The Enlightenment in Europe

Chapter 17 Part 2The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

AgendaRecapNotes on Chapter 17Car ProjectHomework- Quiz on Chp 17 and Spirits due 11/20. What were the CAUSES?The Renaissance promoted a new way of thinkingExploration and expansion of tradeThe Reformation led to a questioning of religious beliefs and the important of GodContinuing study of ancient authoritiesGreeceRomeIndiaChinaScientific Revolution - Astronomy

Aristotles TheoryThe Greek Philosopher Aristotle believed in the Geocentric theoryThat we lived in a finite, spherical universe with the Earth at the center Earth was stationary in the middle and the Moon and the Sun orbited Earth. He justified the Earth being stationary because he believed that the stars were static and did not move. Ideas upheld by church and was accepted authority for European intellectualsScientific Revolution - AstronomyCopernicusCreated his own Heliocentric theoryThe Earth revolves around the Sun, which is really the center of the solar systemFound Geocentric theory inaccurate, but did not want to be ridiculed for weaknessesCopernicus was concerned that the publication of On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies would create trouble for himIt was not published until 1543, when he was near death

Copernicus UniverseComparison of BeliefsThe Geocentric Theory

The Heliocentric Theory

Scientific Revolution - Astronomy

Galileo GalileiAn Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution.His achievements include:Improvements to the telescopeBuilding the first telescope used for astronomyScanning the heavens beginning in 1609In 1610, Galileo published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter, using this observation to argue in favor of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe.

Scientific Revolution - AstronomyGalileo and the Catholic ChurchIn 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican astronomyIn October of 1632, Galileo was ordered to appear before the Holy Office in Rome.Following a papal trial he was found suspect of heresy.Galileo was forced to take back his support of Copernicus to save his lifeGalileo was placed under house arrest and his movements restricted by the Pope. From 1634 onward he was under house arrest at his country house at outside of Florence.Scientific Revolution - AstronomyJohannes KeplerA mathematics teacher who continued the work of Copernicus on Planetary MotionWas assistant to astronomer Tycho Brahe Achievements:fundamental work in the field of opticsinvented an improved version of the refracting telescopehelped to legitimize the telescopic discoveries of his contemporary Galileo Galilei

Scientific Revolution - AstronomyKeplers Laws of Planetary MotionKepler's three laws of planetary motion The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the Sun at a focus. A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. The square of the orbital period of a planet is directly proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.

The Scientific Revolution-AnatomyAndreas Vesalius An anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body). The founder of modern human anatomyAccomplishments:carried out dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself while his students clustered around the table. believed the skeletal system to be the framework of the human body Vesalius most impressive contribution to the study of the muscular system may be the incredible illustrations in his textVesalius defined a nerve as the mode of transmitting sensation and motion. He believed that nerves do not originate from the heart, as was the Aristotelian belief, but that nerves stemmed from the brain. The Scientific Revolution - AnatomyWilliam HarveyEnglish physician who was the first to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart. He argued for the idea that blood was pumped around the body by the heart before returning to the heart and being re-circulated in a closed system.

Isaac newtonFrancis baconRene descartesAntony van leeowenhoekRobert HookeThe Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)Isaac NewtonEnglish natural philosopher, physicist, mathematician, and astronomer.Generally regarded as the most original and influential theorist in the history of science. Considered by many to be the most important figure in human history.

The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)Newtons AchievementsNewtons Laws of Motion Became the founding principle of mechanics and enlightened the masses about the relationships between force and motion. His observation led him to the discovery of the gravitational force. It was Newton who showed that the gravitational force extends across the Earth. Newton worked in the field of optics. His work led to the discovery that a prism can decompose white light into a spectrum of colors. Newton invented the generalized binomial theorem and started working on the development of a mathematical theory, which went on to become Calculus.

The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)

Francis BaconAn English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, and author. Influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate of the scientific revolution His works established and popularized an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method or simply, the scientific method. The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)Bacons Scientific MethodTechnique for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. The Scientific MethodIdentify problemForm hypothesisPerform experiments to test hypothesisRecord resultsAnalyze results, form conclusionThe Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)Rene DescartesI never to accept anything for true which I did not clearly know to be such". Descartes started his line of reasoning by doubting everything, so as to assess the world from a fresh perspective, clear of any preconceived notions. He is key in the use of empiricism (experimentation to answer questions).Descartes' influence in mathematics is also apparentThe Cartesian coordinate system allowing geometric shapes to be expressed in algebraic equations.He is also known as the father of analytical geometry.

