related lit

Chapter # 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Helminthiasis is one of the most important animal diseases worldwide that can cause heavy

production losses in grazing animals. The disease is prevalent all over the world especially in

developing countries (Dhar et al., 1982) and is always associated with poor management

practices and inadequate and inappropriate control strategies. An integrated approach is

required for the effective control of helminths which includes strategic and tactical use of

anthelmintics which remains the corner stone to this end and careful management of grazing

lands including control of stocking rates and appropriate rotation strategies. Role of

vaccinations is also vital for the control of various parasitic diseases as in the case of

lungworms. However, various problems have emerged with the use of anthelmintics and

among them; resistance against various species of helminthes is of utmost importance

(Waller and Prichard, 1985) to different anthelmintic compounds and classes, as well as

chemical residue and toxicity problems (Kaemmerer and Butenkotter, 1973). In addition,

recognition of the antigenic complexity of parasites has slowed vaccine development. For

these various reasons, interest in the screening of medicinal plants for their anthelmintic

activity remains of great scientific significance despite extensive use of synthetic chemicals

in modern clinical practices all over the world. The plant kingdom is known to provide a rich

source of botanical anthelmintics, antibacterials and insecticides (Satyavati et al., 1976;

Lewis and Elvin-Lewis, 1977). A number of medicinal plants have been used to treat

parasitic infections in man and animals (Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Said, 1969).

However, their scientific evaluation as compared to commercial anthelmintics is limited.

2.1. Plants used as anthelmintics

Plants with anthelmintic activity have been reviewed by Akhtar et al. (2000). Anthelmintic

activity of some plants has also been reported akin to that of sorghum (Iqbal et al., 2001a),

Aliium sativum, Zingiber officinale, Cucurbita mexicana and Ficus religiosa (Iqbal et al.,

2001b), Artemisia brevifolia (Iqbal et al., 2004), Calotropis procera (Iqbal et al., 2005),

Nicotiana tabacum (Iqbal et al., 2006a) and Butea monosperma (Iqbal et al., 2006b). The

anthelmintic activities of different plants reported in literature have been tabulated/reviewed

in Table 1.

2.2. In vitro anthelmintic activity

In the beginning, most of the in vitro researches regarding anthelmintic activity of plants,

their different extracts or oils have been based on their toxic effects on earthworm,

Pheritima posthuma (Gaind and Budhiraja, 1967; Ali and Mehta, 1970; Kokate and Varma,

1971; Dixit and Varma, 1975; Banerjee and Nigam, 1978; Girgune et al., 1978; Agarwal et

al., 1979; Girgune et al., 1979; Mishra et al., 1979; Mehta et al., 1981; Garg and Kasera,

1982a, b; Dengre, 1982; Nanda et al., 1987; Siddiqui and Garg, 1990; Garg and Siddiqui,

1992). Most of these substances which are toxic to earthworms produce a primary irritation

or agitation that results in the withdrawal of the worm from the neighborhood of the poison.

By asset of this effect, anthelmintics doubtless often drive out the parasite when the

concentration does not get sufficiently higher to kill the worm (Sollmann, 1918). Some

workers have also used hookworms, Haemonchus contortus, and tapeworms and/or Ascaris

lumbricoides for the evaluation of in vitro anthelmintic tivity of different plant materials

(Dubey and Gupta, 1968; Sharma et al., 1971; Kalesaraj, 1974, 1975; Dixit and Varma,

1975; Banerjee and Nigam, 1978; Girgune et al., 1978; Agarwal et al., 1979; Girgune et al.,

1979; Mishra et al., 1979; Sharma et al., 1979; Shrivastava, 1979; D’Cruz et al., 1980;

Mehta et al., 1981; Garg and Kasera, 1982a, b; Dengre, 1982; Kakrani and Kalyani, 1984;

Kalyani et al., 1989; Siddiqui and Garg, 1990; Nakhare and Garg, 1991; Garg and Siddiqui,

1992; Garg and Jain, 1992). A modified egg hatch assay (Coles et al., 1992) is often used

to evaluate the effect of plant products against eggs of Haemonchus contortus or other

trichostrongylids. Some other researchers conducting in vitro studies have used an

alteration of the larval development assay (LDA) or larval motility tests which are

commonly used for testing of resistance of parasites to anthelmintics (Menezes et al., 1992;

Nirmal et al, 1998; Al- Qarawi et al., 2001; Alawa et al., 2003; Assis et al., 2003; Lateef et

al., 2003). The anthelmintic activities of different plants reported in literature for their in

vitro anthelmintic activity have been tabulated/reviewed in Table 2 (world wide) and Table

3 (Pakistan).

2.3. In vivo anthelmintic activity

In vivo trials have also been conducted for the evaluation of anthelmintic activity of various

plant materials. The parameters for such an activity included expulsion of worms from their

hosts (Kalesaraj and Kurup, 1968; Lawrence, 1990; Philips, 1990; Pradhan et al., 1992;

Asuzu and Onu, 1994; Desta, 1995) or reduction in the number of eggs per gram of faeces

(EPG) passed by the infected hosts compared with commercial anthelmintic treated animals

(Akhtar, 1988). For example, in pigs experimentally infected with Ascaris suum, oral

administration of papaya (Carica papaya) latex, from Indonesia reduced parasitic burden

up to 100%, 7 days after treatment (Satrija et al., 1994). Similarly, some other plant

extracts identified from ethnoveterinary sources for their anthelmintic properties were

tested in experimentally infected sheep for their activity against gastrointestinal nematodes

(Hördegen et al., 2003). A 100% reduction was observed in faecal egg counts and a 72 and

88% mortality of adult Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus colubriformis was

observed in sheep offered an ethanol extract of Fumaria parviflora, but no effect was

observed in sheep offered other plant extracts. Chakraborty et al. (1979), tested the

anthelmintic activity of alcoholic extracts of Tribulus terrestris, a perennial plant in India,

in an in vivo study. They reported a dose-related expulsion of Ascaridia galli worms, in

experimentally infected poultry. Recently, the anthelmintic activity of Khaya senegalensis,

a plant well known for its ethnoveterinary use, has been demonstrated anthelmintic activity

both in vitro and in vivo (Ademola et al., 2004). A few of the in vivo trial have been carried

out in sheep and goats infected with Haemonchus contortus (Table 4) or with mixed

nematode infections in ruminants (Table 5) or cestode and trematode infections in different

host species (Table 6) round the globe. Ample sum of work has been done as for as in vivo

anthelmintic trials are concerned (Table 7).

