMMINS 111 orIll-Treated? 101

1.3. On Account of the Weakness of the Flesh' (Galatians4.13-14a)

Commentators have rightly noted that the limited and tacit nature of

the information supplied in Gal. 4.13-15 renders any reconstructionof the circumstances of Paul's initial ministry in Galatia problematic.

However, some reconstruction is required if any sense is to be made

of Gal. 4.12-20 as a whole, and (as will be seen) a viable hypothesis is

by no means impossible.

We begin with the key phrase * (4.13a).

This is the lynchpin of the traditional illness' reading. However, any

such interpretation of this phrase is immediately suspect because of the

problem ofjust how a reference to illness could be connected to theinitial appeal and statement concerning possible wrongdoing.

19An

alternate understanding of the term (and of our key phrase) seems

desirable, and for this we turn to its significant usage within Paul's

Corinthian correspondence.20

While it is important to be sensitive to the semantic range of

(and ) within the Pauline corpus, it may be argued

that at the heart of Paul's understanding of and its cognatesis the crucified Christ in whose flesh weakness is revealed (1 Cor.

1.18-2.5; 2 Cor. 13.4). Paul, however, insists that Christ's weakness is

replicated in the humiliation and suffering endured by his faithful

disciples, not least himself. The clearest extended expression of this is

to be found in 2 Corinthians 10-1321

whereto quote from David

Alan Black's study ofPaul can claim that 'My weakness is

Christ's weakness, the only legitimate representation of the crucified

Messiah and his gospel, the assurance that God is now manifesting hisSon in and through my life...' (Black 1984: 132).

22It is also evident

19. Betz (1979: 224) opens his remarks on 4.13-14 with the acknowledgmentthat they are 'atfirstpuzzling*.

20. The occurrence of the phrase at Rom.6.19 is cited by Binder (1976) in arguing that what is at issue in Gal. 4.13-16 is

Paul's existence apart from God. While no doubt Paul would readilyconcur that thegeneral phenomenon of humanity apart from God is a contributing factor to that in


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102 Journal for the Study ofthe New Testament52 (1993)

that a central element of this weakness for Paul is that it is exhibited in

the suffering endured as a result of his faithfulness to the gospel.

Thus, to take account of a particularly difficult but significantexample from 2 Corinthians 10-13, Paul concludes one of his so-

called 'trial lists' (2 Cor. 11.21b-29)23

that is, a catalogue of various

hardships that he has undergonewith the rhetorical questions:

, ; ,

; Commentators have long debated the precise meaning of

this text. However, Michael Barr has cogently argued that the verbs

and are to be taken as synonymous references

to 'stumbling';24 that, by comparison with Dan. 11.33-35(Theodotion),

25it becomes clear that Paul is viewing himself as

among the wise and faithful who stumble under the weight of their

persecution at the hands of the wicked;26

and that this stumbling is

understood to be a function of the great eschatological trial which is

experienced byand 'refines' (thus )all those who are

faithful to God. Barr goes on to argue that this understanding of

at 2 Cor. 11.29 is also evident in Paul's use of the noun in the verses that follow.

27

Given the above, it is prima facie possible that in his use of the

phrase ' at Gal. 4.13 Paul is reminding the

Galatians that it was on account of bodilyweakness due to some form

* weakness' language is employed (e.g., 1 Cor. 2.3; 4.10) and where it is not (e.g.,Phil. 3.10).

23. Cf. Rom. 8.35-39; 1 Cor. 4.9-13; 2 Cor. 4.7-12; 6.4-10; 12.10a; on whichsee Schrge 1974 and, more recently, Fitzgerald 1988.24. Barr 1975: 510, noting that in 55 per cent of instances in the LXX where

translates a Hebreworiginal, the underlying word is some form ofthe verb'XD, 'to stumble'.

25. 'And those among the people who are wise shall understand many things;and they shall stumble/fall () bythe sword andflame,bycaptivity,and bythe plunder ofdays. When they stumble/fall ( )theyshall receive a little help... and some ofthose who are wise shall stumble/fall

() to refine them ( ) and that they may bechosen and revealed, until the end-time; for it is yet for the time appointed.'ET from


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of persecution that he first28 preached the gospel to them.29 Further

more, following Barr's nuanced interpretation of 2 Cor. 11.29with

its evocation of the Maccabaean martyrsit is likewise possible thatboth Paul and the Galatians accepted this 'weakness of the flesh' as the

burden of the suffering righteous, and as exemplifying the efficacious

self-sacrifice of Christ himself.30 We shall seek to substantiate such an

interpretation in the detailed exegesis that follows.

We may pursue this matter by now undertaking a careful assessment

of the peculiarly forceful language of4.14a,

and 31

which Paul uses in reminding the Galatians that, at the

time of his initial contact, he brought with him (in his flesh)

something that amounted to a temptation/trial for them:

\ .3 2

First, we may note that the

noun is used elsewhere in Paul's undisputed letters onlyat

1 Cor. 10.13 where it refers to the dangers of idolatrywhether

28. Commentators are generally agreed that the adjective is to be

taken as 'first* orOriginally* rather than 'the former(oftwo)*, thus excluding the

possibility ofmore than one visit byPaul to the Galatians. See the discussions inBurton 1921: 239-41; Mussner 1974: 307; and contrast Lightfoot 1890:175.

29. Successive commentators rightly note that grammatically plus the

accusative can only refer to the ground/reason ofPaul*s initial preaching,

as opposed to the state/condition, which would require plus the genitive

. Indeed, Lightfoot (1890: 174) chastizes the Latin Church Fathers for

taking refuge in the ambiguous Latin preposition per (= 'through')as in 'per

infrmitatem', which a number ofthem took as a reference to persecution (cf. . 7above). However, it needs to be stressed that plus the accusative

taken causally as in 'because of/on account ofweakness*, does not exclude from

view anyattendant circumstances that may have contributed to that cause (such asthat argued forhere: bodily weakness due to persecution). Cf. Longenecker 1990:

190, who sensibly avoids any confusion bynoting that plus the accusative

'expresses the occasion ofthe preaching... not the means... or limiting condition*.

