chapter 9 qualitative methods: introduction and data collection

Chapter 9 Qualitative Methods:

Introduction and Data Collection

CONTENTS

• Introduction: nature, history and development• Merits, functions, limitations• The qualitative research process• The range of methods – introduction• Validity and reliability

Data collection/analysis

• Typically, in qualitative methods, data collection and analysis are intermingled

• Although Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management has separate chapters on data collection (Ch. 9) and data analysis (Ch. 15), this relationship is recognised.

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Nature of qualitative methods

• Qualitative methods deal with:– words (+, sometimes, images, sounds)– generally a great deal of information about relatively few

cases/subjects, sometimes called ‘rich’ or ‘thick’ data

• Reason for use:– pragmatic: eg. nature of the data, small number of

available subjects– theoretical: subjects ‘speak for themselves’


Merits • Correspond to the qualitative nature of sport

experiences.• Brings people into sport research and studies them

‘in the round’ (Maguire). • Results understandable to people not statistically

trained. • Able to encompass personal change over time. • Suited to investigating face-to-face interaction

between people (symbols, gestures, etc.).• Suited to providing an understanding of people's

needs and aspirations.


Use in market research (Peterson)

• developing hypotheses on behaviour and attitudes; • identifying the full range of issues/views/attitudes to be

pursued in larger-scale research;• suggesting methods for quantitative enquiry;• identifying appropriate language to use in surveys; • understanding buying decision-making process; • developing new product/service/marketing strategy ideas –

free play of attitudes/opinions a rich source of ideas for the marketer;

• providing initial screening of new product/service/ strategy ideas;

• learning how communications are received by potential customers – particularly related to advertising.


Qualitative methods: ‘Issues’ (Miles & Huberman)

• Labour-intensiveness • Time-extensiveness• Frequent data overload• Possibility of researcher bias• Time demands of processing/coding data• Adequacy of sampling• Generalisability• Credibility, quality and utility of conclusions


Qualitative research process (Fig. 9.1)

4. Write up results

1. Hypothesise/ conceptualise/plan

2. Collect data

3. Analyse data

Sequential approach (typical of quant. methods)


Qualitative research process (Fig. 9.1)

4. Write up results

1. Hypothesise/ conceptualise/plan

2. Collect data

3. Analyse data

Sequential approach (typical of quant. methods)

Recursive approach (typical of qualitative methods)


Grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss)

• Theory arises from (qualitative) empirical


The range of methods of qualitative data collection (Fig. 9.2)

Type Features

In-depth interviews Checklist rather than questionnaireUsually small number of subjects



Type Features


Focus groups Groups (5-12) with facilitator rather than interviewer



Type Features



Participant observation Researcher is participant with subjects



Type Features



Participant observation Researcher is participant with subjectsBiographical methods Full or partial life histories



Type Features



Participant observation Researcher is participant with subjectsBiographical methods Full or partial life historiesTextual analysis Print and audio-visual material )can also

be quantitative



Type Features



Participant observation Researcher is participant with subjectsBiographical methods Full or partial life historiesTextual analysis Print and audio-visual material )can also

be quantitativeEthnography Uses a number of the above techniques –

from anthropology


Context: questions, responses & interview types (Fig. 9.3)

Interview type Question format Responses Interviewer/interviewee interaction

Structured Prescribed by questionnaire

Pre-coded Formal, consistent


Open-ended

Formal, consistent


Questions, responses & interview types (Fig. 9.3)





Open-ended

Formal, consistent

Structured + semi-structured elements

Prescribed by questionnaire + supplementary

Open-ended

Mostly formal, consistent

Semi-structured Checklist: question format not prescribed

Open-ended

Conversational, variable


Questions, responses & interview types (Fig. 9.3)





Open-ended

Formal, consistent

Structured + semi-structured elements

Prescribed by questionnaire + supplementary

Open-ended

Mostly formal, consistent

Semi-structured Checklist: question format not prescribed

Open-ended

Conversational, variable

Unstructured Only the broad topic area is prescribed

Open-ended

Free-flowing conversational, variable


In-depth interviews

• Nature:– Length – 30 mins to several hours– Depth – more in-depth than a typical questionnaire-based

interview– Structure – fluid, informal structure

• Purposes/situations:– No. of subjects small– Information complex/variable– Exploratory/preliminary.

