chapter 5 atmospheric water and weather. supplemental notes are drawn from lutgens and tarbuck, the...
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Chapter 5
Atmospheric Water and Weather
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Supplemental notes are drawn from Lutgens and Tarbuck, The Atmosphere
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Significance of Water
(1) Vital to all organisms of the Earth
(2) Necessary for many Earth system processes
(3) Impacts the structure of the Earth’s surface – chemically and physically
(4) Has definite functions in human activities
(5) Can exist in solid, liquid and gaseous states under normal Earth atmospheric conditions
(6) It is slow to heat / slow to cool
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Water and Atmospheric Moisture
- Water on Earth: Location and Properties - Humidity
- Atmospheric Stability
- Clouds and Fog
- Air Masses
- Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms
- Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems
- Violent Weather
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Ocean and Freshwater Distribution
Figure 5.3
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Hydrologic Cycle
- Closed system movement of moisture in the Hydrosphere
- Absorption and release of energy (latent heat…in calories) “powers” the system
- As a proportion, the energy is small, the actual amount is significant
- Gain-or-loss of energy results in three major processes and two minor processes
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Hydrologic Cycle
(1) Evaporation / transpiration(2) Condensation(3) Precipitation(4) Sublimation(5) DepositionIn general terms, precipitation=evaporation worldwide
--- in reality, “too much, too little, too bad”issues of frequency and dependability
Continents: precipitation>evaporation Oceans: precipitation<evaporation
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Water’s Heat Energy Characteristics
Figure 5.6
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- Moisture in the hydrologic cycle is most frequently locked in H2O vapor
- It is a small but, highly variable percentage of the atmosphere by volume
- This H2O vapor is concentrated in the lower 18,000’ of the atmosphere
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There are limits to the volume of H2O that the atmosphere can hold in suspension
… temperature is the primary factor
As a general rule, the warmer the air, the greater the volume of water vapor that air can hold
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Saturation and Dew Point
saturation or point of saturation
- Achieved by:
(1) dropping temperature
(2) increasing moisture
Temperature of saturation is called dew point
After saturation, additional cooling or addition of moisture results in condensation
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Humidity
- General term for the measure of the volume of H2O present in the air at a given temperature
--- reported as:
absolute; relative; specific
- We are interested in relative humidity
Ratio of H2O in the atmosphere at a given temperature, to the volume of H2O the air can hold at that temperature
(H2Oobserved / H2Opossible) x 100
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Relative Humidity
Figure 5.7
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Humidity Patterns
Figure 5.10
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Atmospheric Stability - Adiabatic Processes
--- Dry adiabatic rate (DAR) 10oC/1000m
--- Moist adiabatic rate (MAR) 6oC/1000m
--- Stable and unstable atmospheric conditions
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Condensation
Process by-which gaseous H2O is changed to a liquid (600 cal release)
clouds; fog; dew; frost
[though frost is technically different]
Requires: (1) air cooled beyond saturation
(2) a surface on-which to condensation
(condensation nuclei)
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Fog
Simplest: a cloud with base at ground level(1) cooling
radiation advectionupslope fog ice fog
(2) evaporation fog steam fogfrontal fog
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Clouds
Buoyant masses of visible H2O or ice crystalsVisible sign of atmospheric stability or instabilityProduct of any process encouraging air movement
vertical convection convergence subsidence
horizontal advection
frontal lifting
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Cloud Forms
Classed by altitude and appearance
- Altitude “families”
High – cirro
Middle – alto
Low – strato
Clouds of vertical formation
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Cloud Forms, cont
- Appearance
stratus - sheet, layer (stability)
cumulus – globular, pillowy (instability)
cirrus – high, white, thin (stable, ice)
We also make use of the prefix / suffix
nimbo or nimbus to designate precipitation-bearing clouds
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Cloud Types and Identification
Figure 5.18
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Cumulonimbus Development
Figure 5.19
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Airmasses
- Large masses of air characterized by:- (1) common properties of humidity
and temperature at a given altitude
- (2) characteristics of their source region
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Source Region
Region whose terrestrial and atmospheric conditions create airmasses
(1) extensive and uniform in area
(2) area of atmospheric stagnation
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Airmasses are classified by:
(1) Latitude of source region
(gives temperature)
A; P; T; E; AA
(2) Surface area below the airmass (gives humidity)
continental – “c” low moisture
marine – “m” high moisture
