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CHCFC301A: Support the development of children

Support the social development of children

Contents

Social domain theorists 4

Overview of leading theorists 4

Children’s social development 8

Social development in infants 8

Social development in toddlers 11

Attachment and toddlers 13

Social development and play 13

Social development in preschoolers 14

Social development in school-aged children 15

Provide opportunities for one-to-one, small-group and larger-group interaction 18

How can we support toddlers’ play 18

Preschoolers’ play 19

Social play 21

Model appropriate communication with children 29

Use a language style that is appropriate for the child’s age, developmental stage and culture 29

Using non-verbal communication 31

Acknowledge, value and respect diversity through interactions and provisions 33

Diversity 33

Inclusive care 33

Children with additional needs 34

Inclusion or integration of children with additional needs 35

Promoting positive attitudes in children 36

Caregiving overview 38

Certificate III in Children’s Services: CHCFC301A: Reader LO 9247 © NSW DET 2010

Social domain theorists

Overview of leading theoristsFirst let’s see what some influential theorists have to say about social relationships. There are a number of theorists who are clearly linked with social development, such as:

• Erik Erikson• John Bowlby• Mary Ainsworth• Albert Bandura• Uri Bronfenbrenner• Lev Vygotsky

Erik Erikson (1902–1994) Erikson built upon Freud’s work. He identified eight separate stages across the lifespan. He believed that in each stage we face a crisis that needs to be resolved in order for us to develop socially and emotionally. Each stage has a positive or negative outcome, though we tend not to be either end of the spectrum—rather we hope to be somewhere towards the positive end of the spectrum. The outcome of the stage is determined by our environment and the caregiving strategies or experiences we are exposed to.

John Bowlby (1907–1990) was convinced of the importance of the mother–baby bond and he believed that this special bond had a biological basis. Bowlby believed that the baby is born with the need to form this bond and mothers instinctively need to form this bond with their baby.

Bowlby suggested that if mother and child are separated during the bonding process (without the baby receiving good substitute care), the baby-bonding process will be disturbed and there will be long-term negative effects on the child’s emotional development. Bowlby called the bond between mother and baby an attachment relationship.

Certificate III in Children’s Services: CHCFC301A: Reader LO 9247© NSW DET 2010

Mary Ainsworth (born 1913) Ainsworth supported Bowlby’s concept of a mother–baby attachment process and conducted further research in this area. Ainsworth, through her research looking at the attachment process in both African and American cultures, identified the characteristics of a secure and insecure attachment between mother and baby. In particular, Ainsworth studied the behaviours known as stranger and separation anxiety, which young children experience around eight to 15 months of age. During this time, children become distressed if they are left in the care of strangers or if they are approached by a stranger.

How have the theories of Bowlby and Ainsworth impacted on the care of children?The work done by Bowlby and Ainsworth on attachment has had a significant effect on the caregiving practices used for infants and toddlers in care. For example, the concept of a primary caregiver for a young child in care is based on the theory of attachment development.

Research in the area of contact between mother and baby immediately after birth had a significant influence on changing birth procedures in maternity hospitals. The introduction of birth centres and ‘rooming-in’ practices (ie the baby staying with the mother after birth instead of being located in a separate nursery) are based on Bowlby’s theory.

Albert Bandura (born 1925)Like Skinner and Watson before him, Bandura is a behaviourist. They believed that learning is gradual and continuous. Development is a sequence of specific conditional behaviours. The main emphasis is on the environment, not heredity. They considered observable behaviours to be most important. Bandura’s social learning theory focuses on the imitation of behaviours by children. They will imitate their caregivers and peers, thus learning much about our society and how it operates.

Urie Brofenbrenner (born 1917) Brofenbrenner sees the world in which the child grows as having a major influence on development. He describes this as a two-way influence. The personality and behaviour of the child will influence the way people in the environment will interact with that child. He also believes that the interactions between environmental factors could affect the child’s development. For instance, it is not just the influence of the parents on the child or the childcare centre on the child but the way the parents and childcare centre staff get on. This process of interacting influences is known as reciprocal interaction.


Brofenbrenner identifies four levels of the environment as having an impact on a child’s development:

• the microsystem: the setting in which the child lives (eg family, peers, childcare centre, school and neighbourhood)

• the mesosystem: the environment created by the interconnections between the environments in the microsystem (eg the interaction of family and childcare centre, the interaction of family experiences and peer experiences)

• the exosystem: experiences which, although the child does not have an active role, still have an effect on the child’s experiences (eg a parent’s work situation may affect the relationship that parent has with the child)

• the macrosystem: the broader social and cultural environments that affect the experience of the child (eg current child protection laws in Australia make it illegal for adults to physically punish children).

Brofenbrenner recently modified his theory and acknowledged that the child’s biological hereditary make-up combines with environmental forces to mould development.

Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach 1635_ap2

How does Brofenbrenner’s theory apply to child careBrofenbrenner’s theory helps us understand the importance of fostering positive relationships with children and their families. The way we interact with and support those families will affect their children’s development. It also heightens our awareness to ensure that we present programs within our service that reflect the needs and expectations of the society, culture and community in which our children live.

Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934)Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory is another theory to be considered when looking at social development. You will also learn about his theories when looking at cognitive development. We have only learnt much about Vygotsky, a Russian theorist who died in 1934, since the late 20th century. Vygotsky developed his theories around the same time as Jean Piaget but the main difference was that Vygotsky emphasised the importance of relationships and interactions between children and more knowledgeable peers and adults. He believed that children’s cognitive understandings were enriched and deepened when they were ‘scaffolded’ by parents, teachers or peers (Berk 1996). He believed that children only learnt through themselves and needed the adult and other children to further develop their skills and acquire their knowledge. The environment plays an important role in the child’s development, particularly in terms of the social


aspects. He focused on the notion that children internalised feelings, emotions and ideas and language was a ‘key factor in the development of concepts’.


Children’s social development

Social development in infants

The attachment relationshipThe first social relationship a young child experiences is the attachment relationship. An attachment is a strong emotional tie or bond between two people, and especially between a caregiver and an infant.

Emotionally healthy babies come to understand that they have nurturing, responsive caregivers who meet their basic needs. They come to view their world as safe and predictable. They enter into trusting relationships with caregivers and later with other human beings.

