child lit cont manual

Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature CONTRIBUTORS’ MANUAL

[OXFORD] ENCYCLOPEDIA of CHILDREN’S LITERATURE

Editor in Chief

Jack Zipes_____________________

CONTRIBUTORS’ MANUAL

Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016-4314


CONTENTS

A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR IN CHIEFEDITORIAL BOARD1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Contents of the Encyclopedia1.2 Cross-references1.3 Frontmatter and Backmatter

2 PLANNING YOUR ARTICLE2.1 Scope Description2.2 Assigned Length

3 WRITING YOUR ARTICLE3.1 Readership3.2 Internal Headings3.3 Identifying People and Places3.4 Dates3.5 Abbreviations3.6 Quotations and Permissions3.7 Citations3.8 Tables and Illustrations3.9 Foreign Words, Phrases, and Titles

4 COMPILING YOUR BIBLIOGRAPHY4.1 Purpose4.2 Number of Items4.3 Availability of Works4.4 Format4.5 Annotations4.6 Verification of Sources4.7 Online Resources4.8 Sample Bibliography

5 KEYBOARDING YOUR MANUSCRIPT5.1 General Format 5.2 Headwords 5.3 Openings 5.4 Format for Headings

5.5 Spelling and Punctuation 5.6 Capitalization 5.7 Quotation Marks 5.8 Italics

5.9 Bibliography 5.10 Signing Your Article

6 EDITORIAL PROCEDURES6.1 Submitting Your Manuscript6.2 Due Date6.3 Review of Your Manuscript6.4 Copyediting6.5 Your Review of Copyediting6.6 Proofreading6.7 Offprints

7 GENERAL DIRECTIVES AND SCOPE DESCRIPTIONS 8 SAMPLE ARTICLES


A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR IN CHIEF

The [Oxford] Encyclopedia of Children’s Literature aims to present a reasonably complete view of its sub-ject area in four volumes. Its emphasis is on authoritativeness, overall quality, and good organization. En-tries (including blind reference entries) are arranged in alphabetical order, by headword. The encyclopediafocuses on major authors, illustrators, publishers, librarians, critics, terms, organizations, and literary genres,providing information on principal works on which there exists a broad and active scholarship and those thathave wide general appeal.

The encyclopedia aspires to breadth of scope allied to sufficient depth of detail to make it useful to a widespectrum of readers. It will be used both as a “resource of first resort” for the community of scholars in thefield or in related disciplines and as a source of accessible and dependable factual information for the intelli-gent general reader. The enyclopedia will also be a book to browse in—a book to stimulate and to inspirefurther reading.

The work’s intention is to sum up current knowledge of the subject; contributors are not expected to carryout extensive original research but to provide an authoritative view based on present knowledge. Above all,the encyclopedia aims for comprehensiveness, balance, authority, and lasting appeal.

CHILDREN’S LITERATURE The object of this book is to present a lively and authoritative compendium of in-formation about children’s literature worldwide with a strong emphasis on anglophone works: children’sliterature’s major authors and titles, its contribution to other artistic mediums, and its cultural context. Therewill be an introduction to the encyclopedia that will define the scope of the project and provide historical in-formation about the development of children’s literature. It is not the responsibility of the contributors toprovide exact definitions of children’s literature; it is their responsibility to define their topics and terms asclearly as possible.

READERSHIP We are aiming at an international readership, mainly but not exclusively Anglophone. Themain market is likely to be North America and the United Kingdom. Categories of potential readers includechildren’s literature enthusiasts, students of literature at the high school and university levels, studentsstudying related subjects or taking interdisciplinary courses, children’s literature specialists needing a quickreference resource, academics outside the discipline, bibliographers and book collectors, writers and re-searchers of many kinds, and general readers including subscribers to book clubs. Please keep all thesecategories in mind when writing your entries.

Jack Zipes


EDITORIAL BOARDEditor in Chief

Jack Zipes

Senior EditorsBeverly Lyon Clark

Andrea ImmelDonnarae MacCannRoderick McGillisMaria Nikolajeva

Kimberley ReynoldsJohn Stephens

Deborah Stevenson

Advisory EditorsRosalinda Barrera

Sandra BeckettCarmen Diana Dearden

Klaus DodererEliza Dresang

Nadia El KholyHans-Heino Ewers

Violet HarrisBetsy Hearne

Dianne JohnsonBettina Kümmerling-Meibauer

Ann Lawson-LucasAlison Lurie

Michelle MartinJean Perrot

Isabel SchonZohar ShavitMorag StylesRoger Sutton

Thomas van der WaltKay VandergriftTony WatkinsJunko Yoshida


1_______________

INTRODUCTION

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF CHILDREN’S LITERATURE will include approximately 3500 articles by manycontributors. The complexity of the project and the high level of accuracy and clarity we hope to maintainrequire consistent, effective procedures from editors and contributors alike.

This manual describes the procedures we will follow. It is intended to assist you in planning and writingyour articles and in preparing your manuscript for submission. The rules given and the principles expressedhere are offered as guidelines only. If your article presents a special problem that warrants deviation fromany of the rules given here, or if you have questions about scope, styles, format, or procedure, contact thepublisher.

1.1 CONTENTS OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA Entries in the encyclopedia will be arranged in alphabetical order,by headword.

1.2 CROSS-REFERENCES A system of cross-references, devised by the editorial staff, will inform readers ofrelated articles throughout the encyclopedia. Cross-references may appear or be added at appropriate pointswithin the text of an article, at the end of an article, or under a blind entry. When writing groups of relatedentries, please recheck them on completion to ensure correlation of information and avoidance of repetition.Entries should be self-sufficient to the extent that they make sense without the reader having to follow upthe cross-reference. Please suggest but do not insert cross-references; the latter is the editor’s responsibility.

1.3 FRONTMATTER AND BACKMATTER The frontmatter of Volume 1 will include a thematically arrangedlist of articles. The backmatter of Volume 4 will include a directory of contributors and their institutional af-filiations and a comprehensive index of concepts, names, and terms. Appendices or other supplementarymaterial may be added as well.


2_______________

PLANNING YOUR ARTICLE

2.1 SCOPE DESCRIPTION A scope description included on the Schedule A appended to your contract indi-cates what each article is to cover. If you think that the description is inappropriate or if you would prefer towrite the article from a different perspective, please get in touch with Erin Carter, Development Editor at Ox-ford University Press.

2.2 ASSIGNED LENGTH The encyclopedia will include articles of various lengths. Try to keep to the wordcount allotted to your article. The contract may call for fewer words than the Editor in Chief or another edi-torial board member suggested in his or her original conversation with you; the length has been adjustedwith the overall proportions of the encyclopedia and the budget for the project in mind. Significant deviationfrom the word allotments for individual articles will skew the distribution pattern of the whole and will re-quire editorial correction.

A manuscript page printed out on letter-size paper (8½ × 11 inches) with double spacing between lines andwith 1-inch margins will contain between 250 and 275 words, depending on the font you use. Most word-processing programs have a word count function that will tell you exactly how many words you have writ-ten. As a rough guide to the relationship between number of words and number of manuscript pages, thefollowing scale can be applied:

Words Pages

500 2750 3

1,000 41,500 62,000 82,500 103,000 123,500 144,000 165,000 206,000 247,500 30

10,000 40

When you finish preparing your text for submission, provide the actual word count in the upper right-handcorner of the first page. The word allotment of your article does not include the bibliography.

If you find that you are unable to write your article in the number of words allotted, advise the publisher ofyour problem.


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WRITING YOUR ARTICLE

3.1 READERSHIP The encyclopedia is intended for the mythical “general reader.” It will be used by studentsfrom the high school to the graduate level and by the educated nonspecialist. Avoid jargon. In most caseswrite for the educated person who is not an expert in the field. Your article is not a review of the literature ora journal article addressed to other scholars. Do not cite other scholars except as necessary.

•Content. Wherever possible an entry should begin with a definition-type statement that makes clear itsrelevance to children’s literature and why it warrants inclusion in the encyclopedia. A good entry is one thatis complete in itself while, where relevant, placing the topic in a larger context.

•Reliability of information is crucial. Therefore, please check all facts you provide.•Opinions. Though entries are signed by the contributor, personal views should be kept to a minimum.

Where controversy exists, an entry should offer a rounded and impartial guide to the nature of the debateand the central points at issue.

•Readability is of the utmost importance. The tone should be lively and scholarly, and clear expressionis essential. Literary skill will be valued, and we will not attempt to edit down to a bland common denomi-nator.

•Biographical entries should begin with a short sentence fragment containing the person’s name, birthand death dates, and a simple identification, which makes clear his or her relevance to the development ofchilden’s literature.

3.2 INTERNAL HEADINGS Include internal headings about every 750 or 1,000 words. Keep them brief; aheading is a label, not an elaborate description of contents.

For design reasons, do not begin your article with a heading.

3.3 IDENTIFYING PEOPLE AND PLACES Most readers of your article will not be specialists in your field. Fortheir benefit, please give, wherever appropriate, chronological, geographical, and/or cultural clues to identifypeople and places mentioned in your article:

. . . the New York political boss William Marcy Tweed . . .

. . . Piraeus, the port of Athens . . .

. . . the Sandwich Islands (now known as Hawaii) . . .

Normally use a person’s given name and surname when first mentioned, and surname only thereafter. Al-cott should normally be “Alcott” (not Louisa Alcott or Louisa May Alcott unless mention of other Alcottswithin the entry might cause confusion).

3.4 DATES Give the reader a sense of the dates or periods of works and events:

. . . the Encyclopédie, published in twenty-eight volumes (seventeen volumes of text and eleven volumes of illus-trations) between 1751 and 1772 . . .

. . . the Battle of Gettysburg, on 1–3 July 1863, marked the high water mark of Confederate advance . . .

It is not necessary to give lifespan dates for every figure mentioned in your article.


3.5 ABBREVIATIONS Keep abbreviations, as much as possible, out of the running text of your article, exceptin parentheses. Use standard abbreviations (ed., vol., no., and pp.) in bibliographies.

3.6 QUOTATIONS AND PERMISSIONS Whenever possible, avoid quotation from previously published worksprotected by copyright, even if the works are your own. We suggest this for two reasons: (1) to avoid havingto secure written permission to reprint material from copyrighted sources and (2) to encourage you to writean article that is fresh and original.

Use quotations only when they are essential to full understanding. If your article requires extensive quota-tion from previously published works, contact Erin Carter at Oxford University Press for guidance.

Indicate the source, with exact page numbers, for any quoted material as well as for interpretations and factstaken from secondary sources. Page numbers are helpful to our copyeditors, who will check quotations andfacts.

We will routinely check your article for material that may require permission to reprint. But the responsibil-ity for determining the copyright status of your sources and for judging the need for permission to reprint itis yours. Submit letters of permission to us along with your manuscript. Erin Carter can provide you with asample permission-request letter.

3.7 CITATIONS The encyclopedia will not include footnotes. If your article requires an occasional citation ofa specific source, provide complete bibliographical information for all such citations in the bibliographyfollowing your article, and cite the source in the run of text as follows:

As Keith Michael Baker (1975) has observed . . .