The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)Antony van Leeuwenhoek Dutch scientist, 1600sUsed interest in developing magnifying lens to invent microscopeFirst to describe appearance of bacteria, red blood cells, yeast, other microorganisms

The Scientific Revolution Science (and Math)Robert Hooke English physician, inventorUsed early microscope to describe appearance of plants at microscopic levelCredited with creating the term cell

What was the SIGNIFICANCE?The science of the late Renaissance was significant in establishing a base for modern science. The renaissance enabled a scientific revolution which let scholars look at the world in a different light. Religion, superstition, and fear were replaced by reason and knowledge. This period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, and biology, and in the more widely held picture of the universe. Brilliant minds started to question all manners of things and it was this questioning that led to the scientific revolution, which in turn formed the foundations of all modern sciences.

What were the EFFECTS?It led to an increased use of reason an observation to explain natureIt created greater sense of need for instruments such as microscopes It emphasized the scientific methodIt promoted the expansion of knowledge by not accepting things on face value or faithIt increased the belief in progress and the power of reasonIt led to a new view of the universe as a well-ordered system

What exciting conclusion did philosophers reach?

Reason could be used to solve all human problems.The Enlightenment

ENLIGHTENMENTThomas HobbesAll humans were naturally selfish and wicked, therefore governments must keep order.People should hand over their rights to a strong ruler. This was what Hobbes called a social contract.Strong ruler should have total power (an absolute monarchy).This powerful government with awesome power is what he calleda leviathan (sea monster),therefore he titled his book Leviathan (1651).

ENLIGHTENMENT

John LockePeople were reasonable (though still selfish) and had the natural rights to life, liberty, and property.Purpose of government is to protect these natural rights.Government power comes from the consent of the people (foundation for democracy).

ENLIGHTENMENT

Baron de MontesquieuProposed the separation of powers Executive, legislative, and judicial branches of governmentKept individuals or groups from abusing powerProposed checks and balancesAllowed each branch to check against the power of the other twoPublished The Spirit of the Laws Published 1748Showed admiration of Great Britains government (thought it was the best!)

ENLIGHTENMENTVoltaireReal name was Francois-Marie Arouet.Wrote more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy, and drama.Used satire against his enemies, especially the clergy.Imprisoned twice for his beliefs, which were:ToleranceReasonFreedom of religious beliefFreedom of speechI do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death your right to say it.

ENLIGHTENMENTJean-Jacques RousseauPassionately committed to individual freedom.Believed man was born free and good but easily corrupted.Believed the only good government was the general will or direct democracy.Government should work for common good, not just the wealthy fewDespised inequality in society Views inspired revolutionaries in years to come

ENLIGHTENMENTMary WollstonecraftDemanded equal rights for women and pushed against traditional views about womenWomen and men should be educated equally Women should enter professions traditionally dominated by men like medicine and politicsWrote A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which advocated equal education for women

ENLIGHTENMENTAdam SmithScottish economist, used reason to analyze economic systemsThe Wealth of Nations advanced free market enterpriseStrong believer in laissez-faire economics, no government regulationBelieved economy would be stronger if market forces of supply and demand were allowed to work freely

Enlightened MonarchsThe new political ideas affected the leadership of some 18th century European monarchs. The ideals of tolerance, justice, and the improvement of peoples lifestyle became guidelines for these rulers Joseph II of Austria Frederick II of Prussia(We discussed in Chapter 15!)They still ruled absolutely, but they internalized the Enlightenment philosophy and made attempts to tolerate diversity, increased opportunity for serfs, and take on the responsibilities that required their rule.The Enlightenment SpreadsBaroque MusiciansAntonio VivaldiMost famous work Le quattro stagioni (The Four Seasons) Wrote operas, sonatas, and chamber musicJohann Sebastian BachMost famous work: Jesu Joy of Mans DesiringWrote cantatas, chorales, organ works, lute and chamber musicGeorge Frederick HandelMost famous work: Messiah oratorio, traditionally performed during the Christmas season, include Hallelujah ChorusWrote operas, oratorios, cantatas, numerous arias, and chamber music

The Enlightenment SpreadsClassical MusiciansJoseph HaydnKnown as Father of the Symphony and Father of the String QuartetWrote symphonies, numerous concertos for various instruments, and operasWolfgang Amadeus MozartMost famous works: Toy Symphony and Flute concerto No. 2 in D Major, K 314Wrote operas, symphonies, concertos, piano music, chamber music, and music for massesLudwig von BeethovenMost famous works: his 5th and 9th symphoniesWrote symphonies, operas, piano and choral music