chapter 4 standard single purpose processors: peripherals

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Embedded Systems Design: A Unified Hardware/Software Introduction

Chapter 4 Standard Single Purpose Processors: Peripherals

2Embedded Systems Design: A Unified Hardware/Software Introduction, (c) 2000 Vahid/Givargis

Introduction

• Single-purpose processors– Performs specific computation task

– Custom single-purpose processors• Designed by us for a unique task

– Standard single-purpose processors• “Off-the-shelf” -- pre-designed for a common task

• a.k.a., peripherals

• serial transmission

• analog/digital conversions


Timers, counters, watchdog timers

• Timer: measures time intervals– To generate timed output events

• e.g., hold traffic light green for 10 s

– To measure input events• e.g., measure a car’s speed

• Based on counting clock pulses• E.g., let Clk period be 10 ns

• And we count 20,000 Clk pulses

• Then 200 microseconds have passed

• 16-bit counter would count up to 65,535*10 ns = 655.35 microsec., resolution = 10 ns

• Top: indicates top count reached, wrap-around

16-bit up counter

Clk Cnt

Basic timer

Top

Reset

16


Timer

• Range– Maximum time interval. Equals to 2N input intervals.

• Resolution– Minimum input time interval, or the input clock period.

• Range = n * t– Where: 0 < n < 2N, t = clock period or timer resolution.


Counters

• Counter: like a timer, but counts pulses on a general input signal rather than clock– e.g., count cars passing over a sensor

– Can often configure device as either a timer or counter

16-bit up counter

Clk16

Cnt_in

2x1 mux

Mode

Timer/counter

Top

Reset

Cnt


Timers – Examples

• A PIC 16F84 clock runs at 4.194304 MHz, with an 8-bit timer, what frequencies can be obtained with TOP (overflow) interrupts?

• fint=f/2N

• fint=4.1943044/28

• fint=4.096 KHz

• A 16-bit counter, using auto-reload, with f=1.2 MHz is used to generate an interrupt at every 500 s. What should the reload value be?

• Tint=(2N – R)/T• 500 s = (2N – R)/f• R = (216 – 1.2*106*500*10-6)• R = 65536 – 600• R = 64936


Other timer structures

Top2

Time with prescaler

16-bit up counter

Clk Prescaler

Mode

• Interval timer– Indicates when desired time

interval has passed– We set terminal count to

desired interval• Number of clock cycles

= Desired time interval / Clock period

• Cascaded counters• Prescaler

– Divides clock– Increases range, decreases

resolution

16-bit up counter

Clk16

Terminal count

=Top

Reset

Timer with a terminal count

Cnt

16-bit up counter

Clk

16-bit up counter

16

Cnt2

Top1

16/32-bit timer

Cnt1

16


Input Capture Timer

• When an external signal is asserted, the timer’s values is recorded.


Example: Reaction Timer

indicator light

reaction button

time: 100 msLCD

/* main.c */

#define MS_INIT 63535 void main(void){ int count_milliseconds = 0; configure timer mode set Cnt to MS_INIT

wait a random amount of time turn on indicator light start timer

while (user has not pushed reaction button){ if(Top) { stop timer set Cnt to MS_INIT start timer reset Top count_milliseconds++; } } turn light off printf(“time: %i ms“, count_milliseconds);}

• Measure time between turning light on and user pushing button– 16-bit timer, clk period is 83.33 ns, counter

increments every 6 cycles– Resolution = 6*83.33=0.5 microsec.– Range = 65535*0.5 microseconds = 32.77

milliseconds– Want program to count millisec., so initialize

counter to 65535 – 1000/0.5 = 63535


Watchdog timer

scalereg

checkreg

timereg to system resetor

interrupt

osc clkprescaler

overflow overflow

/* main.c */

main(){ wait until card inserted call watchdog_reset_routine while(transaction in progress){ if(button pressed){ perform corresponding action call watchdog_reset_routine }

/* if watchdog_reset_routine not called every < 2 minutes, interrupt_service_routine is called */}

watchdog_reset_routine(){/* checkreg is set so we can load value into timereg. Zero is loaded into scalereg and 11070 is loaded into timereg */

checkreg = 1 scalereg = 0 timereg = 11070 }

void interrupt_service_routine(){ eject card reset screen}

• Must reset timer every X time unit, else timer generates a signal

• Common use: detect failure, self-reset

• Another use: timeouts– e.g., ATM machine

– 16-bit timer, 2 microsec. resolution

– timereg value = 2*(216-1)–X = 131070–X

– For 2 min., X = 120,000 microsec.