The impact of Enlightenment thought on the antislavery movement has been examined by others (Baker and Lu-cas, 1987–1988; Blackburn, 1988; Davis, 1966) . . .

Keep such run-of-text citations to a minimum.

3.8 TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS We encourage you to suggest illustrative material with your article. Sub-mit photocopies of such material on a separate sheet of paper. Give information on sources where Oxfordcan secure an original copy and permission for reproduction for illustrations.

3.9 FOREIGN WORDS, PHRASES, AND TITLES must be accompanied by a courtesy translation unless there isno ambiguity in English. Unless given in run of text, the courtesy translation should be in parentheses in text(in square brackets within quotations), without quotation marks, initial cap only, roman. For titles of works,the date of publication, if given, follows a comma; use initial capital and capitals of proper nouns only.

innumerable compagnie, or voluntary confraternities, found . . . Empfindsamkeit (feeling)Kreuzzüge eines Philologen (Crusades of a philologue, 1762)≡ ≡


If there is an English translation, put the date of the original first followed by a semicolon and then theEnglish title in italics with the date of publication, if known.

Kant’s Kritik der reinen Vernunft (1781; English trans., Critique of Pure Reason)

Once the original title is given with its English translation, the form of the title most familiar to English-speaking readers should be used in subsequent discussion.


4_______________

COMPILING YOUR BIBLIOGRAPHY

4.1 PURPOSE The bibliography should direct the reader—particularly the student writing a paper—to themajor biographical and critical works that deal with the subject of your article. Be selective in compilingyour bibliography; do not aim for an exhaustive listing of works. Annotate each item as appropriate.

In an author article, do not list the author’s publications in the bibliography; if there is a very good anthol-ogy available, this may be listed.

4.2 NUMBER OF ITEMS The number of items in each bibliography should be proportional to the size of theentry. As a general guide, there should be one item for every 250 words of text. The bibliography shouldoverwhelm neither the reader nor the article. Emphasize the most important and readily available sources ofinformation about your topic.

Do not include the bibliography in calculating the word count of your article.

4.3 AVAILABILITY OF WORKS The bibliography is intended as a guide to further reading, not a list of thesources you use in preparing your article. Favor book-length works available in most libraries. Do not in-clude journal articles, out-of-print works, and works available only in research libraries and archives inac-cessible to most readers. Because most users of the encyclopedia will be nonspecialists, minimize referencesto periodical literature.

4.4 FORMAT Arrange your bibliography as an annotated list, with hanging indent and double spacing. Yourannotations may be as full as necessary to indicate the significance of the entry to the reader, but aim forconcision and economy of expression. Arrange items alphabetically by surname of author. Multiple worksby a single author should be listed in alphabetical order by title. The editorial staff will edit bibliographiesaccording to the style set out in The Chicago Manual of Style, 14th edition, chapter 15. Most of the worksyou cite will be books. An item should include:

Names of authors in full, surname first. If there is more than one item by an author, repeat the author’s name; donot use a 3-em dash. If there are two or more authors, reverse the name of only the first author.

Titles of works in full, including subtitles. Underline all titles.

Edition if it is other than the first. Note particularly if you are citing a reprint or a revised edition. If more thanone edition is available, cite the most recently published edition.

Number of volumes of multivolume works. Give the volume number, when appropriate, for works in a series.

Names of editors and translators in full.

Place and date of publication and names of publishers.

Wherever possible, include sources that themselves provide extensive bibliographical resources.


4.5 ANNOTATIONS Not every item will require annotation, but nonspecialist readers especially will begrateful for your evaluations. Indicate the contents of the work when not obvious from the title. For instance,“A translation of two late-nineteenth-century German texts on fairy tales,” or “A series of studies originallypublished by the author in various sources. Note especially the chapter on science fiction.” Be brief, butcomment on the work’s strengths and weaknesses as specifically as you can and note the critical or interpre-tive stance of the work if it is significant. Comments such as “A major work” are of little value (all works inyour bibliography are assumed to be of significance) compared with more substantial remarks; for example,“The best work in the field, especially valuable for its use of archival materials overlooked by other schol-ars,” or “A thoughtful analysis that is marred only by the author's failure to consider the issue from a globalperspective.”

4.6 VERIFICATION OF SOURCES Readers will depend on the accuracy, completeness, and consistency ofyour bibliography. Do not cite bibliographic information from memory; verify each entry in your bibliogra-phy against the original source.

4.7 ONLINE RESOURCES Unless absolutely necessary do not give online sources for information since Webaddresses change frequently and the sources may be of dubious reliability. When it is necessary to use onlinesources, give the site and page titles, the URL (in angle brackets), any other information you deem useful, anddate of material, if given. Provide the author name if given.

The correct style for a URL is

EatEthnic.com <http://www.eatethnic.com> Examines holiday foods, religious food practices, recipes, sources ofingredients, a bookstore specializing in food and cultural studies, Q&A.

4.8 SAMPLE BIBLIOGRAPHY The bibliography that follows has been liberally constructed from a variety ofsources. It appears here solely as a guide to formatting and represents neither a bibliography of a particulartopic nor the scholarly judgment of the editors concerning the works cited.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport, Conn.:Greenwood, 1973.

Nolan, Mary Lee, and Sidney Nolan. Christian Pilgrimage in Modern Western Europe. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Univer-sity of North Carolina Press, 1989. Important presentation of data based on when and why pilgrimage shrinesdeveloped.

Hammons, Ray O. “The Origin and History of the Groundnut.” In The Groundnut Crop: A Scientific Basis for Im-provement, edited by J. Smartt, pp. 16–18. London and New York: Chapman and Hall, 1994.

Jenkins, J. A. “The Origin of the Cultivated Tomato.” Economic Botany 2 (1948): 379–392.

Hall, James O. “The Spy Harrison.” Civil War Illustrated Times 24, no. 10 (February 1986): 19–25.


5_______________

KEYBOARDING YOUR MANUSCRIPT

5.1 GENERAL FORMAT When printing out, use double spacing and ample margins. Follow the following for-mat for the header:

Children’s Literature [Title of your article] [Page number]

For example,

Children’s Literature Fantasy 1

5.2 HEADWORDS The headword/s at the start of the entry should be typed in bold type. Do not use fullcapitals: headwords that are common nouns should begin with a lowercase letter; proper nouns of courserequire uppercase; for example:

legendslullabyRapunzel Hobbit

Headwords that are the titles of published books will be in bold italic; stories will be bold in double quotes;for example:

Little Women“Little Red Riding Hood”

5.3 OPENINGS The following are the preferred styles for openings of entries:

(a) Headword/s. New sentence.(b) Headword/s, brief description.(c) Headword/s as subject of the opening sentence.

Please do not use the (c) option in a construction where the headwords are back-to-front, e.g., fairy-tale,commercialization of, requires opening options (a) or (b). Apart from brief descriptive phrases in openings,please use complete sentences throughout.

5.4 FORMAT FOR HEADINGS Use only one level of internal heading. Do not begin your article with a head-ing. Do not use the heading “Conclusion” or “Summary” as your final heading; use a descriptive term.Headings and subheadings should not be underlined unless they require italics as itemized in section 5.8.

5.5 SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION We will follow American usage throughout. Primarily this means using“-or”(behavior) instead of “-our” (behaviour), “-er” (center) instead of “-re” (centre), and “-ize” (summa-rize) instead of “-ise” (summarise). This also means that commas, periods, and question marks are placedinside the quotation marks: The title of the tale is “Cinderella.” We want to note three tales: “Cinderella,”“Snow White,” and “Beauty and the Beast.” Colons and semicolons are placed outside quotation marks.


5.6 CAPITALIZATION We will use capital letters sparingly in the text. Titles of works in English should fol-low the capital/lowercase style (see Chicago Manual of Style 7.127-7.128). In citations of works in foreignlanguages, capitalize the first word of a title or subtitle and then capitalize by the rules of normal prose forthe language in question.

5.7 QUOTATION MARKS should always be double except when they are used within another set of quotationmarks. All single short narratives and poems are to be in double quotes.

“The Arabian Nights”“Cinderella”“Snow White”

5.8 ITALICS should be indicated in the copy by single underline. This will apply mainly to foreign wordsand phrases and titles of books, journals, plays, and films. If you are unsure whether something should beitalicized, please leave it without the underline. (For ease of editing, please use underline rather than italiceven if the latter is available through your word-processing program.) Avoid the use of italics for emphasis.

5.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY Begin the bibliography on a separate page.

5.10 SIGNING YOUR ARTICLE Following the bibliography, include your name exactly as you wish it toappear in print. The encyclopedia will include a biographical directory of contributors. Below your name,provide a brief biographical note, including any information that will be of special interest to readers of theencyclopedia.


6_______________

EDITORIAL PROCEDURES

6.1 SUBMITTING YOUR MANUSCRIPT Send your manuscript to the editor at Oxford University Press, not tothe Editor in Chief. The preferred method of submission is to send your manuscript as an e-mail attachmentin a commonly used word-processing program (e.g., Microsoft Word, Word Perfect) to

Erin [email protected]

If you cannot send your manuscript in this way, please contact the publisher as early as possible to deter-mine the best alternative.

6.2 DUE DATE Try to meet the due date specified on the Schedule A for submission of your manuscript.Contact Erin Carter well in advance if you foresee any problem meeting the date.

6.3 REVIEW OF YOUR MANUSCRIPT Upon receipt of your manuscript, the editorial board will determine thesuitability of your article in light of the scope description and the overall plan of the encyclopedia. You maybe asked to revise your article to address issues of substance.

6.4 COPYEDITING Upon approval of your article by the editorial board, your manuscript will be copyedited.The text of your article will be edited for consistency in style and grammar, your bibliography will be styled,and the graphic elements of your article will be coded for the typesetter.

6.5 YOUR REVIEW OF COPYEDITING We will send your copyedited manuscript to you for your review,emendation, and final approval. You will be asked to reply to any editorial queries, to make any substantivechanges and corrections you deem necessary, and to return the copyedited manuscript to us promptly.

6.6 PROOFREADING You do not have to read proofs. Galley proofs and page proofs will be checked by ourproofreaders.

6.7 OFFPRINTS We regret that we will be unable to provide offprints of articles upon publication of the En-cyclopedia.


Please address questions about content to the Editor in Chief

Jack Zipes

e-mail: [email protected] regular office address and phone number are:

Department of GermanUniversity of MinnesotaMinneapolis, MN 55455

612-624-1041612-624-8297 (fax)

He will be on a sabbatical in Italy from September 15, 2002 to July 15, 2003.

Please send manuscripts, preferably by e-mail, to the publisher

Erin K. Carter

e-mail: [email protected]

Reference DivisionOxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, 10th FloorNew York, NY 10016

212-726-6280212-726-6445 (fax)


7_______________

GENERAL DIRECTIVES AND SCOPE DESCRIPTIONS FOR ARTICLES

The encyclopedia is intended to be a collection of separate but interrelated articles that provide informa-tion on specific topics within the larger framework of the whole set. Before you begin writing your arti-cles, please consult the table of contents so that you are aware of other, related topics and can avoid over-lap as much as possible. If you are not sure whether certain topics are covered, please contact your areaeditor or Erin Carter. In addition, please suggest cross-references from your article that may be usefulto readers.