30. It is one ofthe characteristics ofthe messiah inPss. Sol. 17.37-42 that,

blessed by God's wisdom and righteousness, neither he nor his flock will'weaken/stumble' in the midst ofaffliction. Cf. also the collocation of,

and at Mk 14 38 = Mt 26 41


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pagan or Jewish (cf. Gal. 4.8-11)which threaten apostasyfrom the

one true God.33

The cognate verb is found more

frequently34

and carries equally serious implications. Of particularsignificance to our thesis concerning Gal. 4.12-20 is the situation in

view at 1 Thess. 3.4-5. There Paul is concerned that testing in the

form of opposition and persecution may have nullified his original

workamongst the Thessalonians:

For when we were with you, we told you beforehand that we were tosuffer affliction; just as it has come to pass, and as you know. For thisreason, when I could bear it no longer, I sent that I might know your

faith, for fear that somehowthe tempter had tempted [tested] you and thatour labour would be in vain ( ).

Given the theological significance of, and by analogywith

Paul's remarks in 1 Thess. 3.4-5 in particular, it may be suggested

that in Gal. 4.14 the apostle is likewise reminding the Galatians that

when he first ministered among them there was a distinct danger that

they would fall away from God because of the attendant threat ofopposition and persecution.

Secondly, the focal point of the Galatians' is Paul's own

flesh/body: .35

Although it is to anticipate our dis

cussion in section 2.2 below, it is important to note at this point

certain evidence in Galatians and elsewhere which strengthens our

claim that this temptation in Paul's flesh/body must be understood in

relation to persecution. Thus, for example, Paul concludes his letter

with the injunction 'Henceforth let no one cause me trouble, because I

bear the marks of Jesus in my body ( )' (6.17).

Although is here replaced with , there is an obvious

parallel with 4.14a, and Paul is indisputably referring to marks of

persecution about which the Galatians appear to have some knowl

edge. With the usual provisos concerning authorship, the other text of

note is Col. 1.24 where Paul claims to 'fill up the shortfall of the

sufferings of Christ '. Whatever else this difficult


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verse might mean, it employs the identical phrase \ in

reference to the apostle's suffering and affliction in the course of his

apostolic ministry.Thirdly, Paul resorts to two extremely forceful verbs to describe

how the Galatians might have rejected the in his own

flesh/body: and . The latter verb is not found in

the LXX, and is also a NT hapax legomenon. However, various com

mentators, predisposed to the traditional illness interpretation, and

influenced by Schlier's word study (1964: 448-49), have taken it to

mean that the Galatians did not 'spit out' at Paul in a gesture of

defence against his sickness and the related threat of demonic activity.

It is true that certain Graeco-Roman sources do attest to such an

understandingprincipally in their use of the Latin verb despuo,36

but also the Greekverb .37

However, it has to be said that Schlier

has overplayed his case, ignoring other instances where the pertinent

terms are employed either literally with no reference to illness ('spit

out...breath, water, wine, oil, venom', etc.)38

or metaphorically

("despise, detest, spurn', etc.)

39

The metaphorical use is especiallydominant in classical usage of the cognate verb .40 And,

significantly, the only extant instance of the latter in ancient Jewish

Greek literature is to be found in Jos. Asen. 2.1, where it is employed

in parallel with our second key term to convey disdain:

'And Aseneth was despising and scorning every man... '4 l

36. Cf. Plautus, Captivi 550; Asinaria 38; Varro,D* Re Rustica 1.2.28;Tibullus, Elegiae 1.2.56,98; and Pliny, Naturalis Historia 10.69; 24.172; 25.167;26.93; 27.131; 28.35-36.

37. Cf. Theophrastus, Characteres 16; Lucan, Apologia de Mercede Conductis6see also in his Menippius7.

38. On , cf. Homer, Odyssey 5.322; Aristophanes, Vespae 792;Theocritus, Idyllia 24.19; Meleager, inAnthologia Graeca 5.197; Plutarch, Moralia328C; Epictetus, Dissertiones3.12.17, Encheiridion 47; and Oppianus, Haliutica5.646. On despuo, see Petronius, Satyricon 135.6.

39. On despuo, cf. Catullus, Carmen 50.19; and Persius, Saturae 3.3,4.35. On, see Plutarch, Moralia 801 A.


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Conversely, while is rare in classical Greek literature,42

it is found frequently in die sense of 'despise, reject, count as nothing'

in the LXX and the OT pseudepigrapha. Often the context concerns diemutual rejection of God and the ungodly (whether Israel or her

enemies),43

sometimes in circumstances which involve disdain directed

at God's representatives.44

Thus T. Levi. 16.2 witnesses to the terrible

events that transpired within Israel at the time of the Maccabaean

crisis: 'You shall set aside the Law and nullify () the

words of die prophets by your wicked perversity. You persecute just

men: and you hate the pious; the word of the faithful you regard with

revulsion'. 4 5 It is possible that Testament of Levi 16 has beenreworked by a later Christian editor,

46and certainly this is the case in

another instance of used in manuscript ofT. Ben. 9.3

concerning a 'unique prophet': 'He will enter the first temple, and

there the Lord will be abused and despised (

), and will be raised up on wood.'47

Not surpris

ingly, then, in the NT is employed to indicate the con

tempt directed at Jesus (Mk 9.12; Lk. 23.11; Acts 4. II).

4 8

In Paul is found in reference to the *despised' followers ofJesus

(1 Cor. 1.28).49

Given our earlier consideration of 2 Corinthians

3, it is worth noting in particular its occurrence at 2 Cor. 10.10

42. There are variant forms of the verb: , and.

43. Especiallyin the Psalms: 52 (53).5; 58 (59).8; 59 (60).12; 77 (78).59; 107

(108).13; 118 (119X118. Cf. also T. Levi7.1; Pss. Sol. 2.32.44. Cf. 1 Sam. 8.7; 10.19; 2 Chron. 36.16; Ezra 21.10 (cf. 1 Cor. 4.21); Wis.

3.11, 4.18.