WDT


Contador de RPM

• Um MCU tem 2 C/T de 16 bits, prescaler com divisões de 2, 4 ou 8, e recebem um clock estável entre 500 kHz e 8 MHz. Medir a rotação do eixo de um motor que varia entre 100 rpm e 1000 rpm. Um sensor está ligado ao eixo e produz 60 pulsos por ciclo.

– Cada rotação do motor produz entre 100 Hz e 1000 Hz• 60 cpr * 100 rpm = 6000 cpm / 60 spm = 100 cps

– Contar os pulsos do sensor em cada segundo!• Um C/T como temporizador gerando o período de 1 segundo

• Um C/T como contador de pulsos do sensor dentro de cada segundo

– Geração de períodos de 1 segundo• 1/216 = 15,259 s ou 65,536 kHz (usando o sinal overflow)

• Usando o prescaler de 8 8 * 65,536 = 524,288 kHz


Serial Transmission Using UARTs

embedded device1 0

0 11 0 1

1

Sending UART

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

Receiving UART

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

start bitdata

end bit

1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1

• UART: Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter– Takes parallel data and

transmits serially

– Receives serial data and converts to parallel

• Parity: extra bit for simple error checking

• Start bit, stop bit

• Baud rate– signal changes per second

– bit rate usually higher


UART Sync


I2C


I2C – PCF8574


SPI

• Serial Paralel Interface


SPI Timing


LED

• Must use resistor to limit current.

• Lei de Ohm:– R = V/I

• LED = diodo– VF e IF

– VF determinado pela cor

– IF determina a intensidade

• Resistor limita IF


Displays

• 7 Segments

• Dot

• Dot Matrix


7-Segments


7-Segments – Multiplexed


LCD

• Nematic type


LCD

• Polarizing


LCD

• Types


LCD

• Color


Pulse width modulator

clk

pwm_o

25% duty cycle – average pwm_o is 1.25V

clk

pwm_o

50% duty cycle – average pwm_o is 2.5V.

clk

pwm_o

75% duty cycle – average pwm_o is 3.75V.

• Generates pulses with specific high/low times

• Duty cycle: % time high– Square wave: 50% duty cycle

• Common use: control average voltage to electric device– Simpler than DC-DC

converter or digital-analog converter

– DC motor speed, dimmer lights

• Another use: encode commands, receiver uses timer to decode


Controlling a DC motor with a PWM

void main(void){

/* controls period */ PWMP = 0xff; /* controls duty cycle */ PWM1 = 0x7f;

while(1){}; }

The PWM alone cannot drive the DC motor, a possible way to implement a driver is shown below using an MJE3055T NPN transistor.

5V

B

A

Internal Structure of PWM

clk_div

cycle_high

counter( 0 – 254)

8-bit comparator

controls how fast the counter increments counter <

cycle_high,pwm_o = 1counter >= cycle_high, pwm_o = 0

pwm_o

clk Input Voltage% of MaximumVoltage Applied

RPM of DC Motor

0 0 0

2.5 50 1840

3.75 75 6900

5.0 100 9200

Relationship between applied voltage and speed of the DC Motor

DC

MOTOR

5V

From processor


LCD controller

E

R/W

RS

DB7–DB0

LCD controller

communications bus

microcontroller8

void WriteChar(char c){

RS = 1; /* indicate data being sent */ DATA_BUS = c; /* send data to LCD */ EnableLCD(45); /* toggle the LCD with appropriate delay */}