Keep in mind as you research and draft your articles that the encyclopedia is intended to provide a globalperspective while focusing on Anglophone traditions. This will be particularly important for articles thatfall into the categories of “Genre/Theme” and “Special Subjects and Terms,” most of which should givesome attention to aspects of the topic in North America, Australia, and the United Kingdom as well asother countries and regions that have made significant contributions.

AUTHORS, ILLUSTRATORS, AND OTHER “PERSON” ENTRIESThese should function as introductions to the person’s work; they vary in length considerably, from 100 to2000 words. Short articles (100–700 words) obviously must cut to the chase rather efficiently. Longer ar-ticles (1,000–2,000 words) should be more like essays, with room to consider the person’s work in somedetail, focusing on important moments in the literary career. For articles of all lengths, focus on a critical,not a biographical treatment; avoid a celebratory approach.

The shorter entries (100–700 words) should start with a strong definitional statement and provide the per-son’s lifespan dates and cultural background, a brief summary of the genres and traditions with which theperson is associated, the reasons he or she is important in the field of children’s literature, and a mentionof major works. In 300-word and longer articles, expand on the most pertinent details of the figure’s lifeand career as space allows. For authors, give an idea of style, contribution, and originality of the work. Forillustrators, provide a discussion of style, medium, and artistic traditions. For other “person” entries (e.g.,educators, philosophers, collectors, librarians), state who the person was and what his or her major contri-butions to the field were.

For longer entries (1000–2000 words), provide a reading of the career, highlighting the major phases andthe important texts and contributions for children’s literature. Provide basic data: birth and death dates andany other facts that seem obviously relevant, such as marriage or children—but mention these only if theyseem important in the figure’s life as it relates to children’s literature. A chronological approach to yourarticle is recommended, but focus on the writing, illustration, or other relevant details. For some prolificauthors/illustrators, mentioning every title will be impossible, so you need mention only the major ones.Again, these longer articles should be more critical than biographical. The reader should come away witha good idea of the kind of work the person did, the nature of the work, and some sense of why this par-ticular figure retains some value for contemporary children’s literature or is of historical importance.

COUNTRIES/REGIONSThese articles should give an overview of children’s literature and related topics in the geographical re-gion. Begin by briefly detailing relevant features of the region in question: location, geography, climate,politics, economy, history, religion, education. Discuss the historical traditions of children’s literature andrelated literary or other artistic/cultural streams and the way they have developed to the present day. Dis-cuss major genres, themes, and media and mention the most influential authors, illustrators, and titles.


Have these traditions remained localized in the region in question? Or have they spread to different partsof the world—and if so, how and with what effects?

GENRES,THEMES, MOVEMENTS, AND PERIODSThese articles will vary widely, but they should be encyclopedic in nature, giving a general description ofthe genre/theme, a map of the terrain, and an overview of the subject. Specifics—such as dates, places,major figures associated with the movement—should be included. Articles should provide some sense ofthe issues involved, the conflicts, and the parameters of the subject. Throughout, the focus should be thehistorical and present-day influence on the field of children’s literature.

TITLES/CHARACTERSThe purpose of these articles is to make a specific story or character more familiar to the general reader.Provide a description and as much relevant historical data as possible, including any traditions or folklorethat might have been influential. Avoid full plot summaries. For titles/characters associated with a sin-gle author (or illustrator), give biographical information and specifics regarding date(s) of publication,various editions, and readership. For titles/characters that have been adopted and adapted by variousauthors, discuss the history of the story, the earliest known variants, the most important variants, thechronological and geographical dispersion of the tradition, and the ways in which the story has been al-tered and retold.

SPECIAL SUBJECTS AND TERMS [SEE INDIVIDUAL SUBCATEGORIES]

CULTURAL GROUPSThese articles should give an overview of children’s literature and related topics within the culturalgroup. Begin by briefly detailing relevant features of the group in question: location and movement, poli-tics, history, religion, lifestyles, and so forth. Discuss the historical traditions of children’s literature andrelated literary or other artistic/cultural streams and the way they have developed to the present day. Dis-cuss major genres, themes, and media and mention the most influential authors, illustrators, and titles. Towhat extent have members of this group developed their “own” streams of children’s literature—and howand why? Outline the way these traditions have affected or have been adopted by members of other cul-tural groups.

ORGANIZATIONSProvide a general discussion of the organization’s importance to the field of children’s literature, includingmission and focus, activities, date of origination (and discontinuation, if applicable), founder(s), and otherrelevant historical and descriptive details. Describe the way it has influenced children’s literature and theway it has changed over time. Mention any related publications, events, collections, awards, institutions,and so forth.

PERIODICALSThese entries may fall into one of two categories: periodicals for children and periodicals for adults aboutchildren’s literature and other issues related to children. For both, provide a general description of the pe-riodical, including mission and focus, dates of origination (and discontinuation, if applicable), founder(s),and other relevant historical details. Describe the way it has influenced children’s literature and the way ithas changed over time; for a periodical that no longer is published, discuss the way it reflected the timeand location in which it existed. Entries on periodicals for children should include a description of thecontents. Entries on periodicals about children and children’s literature should give the disciplinary andtheoretical approaches espoused by the publication.


PUBLISHERSGive a general discussion of the publisher’s importance to the field of children’s literature, including spe-cifics such as dates of operation (including buyouts and mergers, if relevant), location, primary peopleinvolved, types of books published, and the most important authors and works published. Focus in par-ticular on the ways the publisher may have influenced the production and distribution of children’s lit-erature.

SPECIAL CHARACTER TYPES These articles should provide a description, history, and analysis of the character type in question. Givethe historical precedents for the character type and the cultural background(s) with which it is linked.Discuss what the appearance of this type of character usually signifies in literature, including positive ornegative connotations, associated characters, and the sorts of expectations this character type arouses in areader (and whether these have changed over time or have been adapted to different purposes).


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SAMPLE ENTRIES

SAMPLE SMALL ENTRIES

Heym, Stefan (b.1913), real name Helmut Flieg. Controversial (East-) German writer, who movedfrom American exile to East Berlin in 1952 and became a Member of the German Parliament afterunification. Often using a historical framework, his satirical stories, novels, and drama criticizedsocial and political conditions in East Germany. He also published three volumes of ironic fairytales for children: Casimir und Cymbelinchen (Casimir and Little Cymbeline, 1966), Cymbe-linchen oder der Ernst des Lebens, Vier Märchen für kluge Kinder (Little Cymbeline; or, Real life:four fairy tales for smart children, 1975), and Erich Hückniesel und das fortgesetzte Rotkäppchen(Erich Hückniesel and Little-Red-Riding-Hood continued, 1977).

[Word count: 105]

Burgess, (Frank) Gelett (1866-1951), American poet, editor, and illustrator, who achieved famewith his nonsense verse for children. After working as an art instructor at the University of Califor-nia during the 1890s, he became an illustrator for Wave Magazine and then editor of The Lark, inwhich he wrote the famous short ditty: “I never saw a Purple Cow / I never hope to see one; / But Ican tell you, anyhow, / I’d rather see than be one.” In 1900 he published Goops and How to BeThem, tongue-in-cheek stories that poked fun at bad manners and warned children what wouldhappen to them if they became like Goops. These figures, who resembled rubberlike ghosts withoversized heads, were also depicted in The Burgess Nonsense Book (1901), a collection of hisverse, strongly influenced by Lewis Carroll and Edward Lear. Burgess also published The LivelyCity O’Ligg (1899), with such droll fairy tales as “The House Who Walked in Her Sleep” and “TheTerrible Train,” which depicted animated objects as protagonists whose fantastic and bizarre rela-tions reflected a world turned upside down.

Jack Zipes

[Word Count:179]


Cole, Babette (b. 1949), British author and illustrator, born in Jersey, British Channel Islands andeducated at the Canterbury College of Art in the 1970s. She is best known for her idiosyncraticbooks for children such as The Trouble with Mum (1983) and its sequels, which concern a bizarrefamily and a grandmother as alien. Cole has written and illustrated four provocative fairy tales thatare outrageously funny and question traditional fairy-tale conventions from a feminist perspective.In Princess Smartypants (1987), she reverses the “taming-of-the-shrew” syndrome of “KingThrushbeard” by depicting a young girl in dungarees, who does not want to be married and thwartsher parents by turning her major suitor into a frog when she kisses him. In Prince Cinders (1988), arevision of “Cinderella,” the youngest of three brothers is forced to do the housework until he isrescued by a zany fairy and an unusual princess. King-Change-a-Lot (1988) spoofs the Aladdinfairy tale by introducing a monarch who rubs a toilet to produce a magic genie, who in turn helpshim solve problems in the kingdom. In Cupid (1990) Cole sends the god of love to earth where hebecomes involved in the Miss Universe contest. In all her books Cole displays an uncanny sensefor explosive situations that she captures in bright, often dazzling, illustrations made with dyes.Although she has been dubbed an anarchic writer and illustrator, there is always a clear didacticpurpose in her provocative works that question conventional standards and tastes as in Drop Dead,Bad Habits! (1999).

Jack Zipes

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SAMPLE LONG ENTRIES

Yolen, Jane, American poet, playwright, writer, and editor of children’s books, fantasy, and sci-ence fiction, one of the most prolific and experimental writers of fantasy and fairy tales on thecontemporary scene. After graduating from Smith College in 1960 and working for different pub-lishing houses, Yolen turned to full-time professional writing in 1965. Her first book was a delight-ful comical fairy tale for children, The Witch Who Wasn’t (1964), and since this first publication,she has published well over 250 titles, including such important nonfiction books as Touch Magic:Fantasy, Faerie, and Folktale in the Literature of Childhood (1981). She has also produced filmscripts and cassettes based on her work.

One of Yolen’s main goals has been to recapture the flavor and spirit of the oral tradition in herliterary fairy tales. She writes with grace and painstaking care to create tales that evoke the atmos-phere of long ago and other worlds, and she employs metaphors and symbols in unusual combina-tions that produce new associations. Although she has adapted numerous folk tales and classicalfairy tales, her best work can be seen in the fairy tales and fantasy stories she herself has created insuch books as The Girl Who Loved the Wind (1972), The Girl Who Cried Flowers and Other Tales(1976), The Moon Ribbon and Other Tales (1976), The Lady and the Merman (1977), The Hun-dredth Dove and Other Tales (1977), Dream Weaver (1979), Sleeping Ugly (1981), Tales of Won-der (1983), Dragonfield and Other Stories (1985), The Faery Flag (1989), The Dragon’s Boy(1990), The Girl in the Golden Bower (1995), and Child of Faerie (1996).