2.4. Survey of ethnoanthelmintic

Ethnobotanical studies reveal that the indigenous knowledge of a community is a key player

in the identification of medicinal plants and such plants have been often tested by generations

of indigenous people (Cox, 2000; Tabrah, 1999; Makhubu, 1998; Ole-Miaron, 1997). This

indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from one generation to the next and occasionally

within a family constitutes the basis for traditional bioprospecting. Traditional bioprospecting

form the foundation for ethnomedicine (Sindiga et al., 1993) and ethnoveterinary practice

(Ole-Miaron, 1997). Traditional bioprospecting often leads to new herbal product

development. For a very long time modern bioprospecting, which depends on scientific

analysis has preyed upon traditional bioprospecting to benefit the pharmaceutical industry

(Ole-Miaron, 2003).

In developing countries like Pakistan, the farmers and herdsmen do not have an easy access

to the professional veterinary personnel. In addition, despite availability of veterinarians,

farmers usually rely on their personal knowledge for prevention and treatment of

helminthiasis as reported elsewhere (Walzer et al., 1991). This situation has led to the fact

that ethnoveterinary systems are the only alternative to “Western” veterinary therapy.

Ethnoveterinary medicine (EVM) is a system of maintaining animal health and curing

diseases of animals that is based on folk beliefs and traditional knowledge (TK), skills,

methods and practices (Mathius-Mundy and McCorkle, 1989). EVM knowledge like all other

TK systems is transmitted orally from generation to generation (McCorkle, 1986; Mathius-

Mundy and McCorkle, 1989; McCorkle et al., 1996), and like the other TK systems, it is

disappearing because of rapid socioeconomic, environmental and technological changes. In

ethnomedicine, at least 80% of the worlds’ population in developing countries uses plant

materials as their source of primary health care (Farnsworth et al., 1985). To date there are

only few published research papers (Jabbar et al., 2006a) on documentation of

ethnoveterinary medicine in Pakistan in contrast to other countries where special attention

has been focused on this area (Anonymous, 1996). Documentation of indigenous knowledge

regarding ethnoanthelmintics has been tabulated/reviewed in Table 8.

6

Table 1. Plants evaluated/used for anthelmintics activity Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Allium sativum Bulb Roundworms Cattle,

goat, sheep Iqbal et al., 2001b

Annona senegalensis

Leaf, bark, root

Nippostrongyllus braziliensis

Rat Ibrahim et al., 1984

Acacia albida Seeds Worm infestation Sheep, goat Nwude and lbrahim, 1980

Adhatoda vesica Roots Mixed GI nematodes Sheep Lateef et al., 2003 Agati gratifola Not reported Ascaris lumbricoides Humans Kalesaraj, 1974 Ageratum conyzoides

Leaves, flowers

Tapeworms Not reported

Sharma et al., 1979

Aglaia odorattissima

Root bark Earthworms Not reported

Nanda et al., 1987

Agrimonia eupatori

Not reported Anthelmintic Humans Farnsworth et al., 1985

Agrimonia pilosa Agrimophol Tapeworms Not reported

Xiao and Lin, 1986

Alangium lamarckii

Root bark Ascarids Poultry Dubey and Gupta, 1969

Alangium larmarckii

Root bark Hookworms, ascarids Dogs, poultry

Dubey and Gupta, 1968

Albizia anthelmintica

Bark Anthelmintic Cattle, goat, sheep

Minja, 1989; ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Root Fasciolosis Cattle, goat,sheep

Bark Lungwomms Camel Albizia coriavera

Bark Fasciolosis, lungworms

Cattle, goat, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Albizia lebbeck Bark Ascaris lumbricoides In vitro Kalesaraj, 1975 Allium sativum Bulb Roundworms Cattle,

goat, sheep ITDG and IIRR, 1996; Iqbal et al., 2001b

Bulb Ascaridia galli Chicken Das and Thakuria, 1974

Aloe barteri Bulb Ascaris lumbricoides In vitro Kalesaraj, 1975 Leaves Nippostrongyllus spp. Rat Ibrahim et al., 1984

Alpinia calcarata Rhizomes Ascaris 1umbricoides In vitro Kalesaraj,1975 Cucuruma aramatica Ammora wallichii

Stem Ascaridia galli In vitro Kaushik et al.,1981

Calamintha umberosa

Whole plant

7

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Picus religiosa Stem, bark Sentia myrtina Whole plant Sumplocos crataegoides

Leaves

Amomum aromaticum

Roots and Rhizomes

Ascaridia galli In vitro Kaushik et al., 1981

Anacardium occidentale

Not reported Earthworms, tapeworms

Not reported

Garg and Kasera, 1982a, b

Ananas comosus Fruit Ascaridia galli Chicken Fernandez, 199I Ananas sativus Not reported Taenia species and

Paramphistomum cervi

in vitro Neogi et al, 1964

Ananas sativus Not reported Earthworms in vitro Chakraborty et al., 1976

Annona cherimolia

Nippostroongylus sp. Rat Bories et al„ 1991

Annona muricata Annona braziliensis Molinema dessetae Anogeissus leiocarpus

Bark, seeds Nippostrongyllus braziliensis


Anogeissus leiocarpus

Bark Anthelmintic In vivo Bizimana, 1994

Securinega virosa

Leaves, stem

Khaya senegalansis

Bark

Nauclea latifolia Roots Anthocephalus indices

Stem, Bark Ascaridia galli In vitro Kaushik et al., 1981

Areca catechu Nuts Taenicidal Cattle, goat, dog

Roepke, I996

Areca catechu Dried ripe seeds

Tape worms Dogs, poultry

British Veterinary Codex, 1953

Artabotrys odoratissimus

Leaves Pheretima posthuma (earthworms), Taenia solium and Ascaris lumbricoides

In vitro Siddiqui and Garg, 1990

Artemisia abrotanum

Not reported Anthelmintic Not reported

Krause, 1993

Artemisia absinthium


Bara et al., 1999; Guarrera, 1999; Francois, 1974

8

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Artemisia annua Not reported Schistosoma mansoni Hamster,

mice Shuhua et al., 2000

Artemisia brevifolia

Not reported Haemonchus conrortus

Sheep Iqbal et al., 2004

Artemisia herba-alba

Shoots Haemonchus contortus

Goat Idris et al., 1982

Artemisia inforescence

Leaves Ascaris suum Pig (in vitro)

Slepnev, 1970

Artemisia maritima

Whole plant Anthelmintic Not reported

Krantz and Carr, 1967; Narayana et al., 1976; Akhtar, 1984; Sharma, 1993; Hammond et al., 1997

Whole plant Neoascaris vitulorum Buffalo calves

Akhtar et al., 1982; Farnsworth et al., 1985; Sherif et al., 1987; Fernandez, 1991

Artemisia mesatlantica

Flavonoids and sesquiterpene lactones

Anthelmintic Not reported

Holeman et al., 1991

Artemisia monosperma.