45. ET Kee in Charlesworth 1983: 794. Thus, likewise within a Maccabaeancontext, / is also found both in reference to the afflictedfaithful as 'those who are rejected and despised ( )'(2 Mace. 1.27), and to their oppressor, Antiochus IVEpiphanes, as 'contemptible()' (Dan. 11.21, Theodotion).

46. This is suggested by the remark which immediately follows the above

quotation: man who by the power ofthe Most High renews the Law you name"Deceiver", andfinallyyou shall plot to kill him, not discerning his eminence... *


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where, in a context of conflict, it denotes the disdain directed at Paul

by certain detractors who characterize his "bodilypresence [as] weak

and his speech of no account ()'.We conclude that the available lexographical evidence stronglyindi

cates that the verbs and in Gal. 4.14 are to be

taken as synonymous and forceful expressions of disdain and rejec

tion. Furthermore, they may also suggest that Paul's arrival in Galatia

as a representative of the gospel of Jesus Christ was attended by

circumstances of conflict and persecution. Such an interpretation

corroborates our antecedent arguments concerning and

: Paul's own persecutionthe evidence of which was

visible on his bodylikewise constituted a 'test' for the Galatians as to

whether or not they, under the threat of comparable hardship, would

remain faithful to the gospel and its apostle.

1.4. 'Receivedasan Angel, asChristJesus'(Galatians4.14b)

This argument may be developed further by considering Paul's

description of how, in actual fact, the Galatians did initially respond tohim: ,

(4.14b). It is likely that the first comparison ( ) is an

intentional echo of 1.8, and refers not simply to a messenger of God,

but rather to a superhuman representative, an angel.50 While commen

tators have often noted the similarity in terminology to Paul's 'thorn

in the flesh' ( , 2 Cor. 12.7), and this may well be

potentially illuminating,51

Paul's self-description as 'an angelof God'

at Gal. 4.14b has remained particularly enigmatic. There are, however, two possible lines of interpretation which may be offered.

First, though often ignored, the LXX usage deserves close attention.

Here [] is used in reference to the angel of the

Lord52

who "appears almost always to help either Israel or an indi

vidual' and i s virtually a hypostatic appearance of Yahweh, the

personified help of God for Israel' (So Brown 1975: 101). The possi

ble implicationof significance for the argument of Galatians as a


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wholeis that, notwithstanding his weakness due to persecution, the

Galatians ('Israel of God', Gal. 6.16) gladly recognized Paul's divine

commission and authority.We mayalso consider a second possibility which, given the disparate

and difficult nature of the evidence, must be offered more tentatively,

and which cannot be pursued in any detail here. In addition to the

LXX's interchangeable use of the terms and ("holy

ones') to denote angels,53

there is also some indication in the Jewish

literature of a developing interplay between the afflicted saints on

earth and their angelic counterparts in heaven. Thus, in the dramatic

vision of Daniel 7, God (the Ancient)together with his thousands of

ministering angels54

brings an end to the persecution of the faithful

among Israel at the hands of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, and inaugurates

an everlasting dominion which is given to "the saints of the Most High'

(7.18, 22, 25, 28).55 Likewise, in the later Similitudes of Enoch

(c. first century CE),56

the prayers and the blood of the persecuted

righteous ascend to heaven, where theyare joined by the supplications

of 'the holy ones who dwell in the heavens above'. These intercessionsdo not cease until God executes judgment for them (47.1-4; cf. 97.5;

99.3), at which time the saints above and below are incorporated

together.57

A similar vision of the eschatological vindication of the oppressed

faithful is discernible in the NT.58

Given our earlier claim of an

analogy between 1 Thess. 3.4-5 and Gal. 4.14, it is of particular

53. Cf. Job 5.1; 15.15.54. Dan. 7.10; cf. Deut. 33.2; Ps. 67.18 (68.17); Zech. 14.5.55. Whether the latter denote persecuted Jews or celestial beings is much debated

(see Goldingay 1989:176-78). We arc predisposed to followCollins (1977:127-52)and his contention that anyantithesis is false, and would suggest that in Daniel's

vision ofthe everlasting dominion, the glorified saints and the heavenlyangels aretransposed together (see further below). For the evidence ofa comparable interplayin the Qumran literature (e.g., 1QM 12), see especially Dequeker 1973.

56. The current consensus is that the Similitudesare to be dated from the firstcentury, and that 1 Enoch as a whole is a composite workreflectingthe events before


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GODDARD AND CUMMINS 111 orIll-Treated? 109

interest that Paul's remarks to the Thessalonians have their immediate

conclusion in his prayer that, in spite of their testing, they remain

steadfast and "unblamable in holiness before our God and Father, atthe coming of our Lord Jesus '

(1 Thess. 3.13; cf. Zech. 14.5). Likewise in 2 Thess. 1.3-10 the Thessa

lonians are encouraged to be faithful amidst persecution, assured that

theywill be vindicated when 'the Lord Jesus is revealed from heaven

with his mighty angels ()' on the day 'when he comes...to be

glorified with all his saints ( )' (cf. Rom. 8.17). We thus

have the same interplay between the saints below and the angels/saints

above, who are both transfigured together at the eschaton.Indeed, there is some indication that the persecuted Christian saints

belownot least because they might soon be translated to be with the

saints above via martyrdomare in some sense already regarded as

'angels'. Thus Stephen, 'his face...like that of an angel' (Acts 6.15)

testifies to the long history of God's faithfulness to his people before

he is killed even as he gazes into heaven to see the coming vindication

ofGod (Acts 7.55-56). This identification of the martyrs and angels is

also found in later Christian literature.59

It is thus just possible that

Paul's use of in Gal. 4.14b ought to be plotted on this trajec

tory of (admittedly) disparate evidence. If so, then it would suggest

that, confronted with his , the Galatians received Paul 'as

an angel' because his faithfulness in the midst of conflict and persecu

tion had him on the verge of martyrdom and eschatological

vindication.60

Such an interpretation also allows a natural correlation with theclimactic second comparison: the Galatians received Paul

. Elsewhere Paul often speaks of his imitation of Christ,

59. So, in Mart. Pol. 2.3, in reference to 'the noble martyrs of Christ' on the

verge of death, who 'looked up to the good things which are preserved for those

who have endured...shown by the Lord to them who were no longer men but

already angels*. Cf. Herrn. Vis. 2.2.7 and Herrn. Sim. 9.25.2. See also Cyprian,Ep. 31.3 (c. 250CE), regarding those who 'have forsaken men...to stand among


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110 Journal for the Study of the New Testament52 (1993)

frequently with reference to his sufferings.61

Of particular signifi

cance are such references in Galatians: in his person, he has been

'crucified with Christ' who now lives in him (2.19, 20; cf. 6.14).