CODES

I/D = 1 cursor moves left DL = 1 8-bit

I/D = 0 cursor moves right DL = 0 4-bit

S = 1 with display shift N = 1 2 rows

S/C =1 display shift N = 0 1 row

S/C = 0 cursor movement F = 1 5x10 dots

R/L = 1 shift to right F = 0 5x7 dots

R/L = 0 shift to left

RS R/W DB7 DB6 DB5 DB4 DB3 DB2 DB1 DB0 Description

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 Clears all display, return cursor home

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 * Returns cursor home

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 I/D SSets cursor move direction and/orspecifies not to shift display

0 0 0 0 0 0 1 D C BON/OFF of all display(D), cursorON/OFF (C), and blink position (B)

0 0 0 0 0 1 S/C R/L * * Move cursor and shifts display

0 0 0 0 1 DL N F * *Sets interface data length, number ofdisplay lines, and character font

1 0 WRITE DATA Writes Data


Keypad controller

N1N2N3N4

M1M2

M3M4

key_code

keypad controller

k_pressed

key_code

4

N=4, M=4


KBD

• Key bouncing


Key Debouncing

• RC Network/LP Filter


• Latch


• Software– Scan column

– Scan line

– Filter closed key• Time-out

• interruption


Stepper motor controller

Red AWhite A’Yellow B

Black B’

MC

3479P

1

5

4

3

2

7

8

6

16

15

14

13

12

11

10

9

Vd

A’

A

GND

Bias’/Set

Clk

O|C

Vm

B

B’

GND

Phase A’

CW’/CCW

Full’/Half Step

Sequence A B A’ B’1 + + - -2 - + + -3 - - + +4 + - - +5 + + - -

• Stepper motor: rotates fixed number of degrees when given a “step” signal– In contrast, DC motor just rotates when

power applied, coasts to stop

• Rotation achieved by applying specific voltage sequence to coils

• Controller greatly simplifies this


Stepper motor with controller (driver)

2 A’ 3 A

10 7

B 15B’ 14

MC3479PStepper Motor

Driver 8051

P1.0P1.1

StepperMotor

CLK

CW’/CCW

The output pins on the stepper motor driver do not provide enough current to drive the stepper motor. To amplify the current, a buffer is needed. One possible implementation of the buffers is pictured to the left. Q1 is an MJE3055T NPN transistor and Q2 is an MJE2955T PNP transistor. A is connected to the 8051 microcontroller and B is connected to the stepper motor.

Q2

1K

1KQ1

+V

A B

void main(void){

*/turn the motor forward */ cw=0; /* set direction */ clk=0; /* pulse clock */ delay(); clk=1;

/*turn the motor backwards */ cw=1; /* set direction */ clk=0; /* pulse clock */ delay(); clk=1;

}

/* main.c */

sbit clk=P1^1;sbit cw=P1^0;

void delay(void){ int i, j; for (i=0; i<1000; i++) for ( j=0; j<50; j++) i = i + 0;}


Stepper motor without controller (driver)

StepperMotor

8051

GND/ +VP2.4

P2.3P2.2P2.1P2.0

A possible way to implement the buffers is located below. The 8051 alone cannot drive the stepper motor, so several transistors were added to increase the current going to the stepper motor. Q1 are MJE3055T NPN transistors and Q3 is an MJE2955T PNP transistor. A is connected to the 8051 microcontroller and B is connected to the stepper motor.

Q2

+V

1KQ1

1K

+V

A

B

330

/*main.c*/sbit notA=P2^0;sbit isA=P2^1;sbit notB=P2^2;sbit isB=P2^3;sbit dir=P2^4;

void delay(){ int a, b; for(a=0; a<5000; a++) for(b=0; b<10000; b++) a=a+0;}

void move(int dir, int steps) {int y, z; /* clockwise movement */ if(dir == 1){ for(y=0; y<=steps; y++){ for(z=0; z<=19; z+4){ isA=lookup[z]; isB=lookup[z+1]; notA=lookup[z+2]; notB=lookup[z+3]; delay(); } } }

/* counter clockwise movement */ if(dir==0){ for(y=0; y<=step; y++){ for(z=19; z>=0; z - 4){ isA=lookup[z]; isB=lookup[z-1]; notA=lookup[z -2]; notB=lookup[z-3]; delay( ); } } }}void main( ){ int z; int lookup[20] = { 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0 }; while(1){ /*move forward, 15 degrees (2 steps) */ move(1, 2); /* move backwards, 7.5 degrees (1step)*/ move(0, 1); }}