Security is another word used to describe this emotional state of safeness. It should be remembered, however, that a degree of wariness is also healthy and important for survival and can keep infants safe from harm. However, the emotionally healthy baby is, for the most part, trusting of their world.

Infants who are abused or neglected and who do not have caregivers who respond to their needs promptly and consistently will experience insecurity and feel unsafe in their world. This can damage their relationships with others and they may grow up to distrust people and find it hard to establish loving emotional relationships.

A strong positive attachment leads the baby to feel secure, confident and safe when that caregiver is present. Over the first 18 months, infants develop strong emotionally dependent attachments to their primary caregivers.


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A strong attachment relationship becomes evident around nine to 12 months. At this time babies will become distressed if separated from their main caregiver (or any person to whom they are attached) and will show wariness if confronted by a stranger. These two responses are known as separation anxiety and stranger anxiety. This is normal and predictable behaviour for infants between the ages of 8–18 months.

A variety of strategies can be used to help settle an infant into care which can minimise the anxiety and distress the infant (and the mother) is feeling.

Strategies to help lessen a baby’s separation and stranger anxiety are:

• gradually introduce the infant into the care situation; start off with short visits and work gradually up to leaving the baby for longer and longer periods

• get to know the infant first in the presence of the parents; don’t be too eager to pull the baby away from the parent. Let the baby set the pace—they will let you know when they are ready to be held by you.

• get to know, by talking to the parents, what the baby likes and dislikes so that familiar home practices are also used in the service

• encourage the parents to say goodbye even if the infant cries; they will be even more distressed if they realise later that their parent has gone

• be prepared to stay with the distressed infant and hold and comfort the infant. Use toys or pictures to distract the infant and use soothing tones to comfort the baby. Also pat, rock and sing to the baby.

The development of attachments is important as it provides the child with a feeling of security and safeness that later gives the infant the confidence to branch out and be independent.

Up to about 18 months, most infants want to stay around the adults who are important to them. Babies at this age are not usually interested in other children in a social way. The main source of social interaction is with the main caregivers. Research suggests that the child’s early attachment relationships are the foundation for all later social relationships.


Special issue for caregivers: Attachment relationships and infants in careHow does placing a young child in care affect the attachment relationship between a young child and his or her primary caregiver? You probably have strong feelings about whether or not infants should be placed in care!

Let’s see what the research tells us. Research has also found that infants will form secondary attachments. Although their attachments to their primary caregivers remain strong and unique, the baby will also form attachments with other people who will provide the security they need when the primary caregiver is absent. Babies will also look for and want to stay near the people to whom they are attached. In times of stress, babies will cling to and be more easily comforted by people to whom they are attached.

This has important implications for people working with young infants in a day care environment. In many childcare services now, much attention is given to encouraging the development of attachments between the infant and the childcare staff.

To promote the formation of attachment relationships between children’s service staff and infants, we must be able to identify their needs and be responsive to their needs. When babies are crying, it is obvious that they have some need at that given time. They might be hungry, uncomfortable, wet, tired or just need a cuddle.

Following is a list of practical caregiving practices that encourage the development of attachments between childcare service staff and an infant.

• Hold small babies tenderly and frequently—use slings and pouches whenever possible.

• Respond quickly to infant cues and signals of distress. Feed on demand and relieve discomfort or tiredness.

• Get to know each baby’s temperament and handle the baby accordingly.• Choose the time when the baby is content and alert for interaction games

(eg This little piggy).• Give babies lots of time to explore toys with you.• Make routines predictable—babies get a secure sense of what to expect

and in what sequence.• Talk about what you are doing, even with very young babies.• Use routines such as nappy-changing time to rub tummies, cheek and hair

and tell the baby how delicious he or she is.• Send long-distance messages to babies who are moving (eg words, grins,

encouragement).• Respond to baby’s gestures (eg follow a baby’s pointing finger and

comment on objects or get the object being pointed at).


• Assign a primary caregiver to each infant to establish a first attachment in care and then gradually encourage attachments with other carers (this is important as the same carer is not always there). (Adapted from A Honig (1993) ‘Mental health for babies: What do theory and research tell us?’ in Young Children, March 1993, quoted in Nixon D and Gould K (1999) Emerging: Child Development in the First Three Years, 2nd edn, Social Science Press, NSW, p 80.)

Activity 1

Social development in toddlers

Two aspects of toddlers

Toddlers:

• are dependent• are clumsy• have no idea of what is safe• cannot share• cannot wait for things• cannot take turns• do not sit still• cannot keep their hands off things• have short attention spans• cannot talk well• have temper tantrums• have mood swings• have no self-control• are defiant and uncooperative• are cute.

Toddlers:


• are energetic explorers, tireless experimenters, dedicated scientists• are passionate about finding out how things work• understand much of what they hear• have good non-verbal communication skills• have ‘exploding’ verbal communication skills and use language creatively• are learning what it means to be a human being in relationship with other

human beings• have a sense of wonder and curiosity about the world• are constantly developing new skills• are moving from dependence to independence• are figuring out how to control their behaviour and look after themselves,

others and the world around them• are eager to learn from every experience and interaction they have• are learning more and at a faster rate than any adult• are competent and capable human beings worthy of our admiration.

(Stonehouse A (2002) NSW Curriculum Framework for Children’s Services: The Practice of Relationships: essential provisions for children’s services, NSW Department of Community Services, Office of Child Care, p 23. http://www.community.nsw.gov.au.)

Two distinct views of toddlers! How do they equate with your view of toddlers? Is this how you see them? Can you see that these are two very different ways to view toddlers?

The first set of statements shows a very negative image of this stage, while the second set shows a much more positive image. If your perception of something is that it is ‘bad’ or ‘difficult’, you tend to approach it very differently than you approach something joyful or exciting. Think about the difference between going to the dentist, for example, and going out to dinner with a group of people you really like. Of course you are going to approach each of these experiences very differently. The same applies if you think children are ‘bad’ or ‘naughty’ or out to make your life difficult. Your image of children will have a direct impact on how you treat them.