62

Indeed, "throughout this letter [Christ is] above all the crucified

Christ' (Cosgrove 1988: 186), and it is thus highly likely that Paul is

reminding the Galatians that it was because of his suffering that it was

'as Christ Jesus' that they first accepted him.63

1.5. 'Where is your Blessedness?'(Galatians4.15-16)

To Paul's dismay, his current reception is different. He momentarily

alludes to the Galatians' present disposition with an ironical andrhetorical question: ; (4.15a). While

commentators have laboured long in trying to decide whether

is a subjective, objective or possessive genitive,64

little or no attention has been devoted to determining the precise

nature of itself. However, as Baasland has observed in

his little noticed article:

It seems natural to assume that Paul here follows the tradition of happiness in suffering which wefindin primitive Christianity(James 1.2,12; 1

Pet 1.6,4.13; Rom. 5ff.). In Matthew5.11, for example, the Beatitudesapply exactly to those who are persecuted (NB ), insulted andslandered... (Baasland 1984: 146).

65

Viewed within this context, Paul's question makes perfect sense.

Confronted with the Galatians' actual or impending Judaizing under

the influence of the Agitators, he is compelled to ask what has become

of their former capacity to experience blessing even in the midst of

61. E.g. 2 Cor. 2.14-17; 5.18-20; 13.3-4; Phil. 3.10-11; cf. Col. 1.23-25.

62. Note also Gal. 3.1: Paul 'portrayed Christ crucified' to the Galatians. Thevivid and visual (rather than aural) language might possiblysuggest that Paul himselftangibly represented the crucified Christ before the Galatiansnot least in the marksof persecution upon his body(cf. 6.17).

63. There may even be more to the Galatians' enthusiastic reception of (and

devotion to, cf. 4.15) Paul 'as an angel, as Christ Jesus' than has been venturedhere. On the important role ofJewish angelologyfor Christologynot least within


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GODDARD AND CUMMINS /// orIll-Treated? 111

conflict and persecution. The question is all the more pressing if, as a

comparative analysis of Paul's only other use of (in

Rom. 4.6, 9) might suggest, the apostle believes that the Galatians'failure to be numbered among the suffering righteous calls into ques

tion their covenantal status as the true children ofAbraham.

This understanding of may also provide die key to an

intelligible interpretation of the interrelated (N.B. die ) but much

debated remark, Tor I bear you witness that, if possible, you would

have plucked out your eyes and given them to me (

)' (4.15b). Commentators agree that the opening disclosureformula ( ) serves to emphasize the Galatians'

former resolute commitment to Paul, but disagree as to what the

obscure reference to 'plucking out [their] eyes' tells us about the exact

nature of that commitment. There are three main proposals on offer:

1. It is a measure of the Galatians' concern about Paul's eye

infirmity.66

2. The eye being the most precious part of the body, it is ametaphorical expression of the Galatians' devotion to Paul

and his ministry.67

3. It is an allusion to a common literary topos which espouses

that true friendship requires a readiness to make the highest

sacrifice.68

None of the above propositions is at variance with the argument we

have developed thus far: it is at least conceivable that Paul sustained aneye injury in the course of ill-treatment, or that he is employing a

metaphor or literary topos to indicate the extent of the Galatians'

commitment to himself in the midst of his suffering. However, we

now offer two further proposals, the second of which in particular

merits serious consideration in that it appears to explain with greater

66. So O'Neill 1972: 61. Mussner 1974: 309 suggests that unless some suchreading is adopted, and remain problematic. Cf. also Paul's


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112 Journal for the Studyofthe NewTestament52 (1993)

precision the full force of the expression in question.

4. There are certain references in the OT to Israel's enemies as

'barbs' or 'thorns' in her eyes; that is, as a source of her affliction.69

Num. 33.55 is especially noteworthy:

But ifyou do not drive out the inhabitants ofthe land from before you,then those ofthem whom you let remain shall be as pricks in your eyesand thorns in your sides, and theyshall trouble you in the land where youdwell.

In addition to the reference to eyes, one also thinks of Paul's charac

terization of his Galatian opponents as 'those who trouble' (Gal. 1.7;

5.10, 12); the thinly-veiled injunction to 'cast out' those who persecute

(Gal. 4.30); and his 'thorn in the flesh' (2 Cor. 12.7).70

It might be

suggested, then, that the 'barb/thorn' metaphor provides another

possible interpretation of this difficult verse: Paul is expressing the

Galatians' former preparedness to emulate Israel in their endurance of

suffering and persecution. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that the

metaphor remains somewhat imprecise: a 'barb/ thorn' in the eye is

not quite the same thing as plucking out one's eyes! Thus, we offeranother proposal.

5. Paul's exact terminologythat is, the verb and the

noun is to be found in a number of Jewish and Graeco-

Roman texts to describe the 'plucking/gouging out of eyes' that was

one of the many cruel tortures which might be imposed upon a help

less victim by his oppressor.71

So, for example, we note that Paul's

namesake, King Saul, overcomes the 'disdain'72

of certain detractors

and earns the devotion of Israel by defeating the cruel Nahash theAmmonite, who agreed to enter into a treaty/covenant with besieged

Jabesh-gilead only 'On the condition...that [he] gouged out all [their]

right eyes ( )'

69. Num. 33.55; Josh. 23.13.

70. Further to . 6, Mullins (1957) has convincingly demonstrated that Paul's'thorn in the flesh' draws upon Num. 33.55 and other OT references, and refers not

ill b ti b t i d i Lik i B 1980 226 27


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(1 Sam. 11.2).73

It may be suggested, then, that this practice provides

the most precise and forceful background for the metaphor at Gal.4.15.