• Checklist of topics: – rather than formal list of questions


Example of checklist: interview on sport activity (Fig. 9.4, part)

CURRENT SPORTS ACTIVITIES HOW OFTEN? WHY?

EXPLORE EACH ONE – COMPARE WHERE? home/away from home WHO WITH? MEANING/IMPORTANCE TYPE OF INVOLVEMENT

ACTIVITIES WOULD LIKE TO DO WHY?

MEANING TO YOU OF: ‘FITNESS’ ‘SPORT’


In-depth interview: interviewing process

• Standardised approach: – question format same for all subjects– minimal unscripted interaction

• Informal/unstructured approach– Free-form, conversational– Substantial interaction


In-depth interview: interviewer interventions (Whyte) (Fig. 9.5)

1. ‘Uh-huh’ Non-verbal response - indicates that the interviewer is still listening/ interested.

2. ‘That’s interesting’

Encourages the subject to keep talking/expand on the current topic.

3. Reflection Repeating last statement as a question - e.g. 'So you don't like sport?'

4. Probe Invites explanations - e.g. 'Why don't you like sport?'

5. Back tracking Recall something said earlier – invite further information - e.g. 'Let's go back to what you were saying about your school days'.

6. New topic Initiating a new topic - e.g. 'Can we talk about other leisure activities - what about entertainment?'


In-depth interview: recording

• Take notes, during or after the interview?• Sound/video recording?

– Create written version: Transcription: – Use of transcription software


Focus groups• Nature:• Similar to in-depth interviews but:• Conducted with a group (typically 6-12 members).• Facilitator (rather than interviewer) guides discussion.• Interaction between subjects takes place.

• Purposes/situations:• researching a small group which would not be adequately

represented in a general community survey• used when the interaction/discussion process itself is of

interest – eg. testing reactions to a new product;• individual in-depth interviews may not be practical to arrange

for s but people are willing to be interviewed as a group.


Focus groups contd

• Methods:• Facilitator has similar role to interviewer• Significant difference: need to ensure all group

members have their say• Recording: as for in-depth interviews


Participant observation

• Nature: The researcher becomes a participant in the social process being studied.

• Examples:• Studying a whole community by living there –

Whyte Street Corner Society• Studying a sport facility/club as a user/member.


Participant observation: issues

• Gaining admission to/acceptance by a group• What role to play:

– Full identification as researcher?– Partial identification?– No identification or fake identity?– NB Related ethical issues

• Identification of informants/confidants – related to the idea of sampling

• Practicalities of recording of information


Analysing texts

• Research tradition derived from the humanities– And theology: hermeneutics

• ‘Text’ includes:– Books, newspapers, magazines - Pictures– Posters - Recorded music– Film - Television– Internet

• Examples exist of analysis of:– Novels and other literature– Mass media coverage of events/issues– Film– InternetA. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

Biographical research

• The study of people’s lives• Biography/autobiography/personal narrative

– eg. major figures in a sport

• Oral history– eye-witness accounts of events, lifestyles

• Memory work– Focus group style process using shared written accounts of

experiences – eg. holidays

• Personal domain histories– Accounts of individual life-time experience of a life-domain,

eg. Sports involvement


Ethnography

• From the Greek ethnos, people.• Not one technique but an approach drawing on a

variety of, generally qualitative, techniques.• Also: bricollage: mixed methods.


Validity, reliability and trustworthiness• As discussed in Ch. 2:

– Validity: extent to which the research represents what is intended

– Reliability: extent to which research is replicable

• Internal validity: data gathering process: – qualitative research validity likely to be high

• External validity: applicability beyond the research subjects:– typically no general applicability is claimed, but some

wider applicability can be expected …


Validity, reliability and trustworthiness contd

• Replication– Often not possible in qualitative research, but like meta-

analysis, cumulative evidence from similar studies may be used.

• Trustworthiness – term used for qualitative research to cover validity and

reliability

A. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: RoutledgeA. J. Veal & S. Darcy (2014) Research Methods for Sport Studies and Sport Management: A practical guide. London: Routledge

chapter 9 qualitative methods: introduction and data collection

Documents

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research methods

sport studies

sport management

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data analysis

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