Abu-Niaaj et al., 1996

Artemisia pallens Not reported Anthelmintic Not reported

Anonymous, 1956; Nakhare and Garg, 1991

Artemisia scoparia


Naqvi et al., 1991

Artemisia senna Not reported Anthelmintic, Cestodes

Canine Francois, 1974; Narayana et al., 1976

Azadirachta indica

Cake and leaves

Anthelmintic Small ruminants

Gowda, 1997; Mostofa et al., 1996

Azadirachta indica

Seeds Haemonchus contortus Trichostrongylus colubriformis

Lambs Hördegen et al., 2003

Melia azedarach Seeds Ananas comosus Leaves Vernonia anthelmmtica

Seeds

Embelia ribes Fruit Fumarla parviflora

Whole plant

Caesalpinia crista

Seeds

Bixa orellana Seeds Ascaridia galli, Chicken, Fernandez, 1991

9

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Ascaris suum Pig

Boswellia dalzelii Bark Anthelmintic Sheep, goat Nwude and 1brahim,1980

Boswellia serrata Not reported Earthworms, tapeworms

In vitro Girgune et al., 1978

Buddlea asiatica Not reported Earthworms, tapewonns, Hookworms

Not repoted Dengre, 1982

Butea frondosa Seeds Anthelmintic, Ascaridia galli, Ascaris lumbricoides

Chicken (In vitro), canine, human

Kalesaraj and Kurup, 1962, 1968; Joshi, 1970; Narayana et al., 1976; Lal et al., 1976, 1978; Shilaskar and Parashar, 1989

Butea frondosa Not reported Oxyurids Mice , Mehta and Parashar, 1966

Butea frondosa Seeds Ascaridia galli In vitro Lal et al.,1976 Butea monosperma

Seeds Anthelmintic, G1 nematodes

Sheep and others

Kalesaraj and Kurup, 1968; Chandra and Sabir, 1978; Lal et al., 1978; Prashanth et al., 2001; Iqbal et al., 2006b

Butea superba Not reported Anthelmintic Not reported

Charka, 1948; Chopra et al., 1958

Caesalpina crista Seeds Toxocara vitulorum, Ascaridia galli

Buffalo calves, Chicken

Akhtar et al., 1985; Javed et al., 1994

Seeds Haemonchus contortus

Sheep, goats (In vitro)

Sharma et al., 1971

Calliandra calothyrsus

Legume Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus, Strongyloides papillosus

Sheep Parker and Palmer, l991

Calliandra portoricensis

Roots, leaves, flowers

Toxocara canis, Gastrointestinal nematodes, Haemonchus contortus

Dog, Sheep Adewunmi and Akubue,1981; Garg and Atal, 1963; Jain et al., 1996; A1-Qarawi et al., 2001; Iqbal et al., 2005

Calotropis procera

Capillipedium Foetidum

Oil, grass Pheretima posthuma (earthworms), Taenia

In vitro Siddiqui and Garg, 1990

10

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Cymbopogon martini

solium and Ascaris lumbricoides

Carica papaya Seeds Ascaris lumbricoides,Ascaridia galli

Human, Chicken

Dhar et al., 1965; Lal et al., 1976

Latex from fruit

Ascaridia galli, Ascaris suum, Heligmosomoides polygyrus

Chicken, Pig, Mice

Mursof and He, 1991; Satrija et al., 1994; Satrija et al., 1995

Carissa edulis Roots Roundworms Cattle, goats, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Carum copticum Seeds Ascaris lumbricoides Human Krantz and Carr, 1967; Kalesaraj, 1974

Cassia alata Seeds Ascaridia galli Chicken Fernandez, 1991 Cassia accidentalis

Leaves Nippostrongylus braziliensis


Cassia spectalis Roots Roundworms Cattle, goat, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Chebulic myrobalans

Not reported Anthelmintic activity Not reported

Gaind et al., 1964

Belleric myrobalans Emblic myrobalans Chenopodium album

Leaves Nematode Sheep Akhtar et al., 1999

Chenopodium spp.

Oil Ascaris spp., Toxocara, Strongylus spp.

Horses, pigs, Dogs, Horses

British Veterinary Codex, 1953, 1965

Chloroylon swientenia

Oil Earthworms, tapeworms, hookworms

Not reported

Dengre,1982

Chrysanthemum spp.

Not reported Haemonchus contortus

Chicken Rebrassier, 1934

Chrysophyllum cainito

Stem Haemonchus contortus

Cattle Fernandez, 1991

Cinnamomum tamala

Oil Earthworms, tapeworms

In vitro Girgune et al., 1978

Cissampelos mucromata

Roots Anthelmintic Not reported

Minja, 1989

Citrus acida Rind Ascaris lumbricoides In vitro Kalesaraj, 1975 Citrus aromatica Citrus medico Combretum mucronatum

Roots Guinea worm Humans Sofowora, 1982

Commiphora Oleo-gum Tapeworms, Not Kakrani and Kalyani,

11

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) mukul resin hookworms reported 1984 Croton macrostachys

Leaves Anthelmintic Not reported

Minja, 1989

Cucurbita rnexicana

Seeds Moniezia expansa, Fascialopsis buski, Ascaris lumbricoides, Hymenolepis diminuta

Not reported

Shrivastava and Singh, 1967

Cucurbita moschata

Seeds Cestodes Human Xiao and Lin, 1986

Cucurbita pepo Not reported Haemonchus contortus (mature)

Goats (in vitro)