Analog-to-digital converters

proportionality

Vmax = 7.5V

0V

11111110

0000

0010

0100

0110

1000

1010

1100

0001

0011

0101

0111

1001

1011

1101

0.5V1.0V1.5V2.0V2.5V3.0V

3.5V4.0V4.5V5.0V

5.5V6.0V6.5V7.0V

analog to digital

4

3

2

1

t1 t2 t3 t4

0100 1000 0110 0101

timeanalog input (V)

Digital output

digital to analog

4

3

2

1

0100 1000 0110 0101

t1 t2 t3 t4time

analog output (V)

Digital input


Given an analog input signal whose voltage should range from 0 to 15 volts, and an 8-bit digital encoding, calculate the correct encoding for 5 volts. Then trace the successive-approximation approach to find the correct encoding.

5/15 = d/(28-1)d= 85

Successive-approximation method

Digital-to-analog conversion using successive approximation

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Encoding: 01010101

½(Vmax – Vmin) = 7.5 voltsVmax = 7.5 volts.

½(7.5 + 0) = 3.75 voltsVmin = 3.75 volts.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0½(7.5 + 3.75) = 5.63 voltsVmax = 5.63 volts

½(5.63 + 3.75) = 4.69 voltsVmin = 4.69 volts.

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

½(5.63 + 4.69) = 5.16 voltsVmax = 5.16 volts.

0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0

½(5.16 + 4.69) = 4.93 voltsVmin = 4.93 volts.

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

½(5.16 + 4.93) = 5.05 voltsVmax = 5.05 volts.

0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0

½(5.05 + 4.93) = 4.99 volts 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1


R2R Ladder DAC


Digital-to-analog conversion

• Use resistor tree:

R

2R

4R

8R

bn

bn-1

bn-2

bn-3

Vout


Flash A/D conversion

• N-bit result requires 2n comparators:

encoder

Vin

...


RAMP ADC


Dual-slope conversion

• Use counter to time required to charge/discharge capacitor.

• Charging, then discharging eliminates non-linearities.

Vintimer


SAR ADC

• Algorithm1. The successive approximation Analog

to digital converter circuit typically consists of four chief subcircuits:

2. A sample and hold circuit to acquire the input voltage (Vin).

3. An analog voltage comparator that compares Vin to the output of the internal DAC and outputs the result of the comparison to the successive approximation register (SAR).

4. A successive approximation register subcircuit designed to supply an approximate digital code of Vin to the internal DAC.

5. An internal reference DAC that supplies the comparator with an analog voltage equivalent of the digital code output of the SAR for comparison with Vin.


SAR ADC


Distributed-charge SAR ADC

• The DAC conversion is performed in four basic steps:

1. First, the capacitor array is completely discharged to the offset voltage of the comparator, VOS. This step provides automatic offset cancellation.

2. Next, all of the capacitors within the array are switched to the input signal, vIN. The capacitors now have a charge equal to their respective capacitance times the offset voltage minus the input voltage upon each of them.

3. In the third step, the capacitors are then switched so that this charge is applied across the comparator's input, creating a comparator input voltage equal to -vIN.

4. Finally, the actual conversion process proceeds. First, the MSB capacitor is switched to VREF, which corresponds to the full-scale range of the ADC. Due to the binary-weighting of the array the MSB capacitor forms a 1:1 divided between it and the rest of the array. Thus, the input voltage to the comparator is now -vIN plus VREF/2. Subsequently, if vIN is greater than VREF/2 then the comparator outputs a digital 1 as the MSB, otherwise it outputs a digital 0 as the MSB. Each capacitor is tested in the same manner until the comparator input voltage converges to the offset voltage, or at least as close as possible given the resolution of the DAC.


Sample-and-hold

• Required in any A/D:

converterVin


• Understanding analog to digital converter specifications, By Len Staller. Embedded Systems Design, 02/24/05.– http://www.embedded.com/showArticle.jhtml?

articleID=60403334

chapter 4 standard single purpose processors: peripherals

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