Yolen has comprehensive knowledge of folk and fairy tales throughout the world – she has alsoedited an important collection of stories entitled Favorite Folktales from around the World (1986)and written a picture book, How Do Dinosaurs Say Good Night? (2000). She has subtly alteredmany popular narratives to undermine and provoke audience expectations, whether readers beadults or children. Such stories as “Moon Ribbon,” “Brother Hart,” “The Thirteenth Fey,” “HappyDens; or, A Day in the Old Wolves Home,” and “The Undine” contain startling metaphors and un-usual plots that place traditional tales and their meanings in question. For instance, in “Undine”Yolen emphasizes the notion of male betrayal and female autonomy in an implicit critique of HansChristian Andersen’s “The Little Mermaid.” Here the mermaid leaves a charming prince to returnto her sisters in the sea. In “The Thirteenth Fey,” Yolen recalls the story of “Sleeping Beauty”through the first-person narrative of the youngest daughter of a family of fairies and produces aphilosophical critique of decadent monarchy in the name of democracy. Though not a writer with astrong ideological bent, Yolen has been influenced by the feminist movement, and one of her majorachievements has been to subvert the male discourse that has dominated the fairy tale as genre sothat the repressed concerns of women are addressed and the predictable happy ends that signifymale hegemony and closure are exploded or placed in question. Thus, in “The White Seal Maid”and “The Lady and the Merman,” her female protagonists seek refuge in their origins, the sea,which represents for Yolen the essence of restlessness, change, tenderness, and humanity.

Two of her fantasy books, The Devil’s Arithmetic (1998) and Briar Rose (1992) have the Holo-caust as their theme. The latter makes use of “Sleeping Beauty,” as the granddaughter of a Holo-caust victim tries to make sense out of her grandmother’s strange retelling of “Sleeping Beauty”and discovers how her grandmother had been gassed but then revived during the Nazi’s attempteddestruction of the Jews.

In some of her other works, Yolen has sought to revise the myths of Merlin and Arthur, and inher science fiction/fantasy novels and stories she often experiments with shifting narrative voices


and perspectives as well as with time slips. From 1990 to 1996 she developed her own imprint atHarcourt Brace to publish fairy-tale novels and works of fantasy by other authors, and she contin-ued this series at TOR Books. Yolen not only has made highly original contributions to develop thefairy-tale genre but also has encouraged and supported younger writers to produce innovative workin the field.

Bibliography“An Interview with Jane Yolen.” Mythlore 13 (1986): 16-20.

Russell, David. “Reading the Shards and Fragments: Holocaust Literature for Young Readers.” TheLion and the Unicorn 21 (1997): 17-30.

Weil, Ellen R. “The Door to Lilith’s Cave: Memory and Imagination in Jane Yolen’s HolocaustNovels.” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 5 (1983): 17-24.

[Word Count: 703]

Beaumont, Jeanne-Marie Leprince (1711-1780), a French writer, was educated in a conventschool in Rouen and later became a teacher in the public schools which, at that time, were beingdeveloped for children of all social classes. In 1741 she married M. de Beaumont, a dissolute liber-tine, and the marriage was annulled after two years. In 1745 she departed for England, where sheearned her living as a governess. During her long residence in London, she made a name for herselfby publishing short stories in magazines and producing collections of anecdotes, stories, fairy tales,commentaries, and essays directed at specific social and age groups, all with a strong didactic bent.For instance, she published a series of pedagogical works with the titles such as Le Magasin desEnfants (1757), translated into English as The Young Misses Magazine (1761); Le Magasin desAdolescents (The magazine of adolescents, 1760); and Manuel de la jeunesse (Manual of youth,1773). In 1762, she returned to France, where she continued her voluminous production; she retiredto a country estate in Haute-Savoie in 1768. Among her major works of this period were Contesmoraux (Moral tales, 1774) and Oeuvres mêlées (Mixed works, 1775). By the time of her death,she had written over 70 books.

Mme Leprince de Beaumont’s major fairy tales were all published in Le Magasin des Enfants,which was designed to frame stories, history lessons, and moral anecdotes told by a governess toyoung girls. Among the fairy tales were “La Belle et la Bête” (“Beauty and the Beast”), “Le PrinceChéri” (“Prince Cheri”), “Le Prince Désir” (“Prince Desire”), “Le Prince Charmante” (“PrinceCharming”), “La Veueve et les deux filles” (“The Widow and Her Two Daughters”), “Aurore etAimée,” “Le Pêcheur et le Voyageur” (“The Fisherman and the Traveler”), “Joliotte,” and “Bellotteet Laidronette.” Her version of “Beauty and the Beast,” which was based on Mme Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve’s longer narrative of 1740, is perhaps the most famous in the world, andboth versions have served as the basis for the significant films of “Beauty and the Beast” by JeanCocteau in 1946 and the Disney Corporation in 1991. In Mme Leprince de Beaumont’s story,Belle, the youngest daughter of a bankrupt merchant, is willing to sacrifice herself to a savage beastto save her father. Her conduct at the beast’s palace is so exemplary that she not only provides themeans to restore her father’s good name but also saves the beast from certain death. Mme Leprincede Beaumont’s emphasis in all her fairy tales was the proper upbringing of young girls like Beauty,and she continually stressed industriousness, self-sacrifice, modesty, and diligence in all her tales


as the qualities young ladies and men must possess to attain happiness. Aside from “Beauty and theBeast,” several other fairy tales have remained somewhat popular in France and reflect MmeLeprince de Beaumont’s major theme: the transformation of bestial behavior into goodliness. Forinstance, “Prince Cheri” concerns a conceited and tyrannical prince who is turned into various ani-mals until he resolves to be good and gentle. “Prince Desire” depicts a prince who does not want toaccept the fact that he has a huge nose but learns that he must accept his faults if he wants to marrythe Princess Mignonne. Mme Leprince de Beaumont was one of the first French writers to writefairy tales explicitly for children, and thus she kept her language and plot simple to convey hermajor moral messages. Though her style was limited by the lesson she wanted to teach, she wascareful not to destroy the magic in her tales that triumphs despite her preaching.

Bibliography Clancy, Patricia. “A French Writer and Educator in England: Mme Le Prince de Beaumont.” Stud-

ies on Voltaire 201 (1982): 195-208.

Hearne, Betsy. Beauty and the Beast: Visions and Revisions of an Old Tale. Chicago: University ofChicago Press,1989.

Kaltz, Barbara. Jeanne Marie Le Prince de Beaumont: Contes et autre récits. Oxford: VoltaireFoundation, 2000.

Pauly, Rebecca M. “Beauty and the Beast: From Fable to Film.” Film Quarterly 17 (1989): 87-90.

Stewart, Joan Hinde. “Allegories of Difference: An Eighteenth-Century Polemic.” Romanic Re-view 75 (May, 1984): 283-93.

Wilkins, Kay S. “Children’s Literature in Eighteenth-Century France.” Studies on Voltaire 176(1979): 429-49.

Zipes, Jack. “The Origins of the Fairy Tale.” In Fairy Tale as Myth\Myth as Fairy Tale, pp. 17-48.Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1994.

Jack Zipes

[Word Count: 608]

SAMPLE GENRE ENTRY

Folklore and Fairy Tales. Of the three main oral prose genres of folklore—fairy tale, myth, andlegend—the fairy tale has received the most critical attention in the history of folklore scholarship.Although early collectors of folk narrative did not draw fine distinctions, scholars have subse-quently found it useful to define the fairy tale in relation to these other prose genres. Myths are nar-ratives that are believed to be true about gods or supernatural beings who operate beyond the realmof human existence and from whose experiences humans can draw moral lessons. Legends gener-ally report extraordinary events in the lives of ordinary humans, frequently in an encounter with thesupernatural. Although there is an inherent truth claim in the legend, there is often an element of


skepticism or disbelief on the part of the narrator or audience. In contrast to legend and myth, fairytales are narratives of magic and fantasy, which are understood to be fictional.

A distinction must also be made between “folk tale” and “fairy tale,” for in spite of their fre-quent interchangeability, the terms have distinct etymologies and meanings. The term fairy tale canrefer to both a category of oral folk tale and a genre of prose literature. As a term, it is often usedby folk narrative scholars when referring specifically to “magic tales,” that is, tales listed undertale type numbers 300-749 in the Aarne-Thompson tale type index. The term folk tale is reservedfor any tale deriving from or existing in oral tradition and is generally preferred by folklorists andanthropologists. Literary scholars tend to use the term fairy tale to refer to a genre of prose litera-ture, which may or may not be based on oral tradition.

“Fairy tale” is a translation of the French contes de fée, a form of oral narrative that becamefashionable among the men and women of the French court in the late 17th century. The term firstappeared in the title of Madame D’Aulnoy’s 1697 collection of tales and has been in the Englishlanguage since the middle of the eighteenth century. The German word Märchen is a diminutiveform of the Old High German “mär,” meaning report or story. In German academic and popularusage, Märchen refers to the literary fairy tale as well as the traditional folk tale. Folk tale is atranslation of Volksmärchen and first appeared in the English language in the 19th century. Al-though the word was not coined by him, Volksmärchen first appeared in Johann Karl AugustMusäus’s Volksmärchen der Deutschen (Folk tales of the Germans) published between 1782 and1786.

The association of traditional narrative with das Volk, first articulated by Johann GottfriedHerder and later reinforced by the Grimms, reflected a growing appreciation of the significance offolk culture for the development of the nation-state in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-turies. For Herder, Volkspoesie (folk poetry) included all genres of literature and was synonymouswith Naturpoesie (nature poetry), poetry that was natural and spontaneous. In contrast to Kunstpoe-sie (art poetry), literature produced by conscious creation, folk poetry represented the most sublimeexpression of the nation. Although Herder considered Homer and Shakespeare great folk poets, hebelieved folk poetry to be best preserved among the unlettered peasants, who had been least af-fected by the force of modern civilization. The Grimms fit the fairy tale into Herder’s conceptualframework, distinguishing between Volksmärchen (folk tales) and Kunstmärchen (artistic or liter-ary fairy tales) in their effort to establish the authenticity of their material and set themselves apartfrom contemporary writers of fairy tales, who freely adapted folk tales for their own artistic crea-tions. With the Grimms, the folk tale became exclusively associated with a narrative of anonymousorigin existing in oral tradition.

Definition of a Genre Since the inception of folklore study, scholars have attempted to define the Märchen from dif-

ferent vantage points. The following definitions are not meant to be exhaustive but to indicate theextent to which the problem of description and definition reflects different emphases in folk narra-tive research. The Grimms’ holistic understanding of folk literature, evident in the inclusion of fa-bles, legends, and anecdotes in their Kinder- und Hausmärchen (1812-1815; English trans. Chil-dren’s and Household Tales, 1909) did not generate nuanced definitions of genre. Although theearliest statement on genre was Jacob Grimm’s observation that “the fairy tale is more poetic, thelegend more historical,” it was an idea that remained largely undeveloped. Following in the tradi-tion of the Grimms, Johannes Bolte observed that since Herder and the Grimms, “the Märchen hasbeen understood as a tale created from poetic fantasy, particularly from the world of magic; it is a


wonder story not concerned with the conditions of real life.” Kurt Ranke, founder of the Enzyk-lopädie des Märchens (Encyclopedia of tales, 1977-), adopted a similar view, defining the folk taleas “a magic narrative that is independent of the conditions of the real world with its categories oftime, place and causality, and which has no claim to believability.” Stith Thompson, the Americanfolklorist who published a six-volume index of motifs in folk literature and was convinced of thecentrality of the motif as an element of folk tale analysis, defined the folk tale as “a tale of somelength involving a succession of motifs or episodes. It moves in an unreal world without definitelocality or definite characters and is filled with the marvelous. In this never-never land humble he-roes kill adversaries, succeed to kingdoms and marry princesses.” The Russian formalist, VladimirPropp, viewed the fairy tale morphologically, that is, in terms of its component parts and their rela-tionship to the overall structure of the tale. He suggested that “any narrative can be a wonder talethat develops from an act of injury or state of lack, through certain mediating functions, to aneventual wedding or other concluding function.” The Swiss folklorist and professor of Europeanliterature, Max Lüthi, held that the Märchen was a “universal adventure story with a clever andsublime style.” After nearly two hundred years, interest in the fairy tale has not been exhausted,and scholarly definitions will continue to evolve as new perspectives and approaches are explored.