74It is a measure of the Galatians' former in the

midst of suffering, their voluntary identification with and commitmentto the persecuted apostle.

75

The fact that hostility is also clearly a current problem is evidentfrom Paul's polemical juxtapositioning of the Galatians' past andpresent conduct.

76Hence his indignant exclamation in 4.16: 'So I have

become your enemy by telling you the truth! ( )'.

77Here, the term does not merely

denote "the alienated friend'78

but, consonant with biblical usage,refers to active hostility towards God and his people. The force of theword for Paul is evident in his discussions concerning humanityoutside Christ.

79Clearly he is angry at the complete reversal in the

Galatians' position vis--vis both himself and the truth of his gospel of

Christ crucified.80 It is they, not Paul, who have become enemies of

the truth, a situation that can only be rectified if they once again

become like him: faithful as Christ in the face of persecution and

suffering (4.12a).

Since Paul's climactic exclamation in 4.16 provides something of

a break in the passage, our reconstruction thus far may now be

73. Josephus replicates this terminology in his account ofthis episode (Ant.6.71).

74. Cf. also 4 Mace. 5.29-30, wherein the martyr Eleazar defies his tormentorAntiochus IV Epiphanes with the words: 'nor will I transgress the sacred oath of myancestors concerning the keeping ofthe Law, not even ifyou gouge out my eyes(' ...)*.

75. Later Christian literature attests to the 'gouging out ofeyes* as one ofthetortures endured byChristian martyrs.

76. On the past/present motif in Galatians, correlated with the paradigmaticfunction ofPauline autobiographyin the letter, see Lyons 1985:146-52.

77. Following Longenecker (1990: 193) and his linguisticallypreferredifminorityposition that 4.16 is not a rhetorical question but rather 'an indignant

exclamation that draws an inference from what is stated inw. 14-15*.78. SoBetz 1979: 229.79 R 5 10 11 28 Phil 3 18 f C l 1 21 S l th f th t t


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summarized. Paul appeals to his Galatian brethren, on the basis of

their common experience of conflict and opposition, to become as he

by remaining faithful to the gospel of Christ (4.12a). Towards this

end, he recalls his original proclamation of that gospel to them.

Although he bore upon himself the marks of persecution, and his

gospel was clearly not without adversity, the Galatians did not wrong

or despise him because of this trial, but rather received him as God's

righteous representative (4.12b-14). At that time they also

experienced the blessing that accompanies suffering, since, says Paul,

they were so committed to both him and his message that they would

even have plucked out their eyes and given them to him (4.IS). Giventheir former faithfulness under such affliction, Paul is all the more

astonished that they should now regard him as their enemy because he

insists on reasserting the truth of the gospel which they had once so

readily accepted from him (4.16).

1.6. 'In Travail until Christ be Formed in you' (Galatians4.17-20)

Given the above, Paul's polemical remarks in 4.17 no longer appear

as the sudden and harsh interruption they are often taken to be.81

Throughout the appeal both Paul and the recipients of his letter have

been broadlyconsidering the antagonism engendered by the apostle's

ministry, and will have had in near view the Agitators who are

currently leading the Galatian community awayfrom him: 'They are

zealous () towards you, but for no good purpose; rather

they want to exclude you so that you may be zealous ()

towards them'. Various attempts have been made to soften the usual

strong sense of in this verse.82

However, elsewhere it is clear

that Paul can and does use - terminology in describing a passionate

commitment to a cause which may even take the form of violent

actionhis own former life as a zealous Pharisee being a case in

point.83

In this instance Paul is concerned that the zeal is resulting in

the exclusion84

of the Galatians from Paul (4.16), Christ (5.4) and/or

81. So Betz 1979:229; Longenecker 1990:194.82. So, for example, Betz 1979:210 and Bruce 1982: 211. For the force ofthe


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God (1.6), and in a concomitant misplaced zeal on behalf of the

Agitators and their Torah-based 'gospel' (1.6-9).

This rebuke and warning is followed by another enigmatic statement which recommends an alternative zeal:

(4.18a). Paul can speak positively of zeal in various

contexts, notably in 2 Corinthians 10-13 concerning his divine zeal

for his Corinthian community now being lead astray by false

teachers/apostles preaching 'another Jesus...a different gospel' (2 Cor.

11.2-4). It is this kind of zeal that is now needed to combat the debili

tating influence of the Agitators in Galatia. Unfortunately, once pre

sent during Paul's initial ministry among the Galatiansperhapsthereby implying that a context of conflict required itsuch zeal is no

longer in great supply (4.18b).85

That being the case, Paul is now "again in travail until Christ be

formed in [them]' (4.19)a metaphorical reference to die demanding

contexts of both his original (N.B. 'again') and current ministry

among them.86

Fundamentally, the 'formation' that Paul has in view

cannot be achieved simply by restoring unity within the now fracturedbody of Christ in Galatia,87

nor even by a revitalized personal

relationship between each Galatian believer and Christ88

Rather, since

'Christ in us/you' is commonly linked by Paul to Christ's suffering

and death,89

the closest parallel to 4.19 is found in Paul's earlier

remarks in 2.19-20: Christ lives in Paul because he has died to the

Law and has been crucified with Christ. Thus Paul's concern is that

the Galatians (once again) become like him (4.12) precisely in this

respect: being faithful to Christ in their lives even if this entails co-crucifixion. Unfortunately, given the situation as it currently stands,

85. If, as is likely, Gal. 1.8-9 bears upon Paul's original ministry in Galatia, its

strong condemnatory language attests both to the conflict then current and to the

depth of Paul's concern that the Galatians have moved away from their initial

commitment to his gospel towards the 'non-gospel' of the Agitators.

86. Note that the eschatological horizon of this birth imagery provides furtherevidence that Paul (and the Galatians) are caught up in the suffering and turmoil that


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he can only conclude this appeal by expressing his pain and perplexity

from afar (4.20).