Activity 2


http://www.community.nsw.gov.au/

Attachment and toddlersAlthough toddlers are now becoming independent and their own person, they are still strongly attached to their primary carers. They will still experience separation and stranger anxiety, though now it will be with less intensity to what they experienced in infancy.

As toddlers move towards the age of two, stranger anxiety and separation anxiety begin to decline and they will settle more easily and quickly into care situations. For some children, however, separation from their usual caregivers can be difficult for some years to come. This will relate to their temperament and experience.

Toddlers continue to need a warm, consistent and responsive caregiver to feel secure. They need the freedom to explore and be independent but they also need the security that there is always support and comfort available when needed.

Many toddlers will have special attachments to objects such as blankets, ‘cuddlies’, teddy bears, bunnies, rag dolls or even special pieces of fabric. It’s important to accept that some toddlers will have attachments to particular objects. They are most likely to need the objects to which they are attached when they are tired, when they are faced with a new or stressful situation, or when they are hurt, unwell or in pain. It’s amazing how quickly they will settle when that ‘security blanket’ is safely clenched in their arms.

Do these pictures look familiar? Many toddlers are attached to certain objects

Social development and playAt around the age of two, toddlers start to show an interest in other children. They will often choose to play near other children or they will stand and watch other children playing. Most children of this age are not ready to interact and cooperate in play activities. Because they are largely egocentric, they find it difficult to share and take turns. Likewise, because they are unable to take another’s point of view, it is difficult for them to play cooperatively with other children.


Social development in preschoolersFor a child, in the first few years the strongest social relationship is the attachment relationship with mothers, fathers and other caregivers.

Social development

Age Child’s social relationships

By three years of age Compared to toddlers, young preschool-aged children will separate more easily (although not always happily) from their primary caregiver and take less time to settle into new situations.

Early in the preschool stage, preschoolers see friendship in a very concrete way. A friend is someone they play with, talk with and have fun with.

From about two years onwards, most children become more interested in other children. By three years of age, most children are spending less time with adults and more time with other children if given the opportunities to do so.

Also by the age of three, most children have begun to make friends and, over the years, friendships come to play an increasingly important part of children’s lives.

By five years of age By the end of the preschool stage, some children may be ready to stay overnight at a friend’s place. Preschool children will still cling and want the comfort of their primary caregiver if sick or tired or anxious.

Friendships in the preschool years tend to last for a short period of time and are unstable. Although children, when given the opportunity, spend most of their time interacting with other children, these interactions are brief and often end abruptly. When two children are playing together one might simply walk off without so much as a goodbye. Two children who are playing together at any particular time become ‘best friends’ and any child who is not included is ‘not our friend’.

Best of friends


The photograph above shows two preschoolers who are best friends. They play together, talk to each other, see each other regularly, plot and plan, and at times experience conflict (yes, that’s right, they fight).

Most social interactions between children occur in a play setting.

Prosocial behaviours (altruism)Prosocial behaviours are behaviours that help children get on with other children and be a good member of a group. Prosocial behaviours include sharing, waiting for a turn and showing sympathy and concern for others. Prosocial behaviour is altruistic behaviour—which is the opposite to egocentric behaviour.

Egocentric behaviour declines during the preschool years. As preschool children become more aware of the needs of others, they share more and are more concerned for others.

As they approach five years of age, they develop a sense of loyalty towards particular friends and, provided there is continuity in their social world, will support them when they are in strife. They start to learn prosocial behaviours. They start to look out for each other and try and find ways to cheer their friends up when they are sad. They start to become emotionally expressive with one another in the preschool years.

Carers who point out to children the harmful consequences of their behaviour to others (for example, ‘Don’t hit Timmy because it hurts Timmy’) are fostering prosocial behaviour based on an understanding of the needs and wellbeing of others.

Social development in school-aged childrenOne of the most important features of middle childhood is the growing importance of friends and friendship groups or the peer group. During middle childhood children tend to stick with children of the same sex. Girls play with girls and boys play with boys.

Groups of children, between the ages of six and 12 years, develop their own ways of interacting, their own ‘in’ words and may have a dress code. This has been called the culture of childhood. Conforming to the peer group code of behaviour is part of belonging to the peer group. Belonging and acceptance by friends is most important during middle childhood.

Friendships are based on shared interests and similar feelings about things. A friend’s loyalty is the most highly valued feature of a friendship. Children in


middle childhood will resist dobbing in their friends. Children will show immense concern about the welfare of their friends. Altruistic behaviour is doing something to help someone without any expectation of a reward. So children do something for their friend just because they are friends.

As you have already learned in this unit, as children have more opportunities to interact with others, they start to become more skilled in their social interactions.

As they learn more about their world and emotions, they start to demonstrate more prosocial behaviours. They will do such things as open a door for an adult carrying a heavy load, help a friend up when they have fallen over, show a sibling how to do a task, or stand up for a friend who is being picked on by someone else.

The more children are able to engage in prosocial behaviours, the more positive will be their relationships with adults and peers. This can contribute to children’s acceptance by the society in which they live and can foster the development of self-esteem.

Influences on prosocial behaviourThere are a number of influences on children’s development of prosocial behaviour. The culture in which children grow up will influence the development of prosocial behaviours. Where cooperation and support for one another is valued, it is more likely that the children of that culture will engage in cooperative activity that allows them to support each other. However, where individual achievement and competition is valued, children will be less likely to develop prosocial behaviours.

Children’s families can influence the development of prosocial behaviours. Where children are encouraged to be involved in the running of the family home, for example, they are likely be more thoughtful toward other people outside the home.

Personality also can influence the development of prosocial behaviours. Children who are free to express their emotions are more likely to assist others than children who are constricted in this area. It also can depend on how sociable children are as to how often they will volunteer to help others. It has also been noticed that when children have high self-esteem and feel able to help, they are more likely to do so.


How can we support the development of prosocial behaviours?Everyone likes to see children share, help each other, resolve conflicts in a peaceful manner and help those who are less fortunate. We know that when children do this, they develop good interpersonal relationships.

Role models who are genuinely warm and nurturing will influence the development of prosocial behaviours. If children see adults engaging in prosocial behaviours with each other and with children, they are more likely to develop those behaviours.