Methods of Research and AnalysisScholarly interest in the fairy tale at the beginning of the nineteenth century was fueled by

Herder’s appeal for the collection of folk literature and by the Grimms’ belief that the custom ofstorytelling was on the decline. The study of the fairy tale began as part of a cultural and nationalistproject to preserve and revive the German national spirit through its folk literature. From the be-ginning, fairy-tale research was text-centered: oral tradition was rendered as text, preserved in ar-chives and published in collections for general as well as academic reading audiences. Only towardthe middle of the twentieth century did this paradigm, with the aid of modern recording technolo-gies, yield to more context-sensitive and performance-centered aspects of storytelling.

The earliest type of fairy-tale scholarship was comparative in nature and grew out of theGrimms’ understanding of oral tradition and interest in the problems of language and origin. Theirstudy of comparative linguistics and mythology led them to believe that folk tales were the inheri-tance of a common Indo-European past containing “fragments of belief dating back to the most an-cient times.” Although their purpose in publishing Children’s and Household Tales was as a contri-bution to the history of German literature, they understood German folk narrative as part of anIndo-European cultural inheritance and therefore were also interested in the folk tales of other areasof Europe. Their appreciation of regional and cultural variation led to the 1822 publication of athird volume of critical annotations, including notes on sources and variants of tales not included inthe two volumes of Children’s and Household Tales. The volume was significantly expanded inlater editions and laid the foundation for subsequent comparative work.

Comparative folktale analysis continued into the early part of the twentieth century through theefforts of Johannes Bolte and Georg Polívka, who elaborated on the Grimms’ critical notes in An-merkungen zu den Kindern- und Hausmärchen der Brüdern Grimm (Annotations to the children’sand household tales of the brothers Grimm, 5 vols., 1913-32). Their five-volume work provided amore detailed list of variants and additional explanations to the texts and sources contained in theGrimms’ third volume. It was with the historic-geographic method, a direction of folk-tale researchdeveloped by Finnish folklorists toward the end of the nineteenth century, that comparative analy-sis reached its apex. This method, which constituted the predominant research paradigm in the firsthalf of the twentieth century, was predicated on the assumption that every folk tale had a single


origin (monogenesis), which could be determined by assembling all known oral and print versionsand plotting the distribution of the tale over time and space. Versions of tales were broken downinto their component parts, called “motifs,” and then compared with one another. The goal of thistype of research was to arrive at the Urform (original or primeval form), which was believed to bethe original tale. In addition to introducing key analytic concepts, an internationally recognizedclassification system, and rigorous methodological practice to the study of the folktale, the otherimportant contribution of this approach was the publication of The Types of the Folktale and Mo-tif-Index to Folk Literature, which remain standard reference works for comparative scholarship.

Some of the most important research in the twentieth century has come from European andAmerican literary scholars, who introduced new methods of literary criticism to the study of thefairy tale. While remaining text-centered, these approaches have been innovative in the explorationof the fairy tale’s form, style, and meaning. One type of comparative analysis, developed in the1920s by Vladimir Propp, applied formalist criticism to Aleksandr Afanasyev’s collection of Rus-sian fairy tales. Instead of examining the content of many versions of the same folktale through thevehicle of the motif, a concept he considered unscientific, Propp shifted the focus of analysis to thenarrative structure of different folk tales. He determined that every folk tale consists of sequentiallyordered “functions,” defined as the actions of a character as they relate to the development of thetale’s plot and numbering no more than 31 in a given tale.

The Swiss folklorist Max Lüthi employed the critical vocabulary of art historians in his exami-nation of the folk tale as a particular art form. The style of the folk tale, according to Lüthi, is char-acterized by one-dimensionality (the unproblematic movement between real and enchantedworlds), depthlessness (absence of psychological feeling or motivation on the part of the fairytale’s characters), abstraction (lack of realistic detail and a tendency toward extremes, contrasts,and fixed formulas), and isolation and universal connection (abstract character types with no sus-tained relationships to other characters). A lively and productive reexamination of the Grimms’Children’s and Household Tales centered around the publication of John Ellis’s One Fairy StoryToo Many and continued through the 200-year anniversary observations of the births of Jacob andWilhelm Grimm in 1985 and 1986. Important critical studies of this period include Jack Zipes’scritical biographical examination of the life and work of the Grimms and the feminist analyses ofMaria Tatar and Ruth B. Bottigheimer, which explore the Grimms’ editorial practices and gender-specific treatment of fairy tale characters.

European Fairy-Tale ScholarshipThe purpose of this section is not to treat the collective efforts or research emphases of individ-

ual scholars or countries in detail but to sketch in broad strokes the development of fairy-tale schol-arship in Europe. Although the fairy tale has been the most extensively studied of folklore genres, ithas not received equal critical attention and appreciation across Europe. Ironically, serious study ofthe genre faltered in areas where the earliest collections had appeared, and some of the most sig-nificant impulses for fairy-tale research have come from countries where interest in the genre was arelatively late development.

The formal study of the fairy tale began in Germany with Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, whosestatements on methodology and critical notes, including information on narrators and sources,made them the first systematic collectors and scholars in the field. Children’s and Household Talesexerted a powerful normative effect on oral tradition as well as on folk-tale collection and scholar-ship in other European countries. German scholars since the Grimms have continued to play aleading role, and until mid-century, German was the academic lingua franca for European folk nar


rative research. The Finnish folklorist Antti Aarne published his tale type index in German (Ver-zeichnis der Märchentypen [English trans. The Types of the Folktales: A Classification and Bibli-ography, 1961) and the multivolume Enzyklopädie des Märchens, based at the University of Göt-tingen, is published in German, although many of its contributors and users are not native Germanspeakers. German scholars have also taken the lead in building international institutions. In 1957Kurt Ranke, who laid the groundwork for the encyclopedia and served as its general editor until hisdeath, founded the journal Fabula, dedicated to folk narrative research. Ranke was also instrumen-tal in organizing the International Society for Folk Narrative Research, which has met in regularintervals since the first conferences in 1959 in Kiel and Copenhagen.

Despite the importance of Basile and Straparola for the development of the European fairy tale,there was relatively little interest in Italian folk literature until the end of the nineteenth century,when Benedetto Croce (1866-1952) translated Basile’s Pentamerone (originally Lo cunti di li cunti,1634-1636) from the Neapolitan dialect into Italian. The Italian equivalent of the Grimms’ Chil-dren’s and Household Tales, Fiabe italiene (1970; English trans. Italian Fables, 1980), appearedonly in the middle of the twentieth century through the effort of the novelist Italo Calvino (1923-88), who selected, translated, and annotated two hundred texts from regional collections that hadbeen published in the nineteenth century.

A similarly paradoxical situation developed in France, where, until approximately 1870, nofairy-tale collection with critical annotations had appeared, although France was the first country toundertake a scholarly collection project on folk literature. Although the questionnaire of theAcadémie celtique, conducted between 1805 and 1814, was primarily concerned with local andhistorical legends, it also contained questions on the conte de fée. The questionnaire predated JacobGrimm’s Circular wegen der Aufsammlung der Volkspoesie (Circular on the collection of folk po-etry, 1815) by ten years and may have been the inspiration behind his own appeal for a similar un-dertaking in Germany. After this initial impulse, interest in the fairy tale dropped off and was notrevived until the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The most significant work was carried outby Paul Sébillot (1846-1918), who edited the Revue des traditions populaires (Review of populartraditions), and Emmanuel Cosquin (1841-1921), whose Contes populaires de Lorraine (Populartales of Lorraine) has come to be regarded as the French equivalent of the Grimms’ classic. Ac-cording to Paul Delarue, the “Golden Age of the French fairy tale” was between 1870 and 1914,and it was followed by a sharp decline in scholarly interest in the genre.

In Great Britain, Thomas Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765) had establishedthe predominance of the ballad in the study of folk literature. Although there were early signs ofinterest in other forms of folk narrative, the impetus for the collection of fairy tales came towardthe end of the century from outside the British Isles. Nonetheless, as early as 1825, the Irish anti-quarian Thomas Crofton Croker published Fairy Legends and Traditions of South Ireland, a worktranslated into German by the Grimms. The extent to which Croker was influenced by the Grimmsis unclear, but his detailed notes helped establish his collection as the first scholarly fairy tale col-lection in Great Britain. Interest in the fairy tale was furthered by Andrew Lang, the Scottish poetand philologist, who wrote introductions for the English translation of Charles Perrault’s Contes dutemps passé (1697) as Popular Tales (1888) and the Grimms’ Children’s and Household Tales(1909). In addition, Lang published his own fairy tale collection in twelve volumes, each namedafter a color, beginning with The Blue Fairy Book in 1889 and ending with The Lilac Fairy Bookin 1910. Although criticized for being unscientific, his fairy-tale books were enormously popularand did much to establish popular and academic interest in the fairy tale in Britain. Other late-nineteenth-century scholars working on the fairy tale included several whom the American folk


lorist Richard Dorson identified as the “Great Team” of British folklorists. Edwin Sydney Hartlandpublished English Fairy and Other Folk Tales in 1890, a collection of English folk narrative basedprimarily on printed sources, and William Alexander Clouston’s Popular Tales and Fictions: TheirMigration and Transformations (1887) examined the history of the European folk tale.

Of the Scandinavian countries, the most enduring contributions to the development of folk-taleresearch have come from Finland. Although a Danish fairy-tale collection appeared just two yearsafter the first Danish translation of the Grimms’ Children’s and Household Tales, the fairy tale re-ceived less scholarly attention in Denmark than the ballad and legend. In Sweden fairy tales andfolk narrative have not fared well against the traditionally stronger interest in folk life. In Finland,interest in the fairy tale was initially overshadowed by the national significance attributed to theepic, the Kalevala. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the first systematic collection of fairytales was undertaken by Kaarle Krohn, who also produced one of the first comprehensive state-ments on folklore methodology and, with Antti Aarne, began to develop a system for the classifi-cation of international tales. The development of the historic-geographic method, also known as theFinnish method, helped establish Finland as one of the most important European centers for folknarrative research. Comparative folk-tale research, initiated by the intellectual interests of theGrimms and systematized through the critical annotations of Bolte and Polívka, was institutional-ized by Finnish folklorists with the creation of the Aarne-Thompson Tale Type Index and thefounding of the Folklore Fellows, the first international association devoted to the study of folk nar-rative. Although the association itself was short-lived and has only recently been revived, its publi-cation series, Folklore Fellows’ Communications, has appeared more or less continuously since1907 and has produced some important monographs and reference works.