1.7. Conclusion

By way of summarizing our exegesis of4.12-20, we may now itemize

the arguments which clearly negate the traditional illness' interpreta

tion and support the alternative reconstruction offered above.

1. Apart from vv. 13-14, there is absolutely no circumstantial

evidence to suggest that Paul was ill. That the illness interpretation of

these difficult verses has generated so many different hypotheses con

cerning its precise natureor constrained agnosticism on the matterin itselfraises doubts about its veracity.

2. The opening appeal of4.12 must be connected in some intelligi

ble way to what follows. While any such intelligibility is impossible

on the illness interpretation of4.13-14, it is readily achieved by means

of our alternative reading: Paul is calling upon the Galatians to resist

the present demands of the Agitators and to return to the pattern of

faithfulness in suffering which he exemplified at the time of his

original ministry amongst them.

3. The peculiar and forceful terminology which Paul uses to des

cribe his 'weakness', the Galatians' potential response (,

and ), and their actual reception of him (

.,. ), is much more credible in

relation to a context of opposition and conflict than to some indeter

minate ailment.

4. That Paul's appeal throughout 4.12-20 constantly alternatesbetween past and present, indicates that he believes the Galatians'

current regrettable behaviour is unjustifiable (and, indeed, incompre

hensible) in the light of their former commendable response to him.

This notable feature makes little or no sense if he is merely recalling

their kind treatment of a sick man. However, it is much more

comprehensible if Paul's original visit was attended by hostility to his

Law-free gospel, but the Galatians accepted him in spite of this.

5. The exegesis and reconstruction provided here allows a coherentand convincing interpretation of a text which has usually been deemed


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theological significance for the interpretation of Galatians and the

reconstruction ofPaul's missionary activities.

2. Galatians4.12-20in WiderContext

We now intend to corroborate and strengthen this new interpretation

of Gal. 4.12-20 by, in turn, briefly locating it within a series of wider

contexts: (2.1) the argument of Galatians 4; (2.2) additional evidence

of persecution in Galatians as a whole; and (2.3) further indications of

hardships endured elsewhere by Paul in the course of his missionary

activities.

2.1. RereadingofGalatians4

One of the strengths of the interpretation of Gal. 4.12-20 presented

here is that it enables this passage to make sense in the context of the

argument of ch. 4 as a whole and, indeed, sheds fresh light on the

central thrust of that argument. The chapter opens (4.1-7) with Paul's

expansion and application of his argument concerning the relation ofGod's new action in Christ to his action in Israel through Law and

promisean argument which climaxes with the conclusion that "There

is neither Jew nor Greek...for you are all one in Christ Jesus' (3.6-

29). Paul has taken the radical step of placing Jews apart from Christ

on the same footing as pagans: effectively as slaves (4.1) under the

(4.3). He then claims that God's way of dealing with this

situation is through Christ and the Spirit (cf. 3.1-5), offering redemp

tion to the Jewsthose (4.5a; cf. 3.13)and therebyallowing the Gentiles to join them in receiving adoption as children of

Abraham (4.5b).90

The Galatian believers, Jew and Gentile alike, are

thus able to cry out in the Spirit to God their Fathera cry that attests

to the suffering, inheritance and glorious vindication which they now

share with Christ (cf. Rom. 8.14-18).

Paul then reminds the Galatiansas former pagans (4.8-9)of

their past life of slavery, and calls for a life consonant with their new

status of freedom in the covenant community (cf. 4.12). In practice,

this will mean a refusal to be caught up in the ethnic Jewish obser


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118 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 52 (1993)

part, based upon Paul's concern that the Galatians are rejecting his

efforts, his way of life in the gospel (4.11; cf. 4.19).

Having placed these stark alternatives before the Galatians, Paulthen (in 4.12-20) appeals to them to emulate himself by standing firm

in their new covenant status, refusing to fall back under pressure into

the old ways of Judaism or paganism, both subsets of the larger cate

gory of slavery. He encourages them towards this end by recalling his

own example of faithfulness under persecution and their own initial

enthusiasm for his message despite the ever present threat of a hostile

reaction (4.12-15). He then uses the strong language of animosity and

zeal to portray the present situation as one of bitter conflict betweentwo mutually exclusive and antagonistic groups (4.16-19). In conclu

sion, he reiterates his fear that his work among them might have been

in vain (4.20).

While some ofthe Galatian Christians might well have been tempted

to return to their former paganism, the main form of slavery

currently on offer is that of Law observance. Paul therefore addresses

those who wish to be under the Law by using the Sarah/Hagarallegory to critique the Law itself. He once again argues that there are

two ways on offer, both rooted in Abraham, but leading to quite

different ends. These are characterized as either the covenant of

slavery, corresponding to the present Jerusalem (4.23a, 24-25), or the

covenant of freedom and promise (4.23b, 26-27). Paul locates the

Galatians within the latter group (4.28), but again stresses that these

two groups are in conflict (4.29; cf. 4.12-20) and that there is no

middle way. The Galatians are children of the free woman and theymust stand firm, expelling those who are children of the slave woman

(4.30-5.1).

Thus Galatians 4 as a whole shows Paul setting a sharp and painful

choice before the Galatians. He allows them no via media. Through

both Scripture and the recollection of their shared experience he

reminds them that, while the choice of Christ and freedom will result

in conflict and persecution (4.12-20, 29), the only alternativeinwhatever guise, slaverymust be rejected


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Christians. However, apart from Ernst Baasland's discussion of the

matter (1984), die significance of persecution in the letter as a whole

has gone unnoticed.91

By way of corroborating our reading of 4.12-20 this additional evidence may now be brieflyreviewed.

Having initially warned the Galatians away from those now

'troubling' them with their Torah demands (1.6-9), Paul then admits

to his own former life 'in Judaism' as a persecutor of the church

(1.13, 23). Subsequently, with the conflict between Christ and the

Spirit versus the 'works of the Law' clearly in view, he refers to the

longsuffering of the Galatian believers: 'Having begun in the Spirit,

are you now completing with the flesh? Have you suffered ()so many things () in vain?'

