CH 511 – The History of Christianity 2The Reformation in GermanySlides based in part on The Story of Christianity by Justo Gonzalez

Germany at the beginning of the 16th century (1501)• Most “churchly” of European lands• Virulent anticlericalism was little in evidence• Papal authority remained greater in Germany that in any other

leading European country, apart from Italy• Lay piety and devotion ran mostly in traditional channels• Pilgrimages and Masses for the dead more popular than ever• Veneration of the Saints (Mary, Anne) was prevelant• Many new churches, chapels, chantries• Devotional literature readily available; regular preaching was

common• Cannot be said that Germany was in a state of incipient

revolution against the venerable rule and governance of the Roman Church

But beneath the surface…• Strong currents of discontent and disaffection over the Roman

Church’s fiscal problems• Renaissance popes lived beyond their means, often on the

edge of bankruptcy; the papacy required immense sums to maintain its political standing in Italy

• To meet expenses, the papal curia devised new and more oppressive taxes, fees and fines which bore heavily on the higher clergy who, in turn, passed them on to the lower clergy, and, ultimately, the laity

• “Rome” had become a byword, especially in Germany, for venality and avarice

• Fiscalism was compounded by the typical vices: simony, nepotism, pluralism, absenteeism and concubinage

The state of parish clergy• Minimally educated (knew barely enough Latin “to say an

adequate Mass”)• Often wretchedly poor• Frequently living with concubines, for which they were fined

annually by their bishops• Morale of clergy was very low• Though these shortcomings were not unprecedented and

were, perhaps, no more excessive than in earlier periods, the perception of them was more and more intolerable by an increasingly literate and educated laity

Religious “Awakening” on Eve of Reformation• The Council of Constance (1415) had ushered in an Awakening

of sorts; the institutional church suddenly faced with demands to truly conform itself to the “pure apostolic church” pictured in the New Testament

• Thoughtful people wanted not less religion but “better,” which meant more biblical

• Christian Humanists, like Desiderius Erasmus, envisioned a moral and spiritual renovation through the inculcation of “sacred and humane letters” – that is the study of Holy Scripture and the liberal arts; ad fontes (“to the sources”) program of reform

• Irony: the Roman hierarchy failed to exercise moral and spiritual leadership; and the clergy on the parish level were incapable of exercising it

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)

Popular Religion on Eve of Reformation• More “earnest” than “encouraging”• Deep sense of terror; living in the “Last Days”• Thoughts of death, purgatorial pains and universal judgment

meant an intense preoccupation with personal salvation• The Church taught that one’s eternal destiny would be

determined by how effectively one had appropriated the church’s sacrament graces in order to bring about truly meritorious works

• Opened tender consciences to the question: “Have I actually performed God-pleasing works?”

Why did the Reformation take root in Germany?• It presented a clear message of religious consolation for the

anxious conscience• Held out hope for relief from ecclesiastical abuses, especially

for people who for both spiritual and material reasons felt aggrieved with the Roman Church

• Satisfied, or promised to satisfy, the needs of many people who earnestly desired the consolations of the Christian religion

• The people who embraced the Reformation, on the whole, were not rapacious foes of the medieval church, but sincere seekers after salvation

Johannes Reuchlin (1455-1522)• Celebrated Humanist accused of heresy for defending the

rights of Jews to maintain their own scholarship• His trial (1520) united the German humanists and drew a line

of cleavage between them and conservatives in the Roman Church

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Luther’s Resume• Born November 10, 1483 in Eisleben, Germany (second son

and one of eight children)• His father was a copper miner; both parents were of simple,

conventional piety (not prone to excess, zeal, or rigor)• His father was an ambitious man, moving his family to

Mansfield, were he won civic respect and considerable prosperity in the mining industry; determined to give Martin an education fitting for a career in law

• Martin entered the University of Erfurt in 1501, the most humanist of German universities; came to share in the humanist movement’s enthusiasm for the study of ancient languages, especially Greek, and its criticism of Scholastic theology on the basis of the Bible and the Church Fathers

• The young Luther had a strong sense of sinfulness and anxiety in keeping with the age; but perhaps more pronounced in Luther

• Graduated with Master of Arts in 1505, entered law school• Profoundly moved by the sudden death of a classmate; and

then had a narrow escape from a lightening bolt while returning to Erfurt from a trip home

• His narrow escape from death caused him to make a vow to St. Anne to become a monk, much to the chagrin of his father

• Left law school in July 1505 and entered the monastery of Augustinian hermits in Erfurt, confident that the monastic life was the surest path to his soul’s salvation

Johannes von Staupitz (1460-1524)• Vicar-General of the Augustinian Order in Germany • "If it had not been for Dr. Staupitz, I should have sunk in hell.”