Sharma et al., 1971 Momordica charantia Cyathocline lyrata

Essential oil Tapeworms, hookworms

In vitro Shrivastava, 1979

Cymbopogon nardus

Essential oil Earthworms In vitro Kokate and Varma, 1971

Cymbopogon citratus Cyperus rotendus Not reported Tapeworms,

earthworms Not reported

Girgune et al., 1979

Datura quercifolia

Fruit Ascaridia galli In vitro Kaushik et al.,1981

Datura metal Diospyros mollis Diospyrol Necator americanus,

Nematodirus dubius, Hymenolepis nana

Golden, Hamster, Mice

Sen et al., 1974

Diospyrol Necator americanus Golden hamster

Sen et al.,1974

Diospyrol Nematodirus dubius, Hymenolepis nana

Mice Sen et al.,1974

Diospyros scabra Seeds Fasciolosis, lungworms

Cattle, goat, sheep, camel

ITDG and 1IRR,1996

Dodonea viscosa Leaves Intestinal worms Not reported

Sharma and Singh, 1989

Dryopteris filixmas

Male fern Moniezia, tapeworms, Dicrocoelium, Fasciola

Not reported

British Veterinary Codex,1953

Embelia kilimandschiraca

Roots Anthelmintic Not reported

Minja,1989

Embelia schimperi

Seeds, roots, fruit

Anthelmintic, Hynnenolepis diminuta

Rat Bøgh et al., 1996

12

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Embelia ribes Not reported Mixed nematode

infection Ruminants Chopra et al., 1956;

Ikram and Hussain, 1978

Fruit Taenia species, Paramphistomum cervi, GI nematodes

Goats Neogi et al.,1964; Javed and Akhtar, 1990

Embelia ribes Seeds Tapeworms Poultry Qureshi and Sabir, 1979

Erythrina senegalensis

Bark Fasciolosis Ruminants Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980

Eupatorium triplinerve

Flowers Ascaris lumbricoides and Taenia solium

Not reported

Garg and Nakhare, 1993

Evodia rutaecarpa

Not reported Ascarid nematodes, L4 of Ostertagia circumcincta

Pig (in vitro) Sheep (in vitro)

Perrett and Whitfield, 1995

Feruia foetidissima

Not reported Haemonchus, Bunostomum, Chabertia, Nematodirus

Sheep Pustovoi, 1968

Ficus religiosa Not reported Anthelmintic In vitro Iqbal et al., 2001b Flemingia vestita Root-tuber

peel Raillietina echinobothrida

Domestic fowl (in vitro)

Pal and Tandon, 1998

Flemingia vestita Root-tuber peel

Fasciolopsis buski Pig (in vitro)

Kar et al., 2002

Fumaria parviflora

Plant powder Trichostrongylus, Haemonchus, Trichuris, Fasciola spp.

Sheep, buffalo

Akhtar and Javed, 1985; Kailani et al., 1995

Gardenia lucida Essential oil Tapeworms, earthworms

Not reported

Girgune et al.,1979

Hagenia abyssainicia

Fruit Roundworms Cattle, goat, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Hedychium coronarium

Rhizomes Earthworms, tapeworms

Not reported

Dixit and Varma,1975

Hedychium spicatum Helleborus niger Stem Ascaris lumbricoides Humans Kalesaraj, 1974 Heracleum sosnoskyi

Not reported Strongylosis, GI nematodes

Sheep Gadzhiev and Eminove, 1986a, b

Hyoscyamus niger

Seeds Mixed nematode infection

In vivo Akhtar and Ahmad, 1990

Inula racemosa Essential oil Earthworms, Not Mishra et al., 1979

13

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) tapeworms reported

Jugulans regia Not reported Haemonchus contortus

Goats (in vitro)

Sharma et al., 1971 Musa paradisaca Scindapsus officinalis Khaya senegalansis

Bark Fasciola spp. Not reported

Bizimana, 1994

Lagenaria siceraria

Seeds Cestodes, Moniezia, Avitelina spp.

Sheep Akhtar and Riffat, 1987

Lansium domesticum

Seeds Ascaridia galli Chicken Fernandez, 1991 Ascaris suum Pig Haemonchus contortus

Goat

Lantana trifolia Fruit Fasciolosis, lungworms

Cattle, goat, sheep

1TDG and IIRR, 1996

Lantana camara var. aculeata

Seeds Anthelmintic activity Not reported

Avadhoot et al., 1980

Lawsonia inermis Leaves Fasciolosis Sheep, goat Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980

Leucaena leucocephala

Seeds Ascaridia galli Chicken Fernandez, 1991 Ascaris suum Pig Haemonchus contortus

Goat

Limnophila conferta

Not reported Anthelmintic activity Not reported

Reddy et al., 1991

Litsea chinensis Not reported Earthworms, tapeworms

Not reported

Mishra et al., 1979

Macuna prurita Not reported Taenia species, Paramphistomum cervi

Not reported

Neogi et al., 1964

Mallotus philippinensis

Fruit powder Gastrointestinal cestodes

Beetal goats

Akhtar and Ahmad, 1992

Fruit Tapeworms Not reported

British Veterinary Codex, 1953

Mangifera indica Seeds Ascaris lumbricoides Humans Kalesaraj, 1974 Matteuccia orientalis

Roots Fasciola sp. Cattle Shiramizu et al., 1993

Melia azedarach Fruit, leaves Taenia species, Paramphistomum cervi

In vitro Neogi et al., I964; Nirmal et al., 1998

Fruit Haemonchus contortus

Fruit Ascaridia galli Chicken Akhtar and Riffat, 1985a

14

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Haemonchus,

Trichostrongylus, Trichuris, Chabertia spp.

Goats Akhtar and Riffat, 1984

Melia toosendan Not reported Ascarids Not reported

Xiao and Lin, 1986

Mimosa pudica Stem Haemonchus contortus

Not reported

Fernandez, 1991

Mitragyna stipulosa

Roots Guinea worm Humans Sofowora, 1982

Momordica charantia

Not reported Ascaridia galli In vitro Lal et al., 1976 Stem Ascaris suum Pigs Fernandez ,1991;

Farnsworth et al., 1985

Haemonchus contortus

Goats

Ascaridia galli Chicken Moringa olelfera Seeds Ascaris suum Pig Fernandez, 1991

Haemonchus contortus

Goats

Roots Mixed nematode infection

Sheep Akhtar and Ahmad, 1990

Myrsine africana Leaves Roundworms Cattle , goats, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Nicotiana tabacum

Nicotine sulphate

Moneizia, Ascaridia, Cooperia, Haemonchus, Nematodirus, Ostertagia, Trichoslrogylus spp.