* “k” and “w” are added for stability indices
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Airmass Classification, cont
cA – continental Arctic
cP – continental Polar (*)
cT – continental Tropical (*)
mT – marine Tropical (*)
mP – marine Polar (*)
mE – marine Equatorial
cAA – continental Antarctic
* consistently influence North America
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Air Masses
Figure 5.24
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Front
Surface or zone of contact / conflict / discontinuity between airmasses
Coined by Norwegian meteorologists in WWI – Polar Front Theory
… Norwegian Cyclone Model
links cloud patterns, precipitation, wind, barometer, flow aloft, etc
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Frontal lifting occurs when one airmass is forced to rise/ride above the other
Passing through a front frequently brings weather change:
temperature; dew point spread; wind speed / direction; atmospheric pressure
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Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms
Convectional Lifting
Orographic Lifting
Frontal Lifting
---Cold fronts
---Warm fronts
--- Occluded fronts
--- Stationary fronts
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Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms
Figure 5.27
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Cold Front
Figure 5.31a
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Warm Front
Figure 5.32
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Midlatitude Cyclone
Figure 5.33
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Average and Actual Storm Tracks
Figure 5.34
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ThunderstormsBest known disturbance weather pattern…
not strictly cyclonic flow
Worldwide approx 16 million annually
Product of warm, moist air lifted to condensation… most are tropical almost unknown at the Poles
- may be: convectional; orographic;
frontal
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Thunderstorms
Figure 5.36
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Thunderstorms, cont
Characterized by thunder/lightning;torrential rainfall/hail; strong up-and-downdraft winds; release of latent heat
Stages:(1) cumulus(2) mature(3) dissipation
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Tornadoes
From the Spanish tornar – “to turn”Intense center(s) of low pressure
… pressure gradient winds may exceed 300 mph
… a “whirl-pool” like column of air vortex downward from a cumulonimbus cloud
A funnel of condensed H2O, funnel colored by what the tornado contacts
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Tornado Development and Occurrence
- Often produced in association with mid-latitude cyclones
- < 1% of thunderstorms produce tornadoes
- Typically North American (3/4) and spawned in cP-mT air collisions
--- 700+ annually; North America dominates
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Twister!
Figure 5.38
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Tornadoes
Figure 5.39
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Life StagesThough a tornado may have a “life” of only minutes, each
will go through some combination of the following stages:
(1) Funnel cloud
(2) Tornado
(3) Mature Tornado
(4) Shrinking Tornado
(5) Decaying Tornado
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Tornado Destruction
Millions of stories about what tornadoes can do
Destruction from:
(1) high winds - strong updrafts
(2) high speed projectiles
(3) subsidiary vortices /
“down blasts”
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Tornado Destruction, cont
No one has accurately measured the windspeed of a tornado
We rate tornadoes by extent of damage; the Fujita Scale (F-Scale)
Tornado Watch and Tornado Warning
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Hurricanes
Tropical cyclone with windspeed in excess of 200 mph
Lowest pressure recorded in the Western Hemisphere
Name from Huracan – Carib Indian god of evil
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Hurricane Development and Occurrence
Giant heat engines taking energy from oceanic latent heat
Form over tropical waters 5o to 20o
… but not all the tropical waters inside of 5o [no Coriolis] So. Atlantic [cold water currents]
The notable exception to a lack of So. Atlantic hurricanes is Hurricane Catarina (2004)
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Hurricane Development and Occurrence, cont
Three stages of development
(each can be an end in itself)
(1) tropical depression
(2) tropical storm
(3) hurricane
--- wind swirl/rain bands
--- eyewall [winds to 200 mph]
--- eye [winds approx 25 mph]
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Profile of a Hurricane
Figure 5.42
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Destruction
Damage from tropical hurricanes range from complete devastation, caused by the passage of the eyewall of a very intense hurricane along the coast, to a minor nuisance, produced by a weak hurricane whose effects resemble those of a strong thunderstorm
Annually nearly every portion of the US is effected directly or indirectly by hurricane activity
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DestructionForms:
(1) wind*(2) storm surge(3) inland flooding*
[eye wall may produce 10+” rainfall]
(4) ancillary vortices (tornadoes)* function of ground speed
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Intensity ScaleHurricane Watch/Hurricane Warning
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Some Interesting Ones
No Name; Galveston Bay,TX 1900
No Name; Okeechobee, FL 1928
Camille 1969
Agnes 1972
Hugo 1989
Gilbert 1994
Dennis, Floyd, Irene 1999
Andrew 1992
Katrina 2005
Catarina 2004