It seems that friendships also foster the development of prosocial behaviours. When children have a best friend, they are more likely to do things for them even though they receive no reward. There has been some research done which also says that prosocial behaviours actually foster the development of friendships. It’s a bit of a chicken-and-egg story, isn’t it?

We need to acknowledge children’s prosocial behaviours and give them positive feedback for their thoughtfulness. We can encourage children’s development of prosocial behaviours by suggesting projects that they can work on with other children or indeed adults. By fostering cooperation, we are more likely to find that children will help each other out when they have a common goal.

Activity 3


Provide opportunities for one-to-one, small-group and larger-group interaction

How can we support toddlers’ playWhen we are planning play experiences for toddlers, we need to take into consideration not only the skills that they may have developed, but also their stage of play. While we can set up the environment to encourage interactions between children, we must expect that toddlers will be happiest looking on as other children play, playing alone or perhaps playing alongside another child without too much interaction.

Toddlers need spaces to retreat to — at times they may need to be alone or just with an adult. They may want to sit and watch or be cuddled or they may want to sit and do nothing and perhaps talk to themselves as they explore a toy by themselves. All of this is OK.

As said earlier, toddlers are largely egocentric and so are not good at sharing and waiting for turns. They don’t understand that by sharing a toy they will have another opportunity to play with it again later. Sharing may seem to them like giving it up forever.

At around their second birthday, toddlers may display distributing behaviour (ie they will hand out toys to everyone, then walk around and collect them back again). They will protest most strongly if everything is not handed back when they are ready. It is a good idea to have several identical toys at this stage so that children can be encouraged to play without conflict.

As toddlers approach three, we can begin to encourage them to share by playing simple turn-taking games and by using the language of sharing during everyday exchanges. For instance, at fruit time we might say something like, ‘Look William, I have an apple to share with you. I’ll cut it into pieces. You can have these pieces and I’ll have these ones.’


Preschoolers’ playPlay has been defined as ‘children’s work’. This is so true for preschoolers. Their whole day is filled with the business of playing and at the end of the day they can be exhausted from their efforts.

Activity 4

Note that although we have given approximate ages for each stage of play, children will continue to engage in different types of play depending on the situation as they get older. For example, we would expect to see preschoolers engaging in onlooker play at times, solitary play at other times, as well as parallel play, associative play and cooperative play. The type of play that preschoolers will engage in will depend on the situation, their stamina and previous experience with other children. When caring for preschoolers, remember that any or all of the above are OK.

Probably what is more interesting is the types of play that preschoolers now engage in. Even though we are discussing this in the social domain, play does also reflect and extend development in the cognitive, emotional and physical domains.

In looking at these different types of play, you will also learn how to support children’s development through their play.

Imaginative play or dramatic playChildren can learn to make sense of their world through imaginative or dramatic play. This is where you will notice children pretending to be someone or something. They act out situations that they may have experienced or take on roles of people in their environment. Often this is accompanied by dressing up or changing voices for different characters.

During the preschool years, children are adjusting to many new expectations within their environment. They are learning a wide range of self-help skills and they are expected to use them consistently. We expect them to learn from their mistakes and understand more about the expectations of others. They are coping with so much information at this stage. However, they seem to be able to manage all this new information if they can break it down into chunks and play through the new information.

Imaginative play can also support the development of creativity. It allows children to play with ideas and solve problems. Research done by Jerome Singer found that those children who were very involved in imaginative play and fantasy tended to be more creative, more verbally fluent, more skilful when asked to make up a story and had a longer attention span.


Physically active playYoung children are always on the move. They enjoy running, climbing, skipping and jumping. Play which is characterised by constant gross motor movement is called physically active play.

Rough-and-tumble play is also part of physically active play. Rough-and-tumble play develops with the maturing cognitive skills of the child into a form of dramatic play with roles and characters. This is sometimes referred to as superhero play. There are always goodies and baddies and they constantly are lined up against each other to do battle.

Some adults have strong feelings about allowing children to engage in rough-and-tumble play as it seems to encourage aggression; however, some concern can be allayed in that preschoolers can distinguish between real aggression and play aggression. We can support this play positively by intervening when there are real signs of aggression, ie the red faces, angry voices and other non-verbal signs of anger.

Playing with toysWhen working with preschoolers, the process of purchasing toys that will support and extend their development can be an exciting or overwhelming experience! You only need to go to a toy shop and you will see toys for counting, toys for letter recognition, computer programs, toys for stacking, toys for construction, toys for language development and toys for dramatic or imaginative play!

Perhaps the most important thing to remember is that not all children will play with the same toy in the same way. Children do not play with toys the way we expect them to. A bear, for example, may become a duck in an imaginative child’s hands.

Also, some children may be excited by a new toy you bring out, while others won’t be. This may be due to interest or familiarity with the toy. Children may be familiar with a certain toy (and, therefore, be quite blasé about it). Others may find the same toy a novelty. It depends on whether they have such toys at home—which may be determined by their socio-economic background.

The best thing to do if you want to buy toys for children is to select ones that can be used in a number of ways. Toys which are open-ended can be explored, manipulated and used in a variety of situations and are going to be the most useful for pleasure, learning and extending development. It’s also important to realise that often children will gain as much joy and learning from a cardboard box as they will from a $500 cubby house.


Gender issues in playA preschooler’s concept of gender and gender roles is developing and they will now seek out toys and activities that they see as appropriate to their gender. Even if we provide a whole range of ‘boy toys’ and ‘girl toys’ for all children to play with, we’ll probably find that girls and boys will play with the same toys differently.

We also notice that in dramatic play, gender will influence what props are used, what roles are taken on and the story of the play. It has been found that boys are more interested in action roles with high fantasy content and girls tend to deal more with familiar domestic themes.

In the interests of encouraging development of the whole child, we need to encourage children to play outside stereotyped gender roles.

Benefits of playPlay has many benefits, including:

• extending imagination• extending creativity• promoting sensory awareness• encouraging problem solving• helping the understanding of concepts• providing opportunities to develop such skills as sharing and turn-taking

and lengthens the attention span• promoting understanding of roles• encouraging conflict resolution and negotiation skills• extending language• promoting self-esteem• helping children practise fine and gross motor skills.