Not reported

British Veterinary Codex, 1953, 1965

Nigella sativa Seeds Antifasciolic Buffalo Kailani et al., 1995 Peganum harmala

Seeds Mixed GI infection, cestode infection

Goats Akhtar and Ahmed, 1991

Peganum harmala

Seeds Gastrointestinal cestodes

Goat Akhtar and Riffat, 1986

Piper betle Not reported Earthworms In vitro Ali and Mehta, 1970 Psitacia integrrima

Seeds Earthworms, tapeworms

Not reported

Mishra et al., 1979

Psoralea coylifolia

Seed powder Gastrointestinal nematodes

Sheep laved and Akhtar, 1986

Punica granatum Fruit rind Gastrointestinal nematodes, cestodes

Sheep Akhtar and Riffat, 1985b

Not reported Ascaris lumbricoides In vitro Kalesaraj, 1975 Not reported Haemonchus

contortus In vitro Prakash et al., 1980

Quisqualis indica Stem Ascaris suum, Goats Farnsworth et al.,

15

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) Haemonchus contortus

1985

Ascaris suum Pigs Fernandez, 1991; Farnsworth et al., 1985

Ascaridia galli Chicken Haemonchus contortus

Goats

Quisqualis indica Seeds Ascaris spp. Not reported

Xiao and Lin, 1986

Randia dumetorum

Seeds Earthworms, tapeworms

Not reported

Mishra et al., 1979

Rapanea melanoploeos

Seeds Roundworms Cattle, Goats, Sheep

ITDG and IIRR,1996

Rhamnus principides


Minja, 1989

Rhus vulgaris Roots Roundworms Cattle, goats, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Sapindus trifoliatum

Not reported Ascaridia galli In vitro Lal et al., 1976

Saussurea lappa Roots Mixed species of nematodes

Sheep Akhtar and Hassan, 1985

Buffalo-calves

Akhtar and Makhdoom, 1988

Semecarpus anacardium

Nuts Anthelmintic Not reported

Chattopadhyaya and Khare, 1969

Seeds GI cestodes Goats Akhtar, 1988 Senecio lyratiparitus


Minja, 1989

Solanum nodiflorum

Fruit Worm infestation Not reported

Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980

Spigelia anthelmia Linn.

Aerial parts Haemonchus contortus

In vitro Assis et al., 2003

Swertia chirata Whole plant Ascaridia galli Not reported

Shilaskar and Parashar, 1989

Tamarindus indica

Roots Roundworms Cattle, goats, sheep

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Terminalia avicennoides

Leaves, roots Nippostrongylus braziliensis

Rats Ibrahim et al., 1984

Tiinospora rumphii

Stem Haemonchus contortus

Goats Fernandez, 1991

Tribulus terrestris

Whole plant Ascaridia galli Poultry Chakraborty et al., 1979

Trichilia emetica Bark Fasciolosis, lungworms

Cattle , goats,

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

16

Name of plant Part (s) used Parasite (s) Target Reference (s) sheep, camels

Uvaria hookeri Root bark Haemonchus contortus

Not reported

Padmaja et al., 1993 Uvaria narum Vernonia amygdalina

Stem bark Haemonchus contortus

In vitro Alawa et al., 2003

Annona senegalensis

Leaves

Vernonia anthelmintica

Seeds GI nematodes Ruminants Nadkarni, 1954; Awan, 1981; Ikram and Hussain, 1978

Fruit/seeds GI nematodes, cestodes

Sheep, Goats

Nadkarni, 1954; Chopra et al., 1956; Said, 1969; Awan, I981; Singh et al., 1985; Shilaskar and Parashar, 1989; Javed and Akhtar, 1990

Oxyurids Not reported

Ascaridia galli Chicken

Oxyurids Mice Mehta and Parashar, 1966

Withania coagulans

Not reported Earthworms In vitro Gaind and Budhiraja, 1967

Zanthoxylum alatum

Essential oil Anthelmintic activity, earthworms, roundworms

Not reported

Kokate and Varma, 1971; Mehta et al., 1981

Bark Ascaris lurnbricoides, Fasciolopsis buski, Hymenolepis nana

In vitro Singh et al., 1982

Not reported Earthworms, tapeworms, hookworms

Not reported

Kalyani et al., 1989

Zingiber officinale

Rhizomes G1 nematodes Sheep Iqbal et al., 2006c Ascaris Iumbricoides Human Kalesaraj, 1974, 1975 Anisakis larvae In vitro Goto et al., 1990 Dirofilaria immitis

Canine Datta and Sukul, 1987; Chakraborty et al., 1994

Schistosoma mansoni Not reported

Adewunmi et al., 1990

17

Table 2. In vitro assays of plant preparations evaluated against different species of nematodes Name of parasite/plant species

Active principles

Parts used Target Reference (s)

1. Against Caenorhabditis elegans Butea monosperma Sterols,

palasonin S Not

reported Prashanth et al., 2001

Combretum spp. Phenantherenes L Not reported

McGaw et al., 2001

Cymbogon martini Geraniol W Not reported

McGaw et al., 2000

Evodia ruteacarpa Atanine Fr Not reported

Perrett and Whitfield, 1995

Ocimum sanctum Eugenol L Not reported

Asha et al., 2001

Taverniera abyssinica Phytoalexins R Not reported

Stadler et al., 1994

Terminalia macroptera Triterpenes W Not reported

Conrad et al., 1998

2. Against Ascaris lumbricoides Acacia auriculiformis Not reported F Not

reported El Garhy and Mahmoud, 2002

Albizia lebbek Not reported B E El Garhy and Mahmoud, 2002

Apium graveolens Not reported Sh E El Garhy andMahmoud, 2002

Artemesia santonica Not reported Sh E El Garhy and Mahmoud, 2002

Cassia obtusifolia Santonin Sh E El Garhy and Mahmoud, 2002

Inula helenium Alantalactone Sh E El Garhy and Mahmoud, 2002

3. Against Ascaridia galli Carica papaya Benzyl

isothiocyanate S A Singh and Nagaich,

1999 4. Against Heligmosomoides polygyrus Albizia anthelmintica Not reported B E Gakuya, 2001 Embelia schimperi Embelin NR A Bøgh et al., 1996 Alstonia boonei Not reported B L3 Fakae et al., 2000 Nauclea latifolia Alkaloids

saponin L L3 Fakae et al., 2000

Ocimum gratissimum Oleanolic acid L L3 Njoku and Asuzu, 1998 Piliostigma thonningii Tannins,

alkaloids B L3 Fakae et al., 2000

18

Name of parasite/plant species

Active principles

Parts used Target Reference (s)