BibliographyAarne, Antti and Stith Thompson. The Types of the Folktale, 2d ed. Helsinki: Suomalainen Tie-

deakatemia, 1961.

Bolte, Johannes and Georg Polívka, eds. Anmerkungen zu den Kindern- und Hausmärchen derBrüder Grimm, 6 vols. (1913-32). Repr. Hildesheim: Geog Olms, 1963.

Bottigheimer, Ruth B. Bad Girls and Bold Boys: The Moral and Social Vision of the Grimms’Tales. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987).

Ellis, John. One Fairy Story Too Many. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Lüthi, Max. The European Folktale: Form and Nature. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Hu-man Issues, 1982.

Propp, Vladimir. The Morphology of the Folktale, 2d ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1968.

Ranke, Kurt, et. al., eds. Enzyklopädie des Märchens. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1975.

Tatar, Maria. The Hard Facts of the Grimms’ Fairy Tales. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton UniversityPress, 1987.

Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1946.


Zipes, Jack. The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted Forests to the Modern World. New York:Routledge, 1988.

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Little Red Riding Hood. The first literary version of this tale, “Le Petit Chaperon Rouge,” waspublished by Charles Perrault in his collection, Histoires ou contes du temps passé (Stories or talesof past times, 1697). Though it is not certain, Perrault probably knew an oral tale that emanatedfrom sewing societies in the South of France and North of Italy. This folk tale depicts an unnamedpeasant girl who meets a werewolf on her way to visit her grandmother. The wolf asks her whethershe is taking the path of pins or needles. She indicates that she is on her way to becoming a seam-stress by taking the path of the needles. The werewolf quickly departs and arrives at the grand-mother’s house, where he devours the old lady and places some of her flesh in a bowl and some ofher blood in a bottle. After the peasant girl arrives, the werewolf invites her to eat some meat anddrink some wine before getting into bed with him. Once in bed, she asks several questions until thewerewolf is about to eat her. At this point she insists that she must go outside to relieve herself. Thewerewolf ties a rope around her leg and sends her through a window. In the garden, the girl untiesthe rope and wraps it around a fruit tree. Then she escapes and leaves the werewolf holding therope. In some versions of this folk tale, the werewolf manages to eat the girl. But usually the girlproves that she can fend for herself.

Perrault changes all this in “Little Red Riding Hood” by making the girl appear spoiled andnaive. She wears a red cap, indicating her “sinful” nature, and she makes a wager with the wolf tosee who will arrive at grandmother’s house first. After dawdling in the woods, she arrives at hergrandmother’s house, where she finds the wolf in bed disguised as the grandmother. She gets intobed with him and, after posing several questions about the wolf’s strange appearance, she is de-voured just as her grandmother was. Then there is a verse moral to conclude the tale indicating thatgirls who invite strange men into their parlors deserve what they get. After the translation of Per-rault’s tale into many European languages in the eighteenth century, the literary and oral variantsmixed, and what had formerly been an oral tale of initiation became a type of warning fairy tale.When the Brothers Grimm published their first version, “Rotkäppchen” (“Little Red Cap”) inKinder- und Hausmärchen (English trans. Children’s and Household Tales, 1909) in 1812, they in-troduced new elements such as the Jäger or gameskeeper, who saves Little Red Cap and hergrandmother. In turn, they cut open the belly of the wolf and place stones into it. When he awakes,he dies. There is also an anticlimatic tale that the Grimms attached to this version in which anotherwolf comes to attack Little Red Cap and her grandmother. This time they are prepared and trickhim into jumping down the chimney into a pot of boiling water.

Once the Grimms’ version of “Little Red Riding Hood” appeared, their tale and Perrault’s ver-sion have been reprinted in thousands of versions, and they have been mixed together along withoral variants. Most of the new versions up to the present have been directed at children, and theyhave been somewhat sanitized so that the wolf rarely succeeds in touching or gobbling the grand-mother and the naive girl. However, there have been hundreds of notable literary revisions for chil-dren and adults by such gifted authors as Ludwig Tieck, Alphonse Daudet, Joachim Ringelnatz,Milt Gross, James Thurber, Anne Sexton, Tomi Ungerer, Angela Carter, Tony Ross, and Michael


Emberley in which the nature of sexuality and gender stereotypes have been questioned and de-bated in most innovative ways. For instance, there are tales in which a rambunctious grandmothereats up everyone; the wolf is a vegetarian and the girl a lesbian; the girl shoots the wolf with a re-volver; the girl seduces the wolf; and the girl is a tiny mouse named Ruby who leads the wolf as amale cat into a trap. Needless to say, these literary alternatives and many films, such as the adapta-tion of Angela Carter’s “In the Company of Wolves” (1984) by Neil Jordan and Matthew Bright’sprovocative film Freeway (1996), reflect changes in social mores and customs. As one of the mostpopular fairy tales in the world, “Little Red Riding Hood” will most likely undergo interestingchanges in the future, and the girl and her story will certainly never be eliminated by the wolf.

BibliographyDundes, Alan, Ed. Little Red Riding Hood: A Casebook. Madison, Wis., 1989.

Jones, Steven Swann. “On Analyzing Fairy Tales: ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ Revisited,” WesternFolklore 46 (1987): 97-106.

Laruccia, Victor. “Little Red Riding Hood’s Metacommentary: Paradoxical Injunction, Semioticsand Behavior,” Modern Language Notes 90 (1975): 517-34.

Mieder, Wolfgang. “Survival Forms of ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ in Modern Society,” InternationalFolklore Review 2 (1982): 23-41.

Zipes, Jack, ed. The Trials and Tribulations of Little Red Riding Hood, 2d ed. New York: Rout-ledge, 1993.

Jack Zipes

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COUNTRY SAMPLE FROM THE OXFORD COMPANION TO FAIRY TALES

British and Irish fairy tales. English fantasy could be said to have its beginning in the Anglo-Saxon epic poem Beowulf, the best-known early work in English literature, generally dated in the8th century. The eponymous hero (his name is taken to mean Bear) fights and kills the monsterGrendel and then follows Grendel’s avenging mother to her underwater lair, killing her too with theaid of a giant’s sword, whose blade melts in the heat of her blood. Fifty years later, as a king, hefights a dragon who, enraged by the theft of a golden goblet from his treasure hoard, has emergedto devastate the country. The dragon is killed, and Beowulf dies. J. R. R. Tolkien had this episodein mind when he described the death of the dragon Smaug in The Hobbit (1937).

Medieval FantasyMarvellous stories have always held a strong appeal, as shown by the long-enduring

popularity of the Gesta Romanorum (late 13th century), a collection of tales compiled from manydifferent sources, probably in the late thirteenth century, and frequently drawn upon by preachers tohold listeners’ attention. In the opening pages of the great fourteenth-century poem Sir Gawain andthe Green Knight (c.1375) young King Arthur is celebrating the New Year with his court but is


restless until he has been told the expected story “of some perilous incident, of some great won-der.” Medieval writers often showed the natural and the supernatural side by side. Geoffrey ofMonmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae (c.1136) presents a mythic history of the kings ofBritain, which begins when Brutus, great-grandson of Aeneas, collects survivors of the Trojan warand brings them to England, then uninhabited “except for a few giants.” Geoffrey writes of not onlygiants and ogres but also dragons, a sea monster who swallows up the wicked King Morvidus, andMerlin, who first became well known in England through this work. Here Merlin is shown as a seerand a prophet, as well as a deus ex machina capable of transferring stones, brought from Africa bygiants, from Naas in Ireland to Stonehenge. He also brings about the begetting of King Arthurwhen he transforms Uther, who desires Igerna (Igraine), into the likeness of Igerna’s husband.Geoffrey dealt more fully with Merlin in his poem Vita Merlini (c.1150).

Sir Thomas Malory assembled his Le Morte Darthur (printed by Caxton in 1485)from thirteenth-century French prose romances that he augmented with English material. Repeat-edly insisting that the account is historical, he also introduces magic. The sword Excalibur is deliv-ered to Arthur by an arm clad in white samite, and the same arm appears out of the lake to receivethe sword before Arthur dies. There are spells and magic potions, as well as enchantresses such asMorgan le Fay, half-sister of Arthur. Merlin is a less dominant figure and disappears after theopening sections of the book. We see him besotted with “one of the damosels of the Lady of theLake that hight Nenivel.” Rashly he initiates her into the mysteries of necromancy, and “everpassing weary of him,” she imprisons him under a rock.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, one of the most brilliant of all mediaeval poems,is a story of how Sir Gawain’s honor and chastity are tempted with the aid of magic. The poemblends chivalric romance with elements from old tales of beheading games and also an apparentvestige of a nature myth. A huge green man on a green horse rides into the castle hall at Camelotwhere Arthur’s knights are feasting and offers his axe to anyone who will meet him in single com-bat. Sir Gawain accepts the challenge and strikes off the green man’s head. The following NewYear’s Day, as agreed, the giant awaits him at his Green Chapel for the second part of the contest.

The Protestant Roger Ascham (1515/16-68), tutor to Princess Elizabeth and LadyJane Grey, referred to tales of chivalry and courtly love with great disgust in The Scholemaster(1570) as belonging to the papist decadence of the past when “fewe bookes were read in our tong,savyng certaine bookes of Chevalrie . . . as one, for example, Morte Arthur.” Even to Chaucer(c.l343-1400), who began The Canterbury Tales about 1387, much the same time as the Gawainpoet was writing, they seemed in a past mode. The Wife of Bath talks about fairies as bygones,belonging to King Arthur’s day, “But now can no man see none elves mo.” Though there is en-chantment in The Canterbury Tales, such as in the incomplete Squire’s Tale in which a king ofArabia sends magic gifts to the king of Tartary and his daughter, Chaucer’s own interrupted tale ofSir Thopas, who breathlessly gallops around, encountering the Fairy Queen and a three-headed gi-ant but accomplishing nothing, is a parody of a metrical romance. The impatient host shouts, “Nomore of this, for goddes dignitee,” when Chaucer catalogues “romances of prys” such as HornChilde, Sir Bevis (of Hampton), and Sir Guy (of Warwick), popular verse romances written notlong before. In all three, deeds of knightly valor mingle with accounts of invincible swords, magicrings, dragons, and giants. The story of Huon of Bordeaux, a French romance of the same period,done into English by Sir John Bourchier, Lord Berners, and printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1534,did not have the same popularity but is important because in it Oberon, king of the fairies (son ofJulius Caesar and Morgan le Fay), makes his first English appearance as a three-foot being of


“aungelyke visage.” It was one of the romances contemptuously dismissed by Thomas Nashe inThe Anatomie of Absurditie (1589) as “worne out impressions of fayned no where acts.”