Social play Children actually go through stages in the way they play. Mildred Parten conducted a study of children’s play in the early 1930s. She observed six stages of social play development. Each stage involves more complexity that the previous one. However, unlike other stage theories, the characteristics of one stage are not replaced by the next stage. Rather, several stages may coexist together in the child. It is possible to observe children exhibiting several forms of social play over a short period of time. This is largely dependent on the environment and the amount of time children have with other children.


Social play theoriesPlay promotes both mental and social abilities in the child, and Piaget, Vygotsky and other theorists have all made contributions in this area.

Jean Piaget and Sara SmilanskyBoth Piaget and Sara Smilansky’s have developed categories of play.

Categories of play

Sensori-motor play

Here an infant up to two years of age will use various senses and motor skills to explore objects and their environment.

Symbolic play In this type of play, symbols are much more evident. Children can pretend that one object is another, the cubby house becomes a rocket. This type of play is usually seen during Piaget’s preoperational stage.

Games with rules In this stage, children are able to follow rules of games, changing their understanding of the purpose of rules as they get older. Children in the concrete operations stage are usually also in this play stage (Nixon and Gould 1999).

Note that Piaget did not tend to see play as learning through the accommodation of new information, but rather the assimilation of new materials into existing cognitive structures. It is relaxed practice time rather than the challenging learning time for taking in completely new information.

Sara SmilanskySmilansky developed three stages of play. She initially based her work on Piaget’s work but expanded and developed these theories.

Smilansky’s categories of play

Functional play This occurs in the first two years of life. Infants are involved in exploring objects using their body (sucking and touching) and progressing to other physical activities such as throwing.

Constructive play This occurs when children begin to manipulate materials to create objects and patterns. They may not be representational initially but are the child’s attempts at working with the materials to produce an effect.

Dramatic play Here children are imitating the world around them through their role play. This leads to cooperative dramatic play around agreed-upon themes (Nixon and Gould 1999).

Look at the description of Smilansky’s functional play. When babies throw their toys over the side of the cot time after time, or bang their spoon on the table for


hours, would you normally recognise this as play? Older children and adults also use functional play when faced with new or different objects to explore. Once the new objects are mastered, such as the workings of a new music machine, the ‘real’ play can begin. Symbolic play is when the child can use objects to symbolise other objects, and follows on from the earlier functional play. This stage goes together with the beginnings of speech, another important use of symbols in the development of thinking. The emergence of imagination and speech in the toddler years heralds an important time of growth in children’s thinking skills.

Simlansky’s characteristics of dramatic and sociodramatic play

Play Behaviour Characteristics Examples Levels/Ages

Imitative Role Play Child assumes a make-believe role of a person or object and expresses it in imitation and/or verbalisation

Child places doll over shoulder and pats the back (burbing)

Beginning: Role relates to the familiar world (e.g. mommy, daddy, bubba)

Advanced: role relates to world outsode the family (e.g. doctor, teacher)

Make-believe with regard to objects

Child substitutes movements, verbal declarations, and/or materials or toys that are not replicas of the object itself or real objects

Uses spoon as a phone. Places plastic plates and cups in swing and pushes it back and forth.

Beginning: Real objects or replicas used (e.g. real toy car)

Advanced: uses prop as part of play scenario (e.g. uses tea towel as wrap for the doll)

Verbal make believe with regard to actions and situations

Child substitutes descriptions or declarations for actions and situations

Uses blocks to build a house and says “this is where Mummy and Bubba live”

Beginning: imitates simple actions of adult (e.g. grabs a kitchen sponge from the cupboard and begins to wipe the furniture)

Advanced: child’s actions are integral to the play episode (e.g. “I’m cleaning so sissy can play”


Persistence in role play

Child stays within a role of play theme for at least 10 minutes

Plays role of mother, father and daughter within a family play theme for 10 minutes

Beginning: short, sporadic involvement (e.g. chid enters area, picks up the doll and leaves)

Advanced: child stays involved in area and the theme for more than 10 minutes

Interaction At least 2 players interact within the context of a play episode

Preschoolers building a castle from blocks and wooden people. Sharing the equipment and discussing where specific people should be situated.

Beginning: plays alone with no obvious awareness of others nearby

Advanced: Cooperative effort to work together around a common theme

Verbal Communication

There is some verbal interaction related to the play episode

Older preschoolers playing in the dramatic play area, discussing how to redesign the bed and dolls cot to accommodate the arrival of “Nanny and Poppy”.

Beginning: Simple dialogue around the use of toys (e.g. “there, there sissy”)

Advanced: Dialogue about the roles, props, plot of play scenario

This table is adapted from Smilansky (1968) & Dodge and Colker (1992), citied in Isenberg and Jalongo (2001, p.75)

These categories are generally viewed as age-related with functional play appearing first in infancy and games with rules appearing last around age six or seven. Smilansky’s work highlights the importance of considering cognitive development (particularly the inspirational work of Jean Piaget) when we look at the levels of play.

Piaget, along with socio-emotional theorists such as Erikson, believed that children could use play to act out unpleasant experiences or experiences where they had very little power.

This explains why children entering school play teachers over and over again with younger children, acting out teachers who are ferocious in their ability to order and command. The child can imagine themselves in the position of power and this helps them to deal with being powerless. This is also common with children witnessing or involved in violent households.


Vygotsky saw play as much more significant than Piaget. He saw it as crucial to learning in the preschool period, particularly imaginative play. Vygotsky saw play as a major contributor to the development of the zone of proximal development—if children can imagine themselves doing something, they are closer to doing it. Play also fosters the separation of thoughts from actions and objects (symbolic function).

Activity 5

Mildred Parten The ability to join groups of other children and the desire to do so begins at an early age and progresses through a developmental sequence. Parten focused on the different types of social play. In her research she discovered that children of different ages actually played together differently. They were capable of different levels or categories of social play. Her categories of social play are still a useful tool to help focus us on how social play changes and develops at different stages of our lives.

Remember that the stages identified by Parten are not always followed in a linear fashion by all children—in other words, a child may not progress directly from one stage to another. You might also find that a child will often engage in different stages of social play depending on factors such as the child’s familiarity with either the situation or their ‘playmates’ or the child’s temperament.