5. Against Trichostrongylus colubriformis Peltophorum africanum Not reported L, Stem B,

Root B E, L3 Bizimenyera et al.,

2006 6. Against Haemonchus contortus Annona senegalensis Not reported B E, L3 Alawa et al., 2003 Spigelia anthelmia Not reported Aerial parts E, L3 Assis et al., 2003 Vernonia amygdalina Not reported L E, L3 Alawa et al., 2003 Parts used: B = Bark, F = funicle, Fr = fruits, L = leaves, R = root, S = seeds, Sh = Shoots, W = whole plant. Target: A = adult parasites, E = eggs, L3 = infective larvae. Table 3. Scientifically evaluated ethnobotanicals used for their in vitro anthelmintic activity in animals in Pakistan Botanical name of plant

Parts used

Animal Parasite species

Anthelmintic activity evaluated

Reference (s)

Allium sativum Bulb Sheep H. contortus 100% at 6 hrs post exposure (PE)

Iqbal et al., 2001


Whole plant

Sheep H. contortus 30% at 6 hrs PE with AE, 80% with CME (at 25 mg mL-1)

Iqbal et al., 2004

Calotropis procera Flowers Sheep H. contortus 50% with CAE, 57% with CAME (at 25 mg mL-1)

Iqbal et al., 2005

Chenopodium album

Whole plant

Sheep H. contortus (eggs)

LC50 = 0.449 mg mL-1 Jabbar et al., 2007

Caesalpinia crista

Seed kernel


LC50 = 0.134 mg mL-1 Jabbar et al., 2007

Cucurbita mexicana

Whole fruit

Sheep H. contortus 83.4% at 6 hrs PE Iqbal et al., 2001

Ficus religiosa Bark Sheep H. contortus 100% at 6 hrs PE Iqbal et al., 2001

Nicotiana tabacum Leaves Sheep H. contortus ≥75% at 6 hrs PT with CAE and CAME at 25 mg mL-1

Iqbal et al., 2006a

Swertia chirata Whole plant

Sheep H. contortus 30% and 90% at 6 hrs PT with CAE and CME at 25 mg mL-1

Iqbal et al., 2006d

Trachyspermum ammi

Seeds Sheep H. contortus (eggs)

LC50 = 0.1698 and 0.1828 mg mL-1 of CAE and CME

Jabbar et al., 2006b,


Seeds Goat H. contortus 50% at 6 hr PT with CME at 25 mg mL-1

Iqbal et al., 2006e

Zingiber officinale Rhizomes Sheep H. contortus 100% at 6 hrs PE Iqbal et al., 2001b

19

AE=Aqueous extract; CAE=Crude aqueous extract; CAME=Crude aqueous methanolic extract; CME=Crude methanolic extract; PE=Post exposure

Table 4. In vivo evaluation of plant preparations against Haemonchus contortus in sheep and goats hosts Plant species Parts

used

Active principles Host Reference (s)

Allium sativum Bb Allicin G Vieira et al., 1999

Annona squamosa L Anthraquinone terpenoids G Vieira et al., 1999

Artemisia herba-alba Sh Santonin G Idris et al., 1982

Calotropis procera L Triterpenoids, anthocyanins,

alkaloids

S Al-Qarawi et al.,

2001

Canavalia

braziliensis

S Not reported G Vieira et al., 1999

Carica papaya S Not reported G Vieira et al., 1999

Chenopodium

ambrosioides

L Benzyl isothiocyanate G Vieira et al., 1999

Chrysophyllum

cainito

St Ascaridole B Fernandez, 1991

Hymenaea courbaril B Not reported G Vieira et al., 1999

Menta spp. L Not reported G Vieira et al., 1999

Momordica

charantia

St Not reported G Vieira et al., 1999

Musa acuminate L Not reported G Vieira et al., 1999

Tinospora rumphii St Not reported G Fernandez, 1999

Parts used: B=bark, Bb=bulbs, L=leaves, S=seeds, Sh=shoots, St=stem. Host: B=bovids, G=goats, S=sheep.

20

Table 5. In vivo evaluation of plant preparations against mixed gastrointestinal (GI) nematode infections in ruminant hosts Plant species Parts

used Active principles

Host Reference (s)

Albizia anthelmintica

B, RB

Sesquiterpene, kosotoxins

S Gakuya, 2001; Gathuma et al., 2004; Grade and Longok, 2000

Ananas comosus L Bromelain S, B Baldo, 2001; Hördegen et al., 2003; Jovellanos, 1997

Annona squamosa L Anthraquinone terpenoids

G, B Jovellanos, 1997; Vieira et al., 1999

Azadirachta indica S, L Azadirachtin S, B Chandrawathani et al., 2003; Hördegen et al., 2003; Pietrosemoli et al., 1999

Chenopodium ambrosioides

L, S, O

Ascaridole S Ketzis et al., 2002

Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium

Fl Pyrethrins S Mbaria et al., 1998

Caesalpinia crista S Not reported S Hördegen et al., 2003 Embelia ribes Fr Not reported S Hördegen et al., 2003 Fumaria parviflora W Not reported S Hördegen et al., 2003 Hagenia abyssinica

Fr Not reported G Abebe et al., 2000

Hildebrandtia sepalosa

RB Not reported S Gathuma et al., 2004

Khaya anthotheca B Kosotoxin B Nfi et al., 1999 Khaya senegalensis

B Not reported S Ademola et al., 2004

Maerua edulis Tb Not reported S Gakuya, 2001 Myrsine africana Fr Benzoquinone S Gathuma et al., 2004 Nauclea latifolia B Not reported S Onyeyili et al., 2001 Solanum aculeastrum

R Resin, tannins, alkaloids

B Nfi et al., 1999

Terminalia glaucescens

B Not reported B Nfi et al., 1999


S Anthraquinone S Hördegen et al., 2003

Vernonia amygdalina

L Not reported B Nfi et al., 1999

Parts used: B=bark, Fl=flowers, Fr=fruits, L=leaves, R=root, RB=root bark, O=oil, S=seeds, Tb=Tuber, W=whole plant.