The RenaissanceArthurian legend virtually disappears from English literature after the medieval pe-

riod and was used very little by writers until the nineteenth century. Though there is an element ofit in The Faerie Queene (1590-96), Spenser was primarily influenced by Italian epic poetry. Thereare no native English fairies in it; the enchanters are allegorical figures, Archimago representinghypocrisy and Duessa -- the daughter of Deceit and Shame -- representing falsehood. The queenherself is of course Elizabeth, and the fact that Spenser addresses her as “The greatest GloriousQueene of Faerie lond” is some indication of Elizabethan preoccupation with fairies. They ap-peared in poems, in plays, in masques, in practical jokes -- as in the one played on Falstaff in TheMerry Wives of Windsor (c.1602) and on the credulous clerk, Dapper, in Jonson’s The Alchemist(1610) by the two tricksters who tell him he is going to meet the Queen of the Fairies. Though Jon-son regarded his contemporaries’ obsession with magic as a national mania, his position as a writerof court masques obliged him to use it in such works as The Satyr (also known as The Masque ofthe Fairies), presented at Althorpe in 1603 to amuse James I’s queen, and Oberon, the Fairy Prince,given at Whitehall in 1611. Milton’s Comus, written for a performance at Ludlow in 1634, is therichest of all the masques in terms of poetry and a most unexpected work for a Puritan. Comushimself is an imaginary pagan god with magic powers, who waylays travellers and with his potionchanges their faces “into some brutish form.” In “L’Allegro” Milton names more traditional fairies,including Faery Mab.

Mercutio’s description of Queen Mab in Romeo and Juliet (mid-1590s) was to bebuilt upon by Drayton and Herrick and subsequent poets, who presented her as the queen of fairiesand the wife of Oberon, whereas originally “queen” meant no more than “woman.” But the mostinfluential fairy play of all was A Midsummer Night’s Dream (printed 1600). In this Shakespearecreated a new species of fairy, and in doing so he brought about the destruction of the fairies ofEnglish folklore. Presumably because the play was to celebrate a marriage, he softened fairies’ im-age. Before that, the folk view was that they were malevolent spirits, associated with witchcraft.Puck, or pouke, was a term applied to a class of demons; the naive little devil who visits London inJonson’s The Devil is an Ass (1616) is called Pug -- another variant of the name. Shakespeare con-flated Puck with Robin Goodfellow, a hobgoblin, an earthy spirit who did household tasks in returnfor a saucer of milk but also played impish tricks, such as leading travellers astray, as are describedin The Mad Prankes and Merry Jests of Robin Goodfellow. The first known printing of this prosestory with verse interpolations is 1626, though there is evidence that it had appeared at least 40years earlier. Robin Goodfellow here is the son of Oberon, who bestows magic gifts on him, suchas the ability to change his shape “for to vex both foole and knave.” He is described as “famozed inevery old wives chronicle for his mad merrye prankes,” like Shakespeare’s Puck, but in capacityfor magic he falls far short of the latter.

Puck was neither an inhabitant of fairy land nor a miniscule being. The fairy ofEnglish folklore seems to have been the size of a small man, and it was Shakespeare’s depiction offairies as diminutive and picturesque, with pretty garden names, employed in hanging pearls incowslips’ ears and gathering bats’ wings to make elfin coats, that captured the literary imagination.Poets such as Michael Drayton (1563-1631), Robert Herrick (1591-1674), and Margaret, duchessof Newcastle (1623-72), constructed elaborate conceits about fairy revels and banquets, embel-lished with details of microscopic clothes and food. Drayton’s Nimphidia (1627) is a mock-herioc


poem describing the efforts of Pigwiggen, a fairy knight, to seduce Queen Mab and the battle thatthen ensues between him and Oberon, but it is the descriptions of the fairy palace, costume, chari-ots, and armor that are the poet’s chief concern. Herrick’s fairy poems in Hesperides (1648) usedthe same sort of detail. All this was for a limited readership. The poor man’s Pigwiggen was TomThumb, a legendary character included -- along with elves and hobgoblins and such -- by ReginaldScot in his Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584) as an object of popular superstition. His history was setdown by “R. J.,” probably Richard Johnson (1573-?1659) in The History of Tom Thumbe, the Lit-tle. Though it may well have appeared earlier, the earliest known copy is dated 1621. Merlin (heredescribed as “a conjurer, an inchanter, a charmer [who] consorts with Elves and Fayries”) promisesa childless elderly couple a thumb-sized child. The child is delivered by the “midnights Midwife,the Queene of Fayries” and “in less than foure minutes [grows] to be a little man.” In episodes laterbowdlerized he is eaten by his mother’s cow and snatched up by a raven and a giant; his godmotherthe fairy queen bestows magical gifts on him, and he becomes a valued member of King Arthur’scourt.

Tom Thumb was a fairy tale singled out for particular execration by Puritan preach-ers, who regarded all works of imagination as lies and therefore damnably wicked -- an attitude thatpersisted longer in America than it did in England. John Bunyan in Sighs from Hell: or the Groansof a Damned Soul (1658) lamented his youthful addiction to romances, which drove him awayfrom more profitable reading: “Thought I . . . give me a Ballad, a News book, George on Horse-back, or Bevis of Southampton . . .” George on Horseback is St. George, one of Richard Johnson’sSeven Champions of Christendom, a long romance published in two parts in 1596 and 1597, inwhich St. George is instructed in magic arts by an enchantress who steals him in infancy. Like thetale of Bevis, The Seven Champions (albeit drastically shortened) remained popular reading forcenturies, and The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678) owes much to both of them. Not many in the seven-teenth century spoke up for such stories. The convivial Richard Corbet (1582-1635), the bishop ofOxford and then of Norwich who was fiercely opposed to puritanism, was one notable exception.His poem “Farewell, Rewards and Fairies” quoted by Kipling’s Puck, lamented that puritans hadbanished fairies, and “now, alas, they all are dead; / Or gone beyond the seas.”

Eighteenth-Century SkepticismFairies did not flourish in the utilitarian and skeptical eighteenth century, even for

children. The old romantic tales of magic were held to belong to the ignorant and credulous, andconscientious parents wished their young to be well-informed, rational beings. Philip Dormer Stan-hope, the arbiter of correct behavior and fourth earl of Chesterfield (1694-1773), in one of his let-ters to his (natural) son, then aged eight, was contemptuous about the old style romances, “stuftwith enchantments, magicians, giants.” And when Sarah Fielding introduced a d’Aulnoy-style fairystory into The Governess (1749), it was with warnings that “Giants, Magic, Fairies, and all sorts ofsupernatural Assistances in a Story” should only be used to point a moral. A few d’Aulnoy storieswere translated in 1699, and more in 1707 and 1716. A translation of Perrault’s Histoires ou contesdu temps passé (1697) appeared in 1729, but for the most part fairies seemed a forgotten species, sothat in 1744 when a mother, Jane Johnson, was writing a story for her small children, she used“pretty little angels” in their place to dole out treats to the good characters. (The manuscript of thisstory, the earliest known juvenile fairy tale, is in the Bodleian Library, Oxford.)

Oriental magic took over in such eighteenth-century English fantasy writing as therewas. A “Grub-Street” English version of Antoine Galland’s translation of the Arabian Nights wasbeing published in London from about 1704 and made far more impact on the literary imagination


than the French fairy tales. Writers began to produce tales, set in exotic eastern locations, with en-chantments, genii, and magical objects such as rings and talismans. William Beckford’s Vathek(1786), written in French when the author was only twenty-one, is the most extravagant of these.The Caliph Vathek, whose mother is a sorceress and who is lured on by lust for even greater powerand magnificence than he already possesses, becomes a servant of the devil. Despite the author’shedonism and seeming pleasure in cruelty, there is an ostensible moral: the worthlessness of richesand the fearful end of tyrants. Indeed a concluding moral reflection was a feature of the orientaltale, though some writers labored the point more than others as, for instance, James Ridley in Talesof the Genii (1764), a book read by the young Charles Dickens, who was terrified by the diminu-tive old hag in “The history of the Merchant Abudah.” Few oriental tales were designed for chil-dren. Horace Walpole’s “The Dice-Box,” one of his Hieroglyphic Tales written between 1766 and1772, is a rare exception, written for the small niece of a friend. The heroine of this brief andcrudely comic extravaganza, wholly without a moral, is the nine-year-old Pissimissi from Damas-cus, who travels in a pistachio-nut stuffed with toys and sugarplums and drawn by an elephant anda ladybird.

The Nineteenth Century: The Resurgence of FairiesBy the end of the century there was a marked change; from the 1780s the supernatu-

ral became fashionable. Reynolds’s painting of Shakespeare’s Puck as an impish, satyr-like child(1789) was much admired. It had been commissioned by Alderman John Boydell for his Shake-speare gallery, to which leading artists of the time contributed, including Fuseli whose MidsummerNight’s Dream paintings show an erotic dreamworld into which he introduced such folklore beingsas night-hags and changelings, while Puck appears as a huge elemental figure in his painting of thefairy Cobweb (1785-86). Blake, though he stood outside all fashion, also used folklore fairies in anillustration for Milton’s “L’Allegro” in 1816. Walter Scott was a literary pioneer. His Minstrelsy ofthe Scottish Border (1801-1802) includes an essay, “The Fairies of Popular Superstition,” andamong the ballads is the legend of Thomas the Rhymer, who followed the Queen of Elfland to hercountry and never came back. (Keats uses the same theme of a mortal ensnared by an elfin womanin “La Belle Dame sans Merci” [1819], and Mrs Craik and Andrew Lang both built stories on it.Christina Rossetti’s poem “Goblin Market” (1862), more dark and sinister than any of these, de-scribes goblins trying to seduce two sisters with forbidden fruit. Scott’s first important originalwork, The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805), is based on a Border legend about a goblin, and TheLady of the Lake (1810) includes a fairy ballad, “Alice Brand.” In his novel The Monastery (1820),set in Elizabethan times, there is a sylph, the White Lady of Avenelf, who acts as deus ex machina.He also started a revival of interest in Arthurian legend; there are many extracts from Malory infootnotes to Marmion (1808). Scott was responsible for encouraging James Hogg, the EttrickShepherd, in a literary career. Hogg’s “Kilmeny,” the thirteenth tale in The Queen’s Wake (1813),where a girl walks into “A land of love and a land of light, / Withouten sun, or moon, or night” thatshe cannot bear to leave, is one of the most haunting poems about fairy enchantment.

Important work was also done by the Irishman Thomas Crofton Croker, whose FairyLegends and Traditions in the South of Ireland (1825-28) Scott knew, and by Thomas Keightley,another Irishman, whose Fairy Mythology (1828) covers an astonishing range of European legendsand includes a section on English fairies, a subject that had received little attention before. Materialfrom it was frequently used by subsequent writers, including Archibald Maclaren, who drew onScott’s Border Minstrelsy as well for his The Fairy Family: Ballads and Metrical Tales of the FairyFaith of Europe (1857).