92The obvious implication is that

the Galatians had known suffering for some time prior to the present

conflict Later, as already noted, in the course of his Sarah/Hagar

allegory, Paul draws an analogy93

between the persecution by Ishmael

(= 'the flesh') ofIsaac (= 'the Spirit'), and the current situation 'as it is

now' in Galatia (4.29). Whatever his precise justification, Paul

evidently views the conflict in Galatia as standing within the longhistory of the persecution of God's faithful people by those (whether

from within or without) who have rejected God's purposes.

The letter also contains a number of references to Paul's own

experiences of persecution, these understood as an almost inevitable

corollary to his life and ministry. Thus, in the course of trying to

safeguard his gospel against the incursion of the Agitators, he appeals

to the Galatians: 'But if, brethren, I am still preaching circumcision,

why am I still being persecuted?' (5. II). 9 4 It is likely that theGalatians were all too aware that persecution was a regular byproduct

of Paul's circumcision-free mission. This correlation between Paul's

91. Jewett 1971 treats persecution as the context within which the campaign ofthe Agitators is to be understood, but he says little about the Galatians' own experience ofpersecution or the importance ofthe theme in the letter as a whole.

92. Contrast Longenecker 1990:104, who, against the evidence in the LXX andthe NT, and the majority of commentators, prefers to take as a reference to


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120 Journal for the Study ofthe New Testament 52 (1993)

proclamation of the gospel, theological conflict, and suffering, is again

found (in an inverted form) in his claim that those wishing the

Galatians circumcised, do so 'only in order that they may not bepersecuted for the cross of Christ' (6.12). Finally, as noted earlier,

Paul's concluding appeal'Henceforth let no man trouble me; for I

bear on my body the marks of Jesus' (6.17)probably refers to

physical disfigurement due to persecution, a condition of which the

Galatians were apparently well aware.95

It may thus be concluded that the reading of 4.12-20 offered above,

rather than postulating a unique (and thus dubious) scenario, is

actually supported by the tenor of the letter as a whole. From itsinception in Galatia, Paul's gospel of the crucified Christ had

inevitably engendered hostility and persecutionboth for Paul and his

Galatian converts. Once faithful in spite of such conflict and suffering,

some of the brethren are now succumbing to the influence of certain

Agitators. Hence, it is Paul's burden to call them back to the truth of

the gospel.

2.3. Persecution and Paul's Missionary Activity: the Additional

Evidence

Finally, and even more briefly, the broader NT witness to Paul's

missionary experiences further confirms the hypothesis advanced

here. The record of Acts is unlikely to have totally fabricated the

numerous accounts of Paul's physical suffering and persecution.96 Of

particular interest in relation to our reconstruction of Gal. 4.12-20 is

the account of Paul's experience in Lystra (Acts 14.8-20) where,according to Luke, he was stoned and left for dead by Jews from

Iconium and Psidian Antioch.97 As some commentators have

observed, if the south Galatian hypothesis is followed then it could be

this particular instance of persecution which lies behind the 'bodily

weakness' that resulted in Paul's original preaching to the Galatians.98

95. So Pobee 1985: 95.96. On the vexed matter ofActs and historiography, compare the representative


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However, if the north Galatian hypothesis is adopted, there is no

difficulty in postulating that Paul experienced similar hardships in that

part of Galatia.Within Paul's own writings there is also ample evidence of persecu

tion, with the locus classicus being 2 Cor. 11.23-33:

. . . far more imprisonments, with countless beatings, and often near

death. Five times I have received at the hands ofthe Jews the forty lashes

less one. Three times I have been beaten with rods; once I was stoned...

on frequent journeys... in danger from robbers, danger from my own

people, danger from the Gentiles, danger in the city, danger in the

wilderness, danger at sea, danger from false brethren... (11.23b-26).

Significantly, in referring to the suffering which he and the Thessalo-

nians had undergone, Paul also makes the same explicit correlation

between faithfulness and persecution which we have noted in Galatians

(cf. 1 Thess. 1.6; 2.2, 14-15; 3.3-5). Thus, in sharp contrast to the

non-existent evidence for the claim that Paul preached to the Galatians

because of some illness, there is a considerable body of Pauline mate

rial which undergirds our claim that the circumstances actuallyinvolved bodily weakness due to persecution.

3. Conclusion

It has been argued that the language of Gal. 4.12-20 is most compre

hensible when these verses are taken as referring to an original

context of conflict and persecution rather than as an allusion to illness.

This reconstruction also enables the passage to be read as a coherent

whole which is fully integrated into the wider argument of the epistle

(2.1), and the possibility of such an original context is plausible given

both the evidence of Galatians (2.2) and the wider NT witness to

Paul's missionary experiences (2.3).

This argument, and the evidence presented in its defence, suggests

several important possible lines of further enquiry with respect to

both Galatians and Paul's ministry and theology more generally.These can only be noted here in the form of a cursory defence of our


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Galatia. In offering evidence of a history of opposition, persecution

and suffering, this passage provides an important background against

which to reassess Paul's handling of the current situation of conflictand division.

2. Much of the evidence which supports our understanding of Gal.

4.12-20 (e.g. angels and martyrs, , travail) indicates that

Paul interprets his experience of suffering as a faithful disciple of

Christ within a decidedly eschatological framework.

3. Finally, this passage provides further evidence of the almost

normative correlation between faithfulness to the crucified Christ and

experience of persecution and suffering. Drawing on the terminologyand theology of the suffering righteous in Israel which climaxes in

that of the faithful Christ, Paul applies it to his own experience and to

that of the Galatians."

WORKS CITED

Baasland, E.1984

Barr, M.L.

1975

1980

Becker, J.

1981

Betz, H.D.

1979

Binder, H.

1976

Black, D.A.

1984

Bligh, J.

'Persecution: A Neglected Feature in the Letter to the Galatians', Studia

Theologica 38: 135-50.

'Paul as "Eschatologie Person"', CBQ 37: 508-19.

'Qumran and the "Weakness" ofPaul', CBQ 42: 216-27.

'Der Briefan die Galater', in J. Becker, H. Conzelmann and G. Friedrich

(eds.), Die Briefe an die Galater, Epheser, Philipper, Kolosser, Thessa-lonicher und Philemon (Gttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht).