Host: B=bovids, G=goats, S=sheep. Table 6. In vivo evaluation of plant preparations against cestodes and trematode parasites in different host species

21

Plant species Parts used

Active principles

Parasite Host Reference

Tested against cestodes Albizia anthelmintica RB Kosotoxin

sesquiterpene C S Gathuma et al., 2004

Embelia Schimperi Fr, S, R Embelin Hd, Hm, Ts

R, M, H Desta, 1995; Bøgh, et al., 1996

Ficus insipida, Ficus carica

Lx Ficin C M de Amorin et al., 1999

Hagenia abyssinica Fr Kosotoxin C H Desta, 1995 Hildebrandtia sepalosa

B Not reported C S Gathuma et al., 2004

Mallotus philippinensis

Fr Rottlerin C G Akhtar and Ahmad, 1992

Myrsine Africana Fr Benzoquinone C S Gathuma et al., 2004 Peganum harmala S Tetra-

hydroharmine C G Akhtar and Riffat, 1986

Albizia anthelmintica B, R Not reported Tested against trematodes Albizia anthelmintica B Not reported Fg G Koko et al., 2000 Embelia schimperi Fr Benzoquinone Ec M Bøgh, et al., 1996 Albizia anthelmintica Rb Not reported Fasciolosis Catt, G,

S, Cam ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Albizia coriavera, Allium sativum

B Not reported Fasciolosis Catt, G, S

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Diospyrus scabra S Not reported Fasciolosis Catt, G, S, Cam

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Lantana trifolia Fr Not reported Fasciolosis Catt, G, S, Cam

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Lawsonia inermis L Not reported Fasciolosis G, S Nwude and Ibrahim,1980

Trichilia emetica B Not reported Fasciolosis Catt, G, S, Cam

ITDG and IIRR, 1996

Parts used: B = bark, Fr = fruits, Lx = latex, S = seeds, R = root, RB = root bark Parasite: C=unspecified cestodes, Ec=Echinostoma caproni, Fg=Fasciola gigantica,

Hd=Hymenolepis diminuta, Hm=Hymenolepis microstoma, Ts=Taenia saginata Host: G=goats, H=humans, M=mice, R=rats, S=sheep, Cam=camel, Catt=cattle Table 7. Scientifically evaluated ethnobotanicals for their in vivo anthelmintic activity in animals in Pakistan Botanical name of plant

Parts used

Animal

Parasite type/species


Phytochemicals isolated

Reference (s)

Adhatoda vesica

Aerial parts

Goat GINs 62±5.4% used as

AL and GL and saponins

Akhtar, 1988

22

Botanical name of plant

Parts used

Animal




Reference (s)

PR@2 g/kg b.wt. >>99±1.2% morantel

Allium sativum

Bulb Sheep H. contortus 100% at 6 hrs post exposure (PE)

Not reported Iqbal et al., 2001b


Whole plant

Sheep H. contortus 30% at 6 hrs PE with AE, 80% with ME (at 25 mg/mL)

Not reported Iqbal et al., 2004


Whole plant

Sheep GINs 67.2% at 3 gm/kg b.wt. with ME at 14 days PT


Butea monosperma

Seeds Sheep Trichostrongylids

78.4% on day 10 PT with CP at 3 gm/kg b.wt.


Caesalpinia crista

Seeds Buffalo calves

Neoascaris vitulorum

100±0.1% used as PR or ME @ 2 g/kg b.wt. >>100% morantel

GL and saponins

Akhtar, 1988; Akhtar and Aslam, 1989

Calotropis procera

Flowers Sheep H. contortus 50% with CAE, 57% with CAME (at 25 mg/mL)


Calotropis procera

Flowers Sheep GINs 88.4% with CAE, at 3 gm/kg b.wt., ≥97.8% levamisole


Chenopodium album

Aerial parts

Sheep GINs 87±6% used as WE @ 2 g/kg b.wt. >>96±4% morantel

GL Akhtar, 1988

Chenopodiu Whole Sheep H. contortus LC50 = Not reported Jabbar et

23


Parts used

Animal




Reference (s)

m album plant (eggs) 0.449 mg/mL,

al., 2007

Caesalpinia crista

Seed kernel


LC50 = 0.134 mg/mL,

Not reported Jabbar et al., 2007

Chenopodium album

Whole plant

Sheep GINs 82.2% on day 5 PT with AME


Caesalpinia crista

Seed kernel

Sheep GINs 93.9% on day 13 PT with AME


Cinnamommum tamala

Leaves Sheep GINs 97.6±1.8% used as GL @ 150 mg/kg b.wt. >>98±3% morantel

AL and GL Akhtar, 1988

Cucurbita mexicana

Whole fruit

Sheep H. contortus 83.4% at 6 hrs PE


Cyperus scariosus Embellia ribes/robusta

Seeds Buffalo calves

Neoascaris vitulorum

10±3% used as PR @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >>100±0% morantel

GL and essential oils

Akhtar, 1988

Euphorbia prostrata

Aerial parts

Sheep GINs 56±26% used as PR @ 2 g/kg b.wt. >>97±2% morantel

GL and flavonoid

Akhtar, 1988

Euphorbia prostrata

Aerial parts

Sheep GINs 98.6±1.6% used as ME @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >>98.8±1.3% oxfendazole

CGL and GL Akhtar, 1988

Ficus religiosa

Bark Sheep H. contortus 100% at 6 hrs PE


Fumaria parviflora

Aerial parts

Sheep GINs 99.8±0.1% used as EE @ 2 g/kg b.wt.