Social stages of play

Unoccupied play Generally the very young infant will engage in this type of play. They tend to be looking at their hands or other body parts or cooing to themselves. They do not seek contact with others or appear to have a purpose.

Solitary play Usually seen during infancy. Infants tend to play by themselves totally unaware of others around them. They will move quite quickly from one activity to another. Children under two years of age may show only fleeting interest in those around them. However children will engage in solitary play at all ages. The main characteristic of this form of play is its intense egocentricity (children are


unaware of others around, but will be intensely engrossed in their own play). Again, you are likely to see toddlers involved in solitary play.

Onlooker play This can occur across many stages of development, but is most commonly associated with infants and toddlers who lack the skills to physically or socially join in. Evidence of onlooker play is seen when children are near a group of other children and are often following the actions or copying what is happening in the play. The children, however, do not usually want to participate or are waiting for someone to aid their participation.

Parallel play Parallel play: This type of play is also common in the toddler years and into the early preschool years. Children will now tolerate other children standing near them when playing and using the same equipment. However, they are only concerned with what they are doing and have few meaningful interactions.

Associative play This is first seen usually in the early preschool years. Children will begin to play and talk with each other in dramatic play situations where roles may be taken on. However, these roles are usually not sustained for any length of time. There doesn’t seem to be a common purpose to the play.

Cooperative play Cooperative play occurs in the later preschool years. Children are able to take on roles and sustain them for the duration of the play. The group of children have agreed upon goals and roles for the play. In this stage of play, leaders and followers


emerge within groups. Roles are delegated and tasks distributed within the group. There is a common goal and children will play together in a more complex way.

Competitive play This stage usually emerges in the school-aged group when achievement, completing tasks and producing an ‘end-product’ becomes more meaningful. Competitive lay is inevitable but should be played down by carers as too much emphasis on competition can be destructive to peer relationships and children’s self-esteem. Instead there should be an emphasis on collaboration.

Activity 6

Kenneth H. RubinKenneth H. Rubin and his associates have been working since the mid-1970’s studying the development of children’s social, dramatic and cognitive play. Their studies have been successful in combining both the Parten and Smilansky categories in observing the relationship between social and cognitive play.

The results of Rubin’s and his associates studies have done much to clarify the developmental levels of children’s play in light of our knowledge about children. They also have identified “how” children play and how it correlates with Parton’s Stages of Social Play. The stages of the theory are briefly outlined below:

Rubin’s stages of dramatic and imaginative play

Solitary Play Parallel Play Group Play

Functional Play Child plays by self with or without objects

Child plays parallel to others with or without objects

Child plays with a group with or without objects

Constructive Play Child plays by self constructing or creating something

Child plays parallel to others constructing or creating something

Child plays with a group constructing or creating something


Dramatic Play Child plays by self in pretending-type activity

Child plays parallel to others in pretending-type activity

Child plays with a group in pretending-type activity

Jerome SingerThis theory highlights the importance of children’s imagination and curiosity can be developed through dramatic and socio dramatic play.

‘…describe the ability to engage in make-believe play as essential to children’s developing ability for internal imagery, stimulating curiosity, and experimenting with alternative responses to different situations. This capacity, practiced in play settings, enhances children’s ability to engage successfully in new situations’ (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2001, p. 68).

Singer also found that the development and demonstration of a young child’s imagination can also be influenced by a range of environmental facets. These include:

• the development of a child’s language development• the young child’s family situation• exposure to stressful situations • opportunity to role play and immerse themselves in make believe and

dramatic play• the development of a child’s cognitive skills• the development of the physical skills• the development of the social, emotional and moral skills• the play environment • opportunities for different types of play and play experiences• the human environment such as: the adults


Model appropriate communication with children

Use a language style that is appropriate for the child’s age, developmental stage and cultureCompetent carers use their knowledge of the typical sequence of development, as well as knowledge of individual children, to inform their decisions about planned and spontaneous provisions in the program. The language style you use with a child should also be based on these considerations.

You might remember how children develop language competence from your previous studies. If you have been working with children for some time, you will certainly have practical experience from which to form a model of the order in which children learn to understand and use language. We can read about the typical sequence of language development in any comprehensive child development textbook. Below is a very brief overview which you may find useful.

Overview of language development

Age Typical stage of language development

Newborn: crying As early as five weeks, and for most by three to four months, babies make ‘cooing’ sounds during face-to-face interactions with adults—their first ‘conversations’. These are mostly vowel sounds.

First six months: babbling

By the fifth or sixth month, babies will carry on long babbling conversations with their carer. They use many consonants eg bububub or dadadad. At about nine months, the sounds not heard by the baby in the mother tongue they hear used around them begin to drop out of their utterances.

10–12 months: expressive jargon and receptive language

At about 10 to 12 months, many babies engage in what sounds like a pretend kind of speech. They will come out with what sound like long complicated sentences complete with expression except the ‘words’ are unintelligible. This kind of speech is called ‘expressive jargon’. At around 12 months, infants can understand words and simple requests. Their receptive language develops earlier than their expressive language.


12–18 months: holophrastic language

Around 12 months, many infants will start to use single words. Sometime after this they will begin to use holophrases (one word sentences) that express a whole thought. By 18 months, most infants will be using between three and 50 words consistently.

18–24 months: two words

During this time children start to use two-word utterances, mainly consisting of nouns with a verb or an adjective attached. At this age children may have trouble producing some sounds. As the child’s mouth and other organs of speech develop, their speech sounds usually become clearer.

2–2½ years: telegraphic speech

At around two to two-and-a-half years old, the toddler begins to use a new style of language called ‘telegraphic speech’. The child’s sentence contains only the essential words—all of the little words have been left out. For example, the child may say ‘Mummy go work car’ for ‘Mummy is going to work in the car’.

2½–3 years: complete sentences

The child’s language gradually becomes more adult-like in sentence structure and sound production. Gradually, children begin to fill out their sentences and include all the words previously left out in telegraphic speech, and begin to speak in complete sentences. Children’s sentences may still have some grammatical errors—eg over-regularisations such as ‘I goed to my school today’.