Galatians: A Commentary on Paul's Letter to the Churches in Galatia

(Hermeneia; Philadelphia: Fortress Press).

'Die angebliche Krankheit des Paulus', TL 32: 1-13.

Paul, Apostle ofWeakness: Astheneia and its Cognates in the Pauline

Literature (American University Studies Series, 7.3; New York: Peter

Lang).


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GODDARD AND CUMMINS III or Ill-Treated? 123

Brown, C.

1975-1978 The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology (3 vols.;

Grand Rapids: Zondervan).

Bruce, F.F.

1982 The Epistle to the Galatians (NIGTC; Grand Rapids: Eerdmanns).

Burton, E.deW.

1921 A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians

(ICC; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark).Charlesworth, J.H.

1983, 1985 The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (2 vols.; Garden City, NJ:Doubleday).

Collins, J.J.

1977 The Apocalyptic Vision of the Book of Daniel (HSM, 16; Missoula,MT: Scholars Press).

Connolly, R.H. (ed.)

1929 Didascalia Apostolorum (Oxford: Clarendon Press).

Cosgrove, C.H.

1988 77w? Cross and the Spirit: A Study in the Argument and Theology of

Galatians (Atlanta: Mercer University Press).

Crafer, T.W.

1913 'The Stoning of Saint Paul at Lystra and the Epistle to the Galatians',

77M? Expositor 6.34: 375-84.Dequeker, L.

1973 'The "Saints of the Most High" in Qumran and Daniel', OTS 18: 133-

62.Donaldson, T.L.

1986 'The "Curse of the Law" and Inclusion of the Gentiles: Galatians

3.13-14*, NTS 32: 94-112.

Fitzgerald, J.T.

1988 Cracks in an Earthen Vessel: An Examination of the Catalogues of

Hardships in the Corinthian Correspondence (SBLDS, 99; Atlanta:Scholars Press).

Fossum, J.E.

1985 77M? Name of God and the Angel ofthe Lord: The Origins ofthe Idea of

Intermediation in Gnosticism (WUNT, 1/36; Tubingen: Mohr [Paul

Siebeck]).

Fung, R.Y.K

1988 77M?Epistle to the Galatians (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmanns).

Goldingay, J.E.

1989 Daniel(WBC, 30; Dallas: Word Books).

Gttgemanns, E.

1966 Der leidende Apostel und sein Herr: Studien zur paulinischen


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Mussner, F.

1988 Der Galaterbrief (HTKNT, 9; Freiburg: Herder, 5th edn).

Oepke, A.

1957 Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater (THKNT; Berlin: EvangelischeVerlagsanstalt).

O'Neill, J.C.

1972 77M? Recovery of Paul's Letter to the Galatians (London: SPCK).

Philonenko, M.

1968 Joseph et Asneth: Introduction, texte critique, traduction et notes

(SPB, 13; Leiden: Brill).

Pbee, J.S.

1985 Persecution and Martyrdom in the Theology of Paul (JSNTSup, 6;

Sheffield: JSOT Press).Ramsay, W.M.

1899 A Historical Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians

(London: Hodder & Stoughton).

Ridderbos, H.N.

1953 77M? Epistle of Paulto the Churches of Galatia (NICNT; Grand Rapids:

Eerdmanns).

Rohde, J.

1989 Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater (THKNT, 9; Berlin: Evangelische

Verlagsanstalt).Rowland, C.C.

1982 77M? Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic in Judaism and Early

Christianity (London: SPCK).

Schlier, H.

1949 Der Brief an die Galater (KEK, 7; Gttingen: Vandenhoeck &

Ruprecht, 10th edn).

1964 '', TDNT, : 448-49.

Schrge, W.

1974 'Leid, Kreuz und Eschaton. Die Peristasenkataloge als Merkmale

paulinischer theologia crucis und Eschatologie', EvT34: 141-75.

Wright, N.T.

1992 77M? New Testament and the People of God (London: SPCK).

ABSTRACT

Contrary to the scholarly consensus, Gal. 4.12-20 is not an erratic and illogical

appeal alluding to some unspecified illness suffered by Paul, but rather a thoroughlycoherent argument arising out ofthe apostle's recollection ofthe bodily trauma due to


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126 Journal for the Study of the New Testament 52 (1993)

terminology (, , , , ) and the sudden

shifts from the past to present adversityare explained; and new light is cast on Paul'sreception 'as an angel' (4.14) and the Galatian*s willingness *to pluckout their eyes'

(4.15). Furthermore, Gal. 4.12-20 may now be more easily integrated into theargument of the chapter as a whole, and can drawupon the corroborating evidence of

persecution both elsewhere in Galatians and in other accounts ofPaul's missionary

experience.

CharlesA. Kimball

JESUS' EXPOSITION

OF THE OLD TESTAMENT IN LUKE'S GOSPEL

This work presents an inductive, exegetical analysis of Jesus' exegetical methods andexpositions in Luke's Gospel in the light offirst-centuryJewish exegetical methods.Kimball focuses on the eight Lukan pericopes in which Jesus expounds explicit Old

Testament quotations.

This study concludes that in Luke's Gospel Jesus expounded Scripture as the basis forunderstanding his person and ministry, teaching his followers and inquirers, and debatinghis religious opponents. He employed many of the exegetical methods of ancientJudaism, yet he frequently offered interpretations of Scripture that were radically differentfrom other Jewish teachers. In turn, he influenced the early church's biblical expositionsin considerable measure.

The christobgical expositions by the Jesus of Luke's Gospel used pesher fulfilment motifsand midrashic techniques to show that the Old Testament found its typological and

prophetic fulfilment in Jesus; they are summarized in proem-like and similar commentarypatterns. The doctrinal expositions used midrashic techniques to explain Scripture for

proper doctrine and conduct; they are summarized in ye/ammedenu-ke patterns.Charles Kimball is Pastor of Calvary Baptist Church, Kingsvllle, Texas.

d 35.00/$50.00ISBN 1 85075 464 0

JSKT Supplement Series, 9 c. 330pp


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