AL and GL Akhtar, 1988

24


Parts used

Animal




Reference (s)

>>99.8±0.3% morantel

Hyoscyamus niger

Seeds Sheep GINs 95.8±5.6% used as PR @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >> 98.8±1.3% oxfendazole

AL, CGL and GL

Akhtar, 1988

Lagenaria siceraria

Seeds/flower

Sheep Cestodes 91.4±3.9% used as GL @ 100 mg/kg b.wt. >>92.0±8.0% morantel

CGL and GL from seeds

Akhtar, 1988

Mallotus philipinensis

Fruits Goat Cestodes 91.3±5.3% used as GL @ 100 mg/kg b.wt. >>100.0±0% Nilzan

Flavonoids and GL

Akhtar, 1988; Akhtar and Ahmad, 1992

Melia azedarach

Seeds Goat GINs 99.4±1.2% used as PR @ 30 mg/kg b.wt. >>99.2±1.6% morantel

Anthraquinone and GL

Akhtar and Riffat, 1984, 1985; Akhtar, 1988

Momordica charantia

Fruits Sheep GINs 99.6±0.5% used as WE @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >> 98.8±1.3% oxfendazole

AL, CGL, flavonoid, GL and saponins

Akhtar, 1988

Moringa olifera

Roots Sheep GINs 94.4±2.6% used as PR @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >> 98.8±1.3% oxfendazole

CGL and GL Akhtar, 1988

Morus alba Leaves/stem/ bark

Goat GINs 85.0±2.0% used as GL @ 500 mg/kg b.wt.

GL in stem bark

Riffat et al., 1986

25


Parts used

Animal




Reference (s)

>>99.0±0.04% morantel

Nicotiana tabacum

Leaves Sheep GINs 73.6% at 5 days PT with CME at 3 gm/kg b.wt.

Not reported Iqbal et al., 2006a

Nigella sativa

Seeds Sheep Cestodes 99.0±0.3% used as PR @ 2.5 g/kg b.wt. >>100.0±0% Niclosamide used against GI cestodes of sheep

GL and AL and anthraquinone

Akhtar, 1988; Akhtar and Javed, 1991; Akhtar and Aslam, 1997

Peganum harmala

Seeds Goat Cestodes 100.0±% used as PR @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >>98.0±6.2% levamisole + oxyclozanide

Flavonoid, GL and AL

Akhtar and Riffat, 1986

Prunus persica

Leaves Sheep GINs 99±5% used as WE @ 3 g/kg b.wt. >> 97±7% Morantel used against GI nematodes of sheep

CGL, flavonoid and GL i.e., persicon and naringenin

Akhtar, 1988

Psoralea corylifolia

Seeds Sheep GINs 99±0.09% used as WE @ 2 g/kg b.wt. >>99.9±0.01% morantel

AL and GL Javed and Akhtar, 1986

Punica granatum

Fruit Sheep Cestodes 95±12% used as AL @ 225 mg/kg

AL, CGL, flavonoid and GL

Akhtar, 1988

26


Parts used

Animal




Reference (s)

b.wt.>>100±0% levamisole + oxyclozanide used against GI cestodes of sheep

Saussurea lappa

Roots Sheep GINs 100±0% used as ME @ 2 g/kg b.wt. >>100±0% Morantel used against GI nematodes of sheep

AL, CGL and GL

Akhtar and Hassan, 1985; Akhtar and Makhdoom, 1988

Semecarpus anacardium

Seed Goat Cestodes 29±3.2% used as GL @150 mg/kg b.wt. >>98±6.2% levamisole +oxyclozanide

Anthraquinone, flavonoid and GL

Akhtar, 1988

Swertia chirata

Whole plant

Sheep H.contortus 30% and 90% at 6 hrs PT with CAE and CME at 25 mg/mL

Not reported Iqbal et al., 2006d

Swertia chirata

Whole plant

Sheep GINs 79.7% at 14 days PT with CAE at 3 gm/kg b.wt.

Not reported Iqbal et al., 2006d

Trachyspermum ammi

Seeds Sheep H.contortus (eggs)

LC50 0.1698 and 0.1828 mg/mL of CAE and CME

Not reported Jabbar et al., 2006b,

Trachyspermum ammi

Seeds Sheep GINs 78.1% on day 5 PT with CP at 3 gm/kg b.wt.

Not reported Lateef et al., 2006

27


Parts used

Animal




Reference (s)


Seeds Goat H. contortus 50% at 6 hr PT with CME at 25 mg/mL

Essential oils and GL

Iqbal et al., 2006e


Fruits Goat GINs 73.9% at day 5 PT with CAE at 3 gm/kg b.wt.

Essential oils and GL

Iqbal et al., 2006e

Zingiber officinale

Rhizomes Sheep H. contortus 100% at 6 hrs PE


Zingiber officinale

Rhizomes Sheep GINs 66.6% after 10 days PT at 3 gm/kg b.wt., 99.2% levamisole

Not reported Iqbal et al., 2006c

AE=Aqueous extract; AL=Alkaloid; CAE=Crude aqueous extract; CAME=Crude aqueous methanolic extract; CGL=Cardiac glycoside; CP=Crude powder; GL=Glycoside; GINs=Gastrointestinal nematodes; PE=Post exposure; PR=Powder; PT=Post treatment; >>=Compared with Table 8. Globally identified ethnobotanicals with their potential anthelmintic activity Origin of survey

No of plants with Anthelmintic activity

Anthelmintic activity Hosts Reference (s)

South East Asia

23 Roundworms, cestodes, trematodes

Monogastrics, Ruminants

Anonymous, 1994

Kenya 19 Roundworms, cestodes, trematodes

Monogastrics, Ruminants

Anonymous, 1996

Eastern and Southern Africa

>100 Hookworms, cestodes, roundworms, trematodes

Humans, Ruminants

Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962

East Africa >100 Hookworms, roundworms, cestodes

Humans, Ruminants

Kokwaro, 1993

West Africa 18 Roundworms, cestodes Monogastric Ibrahim et al., 1984

Zaire 11 Roundworms Ruminants Kasonia et al., 1991

Nigeria 15 Roundworms, trematodes Ruminants, Monogastric

Nwude and Ibrahim, 1980

4 Helminths Ruminants Alawa et al., 2002

28

Africa >50 Roundworms, trematodes, cestodes

Ruminants, Monogastric

Bizimana, 1994

Italy 51 Anthelmintic Humans Guarrera, 1999 5 Heltminths, parasites Livestock Pieroni et al.,

2004 Trinidad and Tobago

6 Anthelmintic Dogs Lans et al. (2000)4 Helminths Ruminants Lans and Brown,

1998 Cameroon 10 Helminthiasis Livestock Nfi et al., 2001 Worldwide 100 Cestodes, trematodes,

nematodes Animals Tagboto and

Townson, 2001 Saudi Arabia 6 Vermifuge Camels Abbas et al.,

2002 Indian subcontinent

6 Helminths Monogastric Nadkarni, 1954

Pakistan (Southern Punjab)

29 Helminths Ruminants Jabbar et al., 2006a

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