3–5 years By the time children reach their third birthday, their language skills allow them to communicate effectively with adults and other children. They are sometimes difficult to understand because their pronunciation of some words is still developing. They have learnt the art of conversation but, because they are egocentric, what they are talking about may not be on the same topic as the person they are talking with. They talk about what they want to do, who will do what and what will happen next. They are learning the rules of grammar and their vocabulary is rapidly increasing. Preschoolers use language creatively, sometimes make up their own words and enjoy the sound of words. For this reason they enjoy poetry, rhymes and jingles. They also begin to appreciate humour generated by language and love to hear and tell simple jokes.

6–12 years Children have a very good grasp of language by five years of age. Their use and understanding of language becomes far more complex. Children also develop the skills of reading and writing. In middle childhood children become aware of the different ways we use language in different contexts and can look beyond the literal to appreciate the deeper meaning of language. Their appreciation of language-based humour becomes more refined and joke-telling becomes a practised and developed skill.

Understanding the typical sequence of language development is a solid foundation in knowing how best to model appropriate communication with


children. You need much more than this, however, to meet the needs of individual children. Real children rarely fit neatly into rigid developmental frameworks. We need to know what kind of language we should use with each child which will best suit where the child is at present and which will best facilitate him or her to the next stage.

Carers need to know each child as a unique individual to appreciate the individual differences in the development of their language. We observe and interact with them to get to know their own particular language development profile.

Using non-verbal communication It has been estimated that up to 97% of meaning is carried by the non-verbal aspects of language. Body language, posture, facial expression, gestures, touch and phatic language (eg ‘mmm’, ‘ohhh!’, ‘really?’ and so on) provide vital information during an interaction.

We also need to allow time to spend listening to the child, to appear relaxed and interested and to ensure that there are spaces provided in the physical environment which accommodate quality interactions between adults and children.

When you are communicating with children you need to be aware that your non-verbal language is very important in providing children with information and feedback about the meaning of the communication as well as your involvement in the interaction. Children need to see a posture of involvement where the adult faces the child and gives full attention and eye contact. This will show the child that you are interested in what they have to say and that you are prepared to spend time developing the interaction.

Following are some aspects of non-verbal language which you could adapt to use with children at the appropriate level for their individual stage of development.

First, face the child—you may need to kneel.

Then, as you are communicating with the child:

• appear relaxed, but not bored or uninterested • give the child time • give the child interested eye contact • use facial expressions appropriate to the context and topic of the

interaction • decide on appropriate personal space and touching • use gestures where necessary • use minimal encouragers and phatic language to encourage the child to

sustain the communication.


Note: Examples of minimal encouragers are ‘I see’, ‘Oh, really?’ and ‘Go on’. You say them to indicate to the person who’s speaking that you’re listening and are interested. Examples of phatic language are ‘How are you?’ and ‘How do you do?’—you ask these questions not because you really want to know how the other person is but because you want to acknowledge them.

Cultural differences in the use of non-verbal language There is one point that is worth keeping in mind. There are many cultures that have different expectations and taboos in the use of non-verbal language, for example not touching anyone on the head, avoiding eye contact as a mark of respect, acceptable touching or contact between genders, nodding as a sign of listening and respect rather than as a sign of agreement, and many others. It is important that you do your best to find out what is suitable for each child and take care to use relevant and appropriate strategies.


Acknowledge, value and respect diversity through interactions and provisions

DiversityAustralia is a country of diversity. Diversity means variation and difference. One of the outstanding characteristics of Australia is the diversity of the people who are Australians. The Australian people differ, for example, in gender, race, age, abilities, culture, religion, social and economic backgrounds, and ethnic or linguistic backgrounds.

Early childhood is the time to help children learn to respect and get along with people who are different. Research has shown that between the ages of two and five years, children start to recognise and respond to differences. During these years, children become aware of differences in gender, race, ethnic backgrounds, physical appearance and abilities.

Depending on the messages children receive from the adults and others in their environment, they will grow to respect and value diversity and difference or they will develop prejudices and biases towards people who are different.

Inclusive careChildren who are cared for in children’s services reflect the diversity of the Australian population. More and more, children’s services are offering inclusive care. Inclusive care means that children from different racial, linguistic and cultural backgrounds and children with disabilities and developmental delays are being cared for in childcare services.

Caregivers have a great responsibility to offer care which is responsive to the diverse needs of all the children who attend a service. They also have a responsibility to encourage all children to value and respect differences and develop positive attitudes towards diversity. Research has shown that inclusive care has positive benefits for children.


Children who are cared for in an inclusive service:

• appreciate diversity• have better communication and social skills• have a greater understanding of moral values• have caring friendships• have greater self-esteem.

Children with additional needsThe key to providing good quality care in an inclusive environment is to ensure that every child has the opportunity to reach his or her fullest potential. All children have developmental needs which must be met if they are to achieve optimal development. Some children have additional needs. Children with additional needs have developmental needs over and above typical or average development needs, which must be met if full developmental potential is to be achieved.

Other terms are also used to describe children with different needs. You may come across the terms children who are challenging, children with special needs, and exceptional children. All these terms have the same meaning as children with additional needs.

Children who have a cognitive, physical or emotional condition that affects their growth and development are identified as having special or additional needs. These children should not be singled out for special treatment. Focus should be on the child as a person, not on the particular disability. Children with disabilities should be included, where possible and practicable, in the everyday goings-on in a service. Their strengths and interests should be identified and built on.

Children should be seen as able and clever. Caregivers must respect the skills and knowledge that the child has. Often, children with additional needs are not viewed in this way. The additional need becomes the focus of attention rather than the strengths and skills the child has already. When the focus is on what the child can’t do, often the child learns and achieves what is expected and achievements outside these expectations may not be seen. The child’s disability and additional needs become the focus rather than their strengths and competencies.

Which children have additional needs?Children who have additional needs may require extra caregiver input or special resources, or special teaching techniques to support their learning and development.