The Grimm brothers’ Kinder- und Hausmärchen were translated by Edgar Taylorunder the title of German Popular Stories (1823) with illustrations by George Cruikshank (whichRuskin remembered copying when he was a boy), and translations of Hans Christian Andersen ap-peared in 1846. They were enthusiastically received. Early Victorians, seeking an escape from theugliness of industrial society, turned to chivalric ideals and fairy mythology, which seemed to be-long to a lost innocent world. Tennyson’s “Morte d’Arthur” was published in 1842, to be graduallyfollowed over many years by the other eleven poems that make up Idylls of the King. Unexpectedartists responded to the fashion for fairy pictures; Landseer painted Titania with Bottom, and J. M.W. Turner painted Queen Mab’s Cave. John Anster Fitzgerald (the most obsessive fairy painter ofall), Daniel Maclise, Joseph Noel Paton, and Richard Dadd were among those who depicted fairyworlds with minute realism and sometimes erotic detail, often on huge canvases. C. L. Dodgson(Lewis Carroll) counted 165 fairies in Paton’s The Quarrel of Oberon and Titania (A MidsummerNight’s Dream was a favorite subject), but there are over 200 in Richard Doyle’s watercolor TheFairy Tree. In Fairyland (1870), with 36 of his illustrations for which the Irish poet William Al-lingham wrote the verse, was the most lavish fairy picture book of the period.

The theatre of the time was an important influence on many artists, notably onDoyle and Fitzgerald. Stage productions were spectacular, using elaborate stage machinery andlighting, and there was a memorable production by Charles Kean of A Midsummer Night’s Dreamin 1856. In a production of The Tempest the following year, Ariel sailed on a dolphin’s back androde on a bat, and Prospero’s freed spirits flew through the air. Pantomimes were particularly richin fairies; Richard Henry Horne in Memoirs of a London Doll (1846) gives a chapter to one per-formed at Drury Lane, providing a long description of the transformation scene and its frost fairies.

Literary fantasy, especially for children, was more purposeful. The first full-lengthjuvenile fairy story was Francis Paget’s The Hope of the Katzekopfs (1844), a vivacious comedythat becomes serious in the final pages. The prince who is the Katzekopf hope is reformed by fairymeans, as Scrooge is by the ghosts of Christmases past, present, and future in Dickens’s A Christ-mas Carol (1843), and variations on this theme played a large part in Victorian fantasy. It could in-volve savagely unpleasant punishment, as in Christina Rossetti’s Speaking Likenesses (1874) or inLucy Lane Clifford’s “The New Mother” (1882), in which two naughty children are abandoned bytheir mother and her place is taken by a woman with glass eyes and a wooden tail. Other improvingfairy tales ranged from simplistic stories, such as those by Mary Louisa Molesworth about childrenwho are cured of faults by encounters with magic, to the complex symbolism of George Mac-Donald. Nearly all his fantasies, both for adults and children, describe a quest for spirituality, butthe meaning is left for readers to infer -- MacDonald always denied that he wrote allegory. InPhantastes (1858) the hero’s name, Anodos, Greek for “a spiritual ascent,” is a clue to what fol-lows.

Both this and Lilith (1895), his last work, describe strange encounters, often full ofsexual imagery, as the central characters wander in a dream world. Neither was popular in Mac-Donald’s lifetime, the Athenaeum saying of Phantastes that it read as if the author had supped “tooplentifully on German romance, negative philosophy, and Shelley’s ‘Alastor.’” His greatest worklies in the simpler fantasies for children. Charles Kingsley’s The Water-Babies (1863), though di-dactic on many fronts, imparting lessons in moral improvement and natural history as well asasides on topics dear to the author, was also highly original, written with an infectious verve thatcarries the reader through the book’s chaotic organization.

Lewis Carroll’s Alice books of 1865 and 1871 have often been cited as a watershedin the history of children’s books; F. J. Harvey Darton referred to the first as a spiritual volcano. It


is a mark of their originality that they not only have no moral but also owe nothing to any fantasythat preceded them, establishing their own species of nonsense which, once Carroll had shown theway, was palely imitated by many other authors. His attempt at conventional fairies in Sylvie andBruno (1889-93) is best forgotten.

Victorian writers for children tended to draw on German and French sources ratherthan on native tradition. Frances Browne and John Ruskin both wrote stories that owe much to theGrimms. Hans Christian Andersen’s bittersweet melancholy was often imitated; Oscar Wilde’s“The Happy Prince” (described by John Goldthwaite as “quasi-religious bathos”) is the best knownof these pastiches. George MacDonald was influenced by German romantic writers such as Novalisand E. T. A. Hoffmann, and echoes of the latter can be found in Mary De Morgan. The backgroundof Perrault’s fairy stories was used in burlesque accounts of court life such as Thackeray’s TheRose and the Ring (1855) and Andrew Lang’s chronicles of Pantouflia, beginning with PrincePrigio (1889), a hero whose ancestors included Cinderella, the Marquis de Carabas, and the Sleep-ing Princess. Juliana Horatia Ewing’s Lob Lie-by-the-Fire (1873) is one of the few stories to drawon English folklore. There are some English tales in Andrew Lang’s Fairy Books (1889-1910), butJoseph Jacobs, in two volumes dated 1890 and 1893, was the first to give them serious attention.Neil Philip, in The Penguin Book of English Folktales (1992), summarizes the work done by Eng-lish collectors.

The Scots and Irish had always shown far more interest than the English in theirfolklore and native tales. For his Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (1888), Yeats drew onmaterial from many collectors of the past such as Croker and Kennedy, and expressed particularadmiration for “the pathos and tenderness” of Lady (Jane Francesca) Wilde’s Ancient Legends ofIreland (1887). He also included fairy poems by William Allingham and more robust material fromWilliam Carleton, author of Tales of Ireland (1834). Yeats was unusual among literary fantasists inthat he claimed to believe in the superstitions he described. But he was a born syncretist, equallyinterested in Irish tales and oriental magic, and did not mind how incompatible his ideas were aslong as they appealed to the imagination and helped inspire creative work. Lord Dunsany, in hismistily romantic fairy tales, drew little on Celtic tradition and more on invented mythology of hisown, though he was associated with the Irish Revival. Padraic Colum, the only Irish Revival writerwho was peasant born and country bred, used an Irish background and traditional tales in his chil-dren’s books and wove several legends into a single narrative in The King of Ireland’s Son (1916).

The Twentieth CenturyThe turn of the century saw another English eruption of enthusiasm for fairies, per-

haps prompted by reaction against liberal progressive late Victorian culture. On 27 December 1904an audience of adults at a London theatre responded to Peter Pan’s appeal by enthusiastically as-senting that yes, they did believe in fairies. Barrie had been much impressed by Seymour Hicks’sBluebell in Fairyland (1901) and determined to write a children’s play of his own. Peter Pan is anamalgam of magic, nostalgia, and his own complex psychological problems, but Barrie wrote otherplays using more traditional elements. In Dear Brutus (1917) an elfin host, Lob, sends his guestsinto an enchanted wood to seek the second chance all of them desire; Mary Rose (1920) draws onthe Scottish legend in which a mortal can vanish for a lifetime and reappear no older, not knowingwhat has passed. Peter Pan is still an annual Christmas event in London; its rival in popularity,Where the Rainbow Ends (1911) by Clifford Mills and “John Ramsey” (Reginald Owen) with mu-sic by Roger Quilter, is a heady mixture of jingoism and magic, with St. George as presiding gen-ius, but did not long survive World War II. The Peter Pan chapters of The Little White Bird (1902),


where Barrie represents London’s Kensington Gardens as inhabited by fairies who emerge afterlockup time, were reissued as Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens (1906) and illustrated by ArthurRackham, the most distinguished fantasy artist of his generation.

E. Nesbit avoided sentimentality in her children’s books, combining her fantasywith humor, and magic is mostly used to show how not to use it. The Story of the Amulet (1906) isprobably the first children’s book with time travel, later to become very popular. It was used byAlison Uttley in A Traveller in Time (1939) and by Philippa Pearce in Tom’s Midnight Garden(1958), one of the best examples of the genre. The magic worked by Kipling’s Puck in Puck ofPook’s Hill (1906) and Rewards and Fairies (1910) summons up the past for two children. Puckhere is the Robin Goodfellow of tradition, as ancient as the land itself. Walter de la Mare, thoughhe wrote of fairies in his verse and used them more obliquely in his short stories, stands apart fromany literary movement. The Three Mulla-Mulgars (1910) is an account of a spiritual quest, andperhaps this is at the root of his writing, which so often has death as its theme. Eleanor Farjeon wasan admirer of de la Mare, but her whimsically fanciful tales fall far short of his.

In general, fairies before World War II were of the gauzy winged little buzzfly sortthat Kipling’s Puck had derided. Appetite for them seemed insatiable; they appeared in verse, il-lustrations, comic strips, advertisements; “Practically every author begins his or her career bywriting a fairy tale,” stated a 1934 guide. By the 1940s the preoccupation had dwindled, thoughthere are late instances. The title story in Naomi Mitchison’s Five Men and a Swan (1957), is abouta West Highland trawler skipper who chances on a swan maiden, and the stories in Sylvia Town-send Warner’s The Cat’s Cradle-Book (1960) and Kingdoms of Elfin (1977) build ingeniously onfairy literature of the past.

The most compelling and elaborately constructed fantasy world must be that ofJ. R. R. Tolkien, who had been brooding over the landscape, people, history, and legends of Mid-dle-Earth and formulating its language for over 20 years before he wrote The Hobbit (1937), towhich The Lord of the Rings, taking nearly 20 more years to complete, was started as a sequel. (Itis perhaps not surprising that he disliked his friend C. S. Lewis’s very different Narnia fantasies[1950-56], which were written at great speed using not a coherent mythology but any elements thatcaught the author’s fancy.) Other writers have since tried their hands at creating imaginary worlds.T. H. White’s The Sword in the Stone (1938) is a witty story about the boyhood of Arthur, lateradapted to form the first part of The Once and Future King (1958); its touches of satire raise itabove the level of ordinary comic fantasy. Peter Carey’s more recent The Unusual Life of TristanSmith (1994) is one of the more inventive in this vein.

Alan Garner began a new style of fantasy for children (albeit with echoes of Tol-kien) with The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (1960) and its successors, weaving myth with charac-ters from the past and the present. The Owl Service (1967) and Red Shift (1973), though far morecomplex and sophisticated, develop the same theme. Richard Adams’s Watership Down (1972),where rabbits set out on an epic journey to found a new colony, became something of a cult, andthere were many imitations. Mary Norton’s five books about the Borrowers (1953-82), three Lilli-putian people, the last of their kind, is a more poignant treatment of the same sort of quest forsafety and permanence. Angela Carter in The Bloody-Chamber and Other Stories (1979) creatednew adult interest in fairy tales by reworking traditional stories and infusing them with dark andoften erotic comedy. A. S. Byatt built Possession (1990) round the character of a Victorian poetessobsessed with the legend of the French snake-fairy, Melusine; the novel includes accomplishedpastiches of fairy tales of the period.


BibliographyDarton, F.J. Harvey. Children’s Books in England, 3d ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1982.

Carpenter, Humphrey. Secret Gardens: A Study of the Golden Age in Children’s Literature. Bos-ton: Houghton, Mifflin, 1985.

Hunt, Peter, ed. Children’s Literature: An Illustrated History. Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995.

Opie, Iona and Peter Opie. The Classic Fairy Tales. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974.

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