Children who have additional needs may include children who:

• are gifted—children whose cognitive development is far ahead of children the same age (eg, a three-year-old who is reading independently)

• have a special talent in a particular area (eg, a child who has special musical skills or athletic skills)

• cannot speak English but use a language other than English at home• speak English, but as a second language• are hearing impaired (deaf or partially deaf)• are visually impaired (blind or partially sighted)• have an intellectual disability—children whose cognitive development lags

behind other children of the same age • have a particular condition (eg, Down’s syndrome or cerebral palsy)• have emotional problems (eg, due to abuse or neglect)• experience or have experienced malnutrition or not enough of the right

food to ensure brain and body growth• have a physical disability (eg, children who need to use a wheelchair)• have a chronic illness (eg, AIDS, asthma)• have attention deficit disorder (ie, cannot focus on a task for an age-

appropriate amount of time)• have a learning disability (eg, find it difficult to learn to read)• have a language disorder (eg may have difficulty pronouncing certain

sounds)• have disturbed and difficult behaviour (eg, unusually withdrawn

behaviour or violent behaviour).

Carers can create environments which are responsive to the diverse needs of all children, including those children with additional needs.

Inclusion or integration of children with additional needsInclusion or integration refers to the practice of providing for the educational, physical, social and emotional needs of the child with additional needs, within a regular setting that is also attended by children without additional needs.

The child may require specific provisions in the integrated setting, and this may involve the advice of other professionals.

Least restrictive environmentThis means that to the fullest extent possible, the care environment for children with additional needs must be the same as, or similar to, that for typically developing children.


Additional needs and social attitudesSociety’s attitudes to people who are different are changing. This was seen in the national and international response to the 2000 Paralympic Games in Sydney. The focus today is on the uniqueness of every child and on each child’s abilities. The emphasis in caring for children should always be on what the child can do, never on what they can’t do. There is also an emphasis on family involvement in any program which caters for children with additional needs.

Children (and adults) with additional needs are now protected by anti-discrimination laws which state their right to have fair and equal treatment and access to services. The emphasis in society is on inclusion, not exclusion and separateness. The goal of all support services is to give children with additional needs access to a least restrictive environment which offers the best possible opportunity for full development.

Activity 7

Promoting positive attitudes in childrenNegative or biased feelings based on gender, race, disability or social class prevent children’s healthy development. In order to develop a positive self-concept and high self-esteem, children need to learn how to interact positively and fairly with different types of people. You can help promote positive attitudes in children by, for example, making sure that culturally important dates are celebrated.

Children are naturally curious and will ask questions about differences they notice. A young child may ask questions such as ‘Why is her skin so light/dark?’, ‘Why does she speak funny?’ or ‘Why can’t he run?’. The type of responses that caregivers give to children’s questions will influence children’s developing attitudes to difference and diversity. Caregivers need to confront their own biased attitudes and change them in order to foster children’s growth in a positive way.

What carers can doYou need to recognise that because we live in a society where many biases exist, we must counteract these, or else we will support them through our silence.

At home or at school, give children messages that deliberately contrast stereotypes by providing books, dolls, toys, wall decorations, TV programs and records that show:

• men and women in non-traditional roles • people of colour in leadership positions• people with disabilities doing activities familiar to children


• various types of families and family activities.

As well, always make sure that you:

• Show no bias in the friends, doctors, teachers and other service providers that you choose, nor in the stores where you shop. Remember what you do is as important as what you say.

• Make it a firm rule that a person’s appearance is never an acceptable reason for teasing or rejecting them. Immediately step in if you hear or see a child behave in such a way.

• Talk positively about each child’s physical characteristics and cultural heritage; help children learn the differences between feelings of superiority and those of self-esteem and pride in their own heritage.

• Provide opportunities for children to interact with other children who are racially or culturally different from themselves and with people who have various disabilities.

• Respectfully listen to and answer children’s questions about themselves and others. Don’t ignore, change the subject, or in any way make the child think she or he is bad for asking such a question.

• Teach children how to challenge biases about who they are. Give them tools to confront those who act in a biased way against them.

• Use accurate and fair images in contrast to stereotypes, and encourage children to talk about the differences. Help them to think critically about what they see in books, movies, greeting cards, comics and on television.

• Let children know that unjust things can be changed. Encourage children to challenge bias and involve children in taking action on issues relevant to their lives.

(From the website Teaching Young Children to Resist Bias, National Association for the Education of Young Children, USA, 1997. Used with permission.

It is very easy to feel pity and sympathy for children with additional needs—especially children with disabilities. However, too much sympathy can interfere with or hinder the child’s developmental progress. A caregiver whose primary feeling is pity or sympathy focuses on what the child can’t do and may never be able to do. Rather it is important that the caregiver be aware of what the child can do. Your focus should be on the child’s capabilities, potential and interests. This positive focus will motivate you to support the child’s development.


We can provide opportunities for children to interact with other children and adults who are racially or culturally different from themselves

You should get to know the child as an individual, with likes and dislikes and particular personality characteristics. Be interested in the child’s family and experiences, just as you would with any child. Avoid indulging in pity and sympathy but be warm and supportive in your interactions with the child.

Social interactions and friendships between childrenChildren with additional needs have the same social needs as other young children, particularly from the age of three onwards. Research on children with additional needs shows that these children are frequently isolated or rejected by other children. Children with additional needs can easily become fringe dwellers in a social group. However, research has also shown that if the child is able to form friendships and be accepted by other children when young, he or she will grow up to be a more independent and emotionally healthy adult. This means that children with additional needs often find it harder to make friends in childcare settings and that good friendships are very important for them for development in the early years, as well as their future development.

As a caregiver, it is most important that you support children with additional needs in their interactions and relationships with other children. You need to become the model for all the children in your social interactions. You should include children with additional needs in group activities in a natural and sensitive way. This doesn’t mean putting them in the spotlight or treating them in a way that singles them out and makes them stand out in the group.

Caregiving overviewAs a caregiver, you can nurture each child’s development and meet the diverse needs of all children in an inclusive environment by modelling behaviour which shows respect to all children. As well, you should have the expectation that children respect each other and not ignore any behaviour that shows disrespect.

In your role as caregiver it is vital to develop a supportive, respectful communication with families. The emphasis should be on working cooperatively with the child’s family, and with other professionals, in helping to design and implement a program that suits the child’s individual needs. You need to have reasonable behavioural expectations (as you do for all children) about where developmentally the child is headed. Break the learning of big skills into small steps and help the child learn each small step. Be enthusiastic in your praise as each small step is achieved.


Activity 8


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