(Martin Luther)

Augustinian Order• Recently reformed by Andreas Proles• Enjoyed deserved popular respect, representing medieval

monasticism at its best• The order made much of preaching and Bible study• Included in its number the great 14th century scholar, Gregory

of Rimini, whom Luther came to value most highly as the one Scholastic theologian who was free from “any taint of Pelagianism”

• Augustine of Hippo’s anti-Pelagian treatises were, of course, also important for Luther’s theological development

• Luther would always credit his mentor, Staupitz, as having initiated the Reformation (though Staupitz never actually embraced it)

Brother Martin• Ordained to the priesthood in 1507• Transferred to Wittenberg in 1508, where at the command of

his superiors he lectured on Aristotle’s ethics and prepared himself for a professorship in the university that had been established there (1502) by the Saxon elector, Frederick III “the Wise” (1486-1525)

• Made a memorable pilgrimage to Rome for his order in the winter of 1510-1511

• In 1512, Luther became a Doctor of Theology and was appointed successor to Staupitz as university professor of bible

Frederick III, the Wise, Elector of Saxony (1486-1525)

Luther’s exegetical lectures• Psalms (1513-1515)• Romans (1515-1516)• Galatians (1516-1517)• Hebrews (1517-1518)

• In addition he was appointed director of studies for his own cloister (1515), district vicar in charge of eleven monasteries; he was a regular preaching in his own cloister and in the Wittenberg parish church

Luther’s tormented soul• In spite of all his monastic strenuousness, Luther found no

peace for his soul• Sense of sinfulness before a holy and righteous God

overwhelmed him• Was not relieved by the sacrament of penance; only

aggravated his sense of sinfulness; Staupitz helped him by pointing out that true penitence begins not with the fear of God, but with love to God; Luther would later say that Staupitz first opened his eyes to the Gospel

Intellectual Influences• Early on, Luther devoted himself to the later Scholastics, the

“Nominalists” – particularly Ockham, d’Ailly, and Biel• To them he owed his dialectical skills, his distrust of speculative

reason that transcends the limits of revelation, and his emphasis on the will of God as the sole ground of salvation (the Nominalist taught that salvation ultimately rested on God’s free acceptance)

• The study of Augustine and late medieval Augustinianism led him to rapidly grow in hostility to the dominance of Aristotle in theology

Luther’s Study of Romans (1515-1516)

• By the time that Luther lectured on Romans, he had become convinced that salvation is a new relationship to God, based not on any human work of merit but on absolute trust in the divine promise of forgiveness for Christ’s sake

• The Gospel was the radical message that God “justifies the ungodly” through faith apart from works, raising up self-confessed sinners and reconciles them to God

• The redeemed person does not cease being a sinner, yet is freely and fully forgiven

• Works flow from the new life in Christ, not out of compulsion because salvation depends on such works, but out of gratitude because salvation has already been assured

Luther’s 1517 Disputation against Scholastic Theology (97 Theses)• Attack on the entire Scholastic body of thought, including both

Thomism and Scotism, as well as the via moderna (Ockham) and the Nominalists; he left no stone unturned

• Declared that all talk of merit in salvation – whether Thomistic or Nominalist – was ultimately blasphemous and heretical (Pelagian)

• He thus overthrew the basis of all that he considered works-righteousness in the church’s traditional teaching

• He did not stand alone; in the University of Wittenberg were many who supported his opposition to Aristotelianism and Scholasticism in favor of lectures on the Bible and the church fathers

Luther’s early supporters• Andreas Bodenstein of Karlstadt (1480-1541)• Nikolaus von Amsdorf (1483-1565)

Luther’s Protest Against Indulgences• In late 1517, Luther finally took up the cause that would win

him immortality – indulgences• Pope Leo X (1513-1522) had earlier issued a dispensation

allowing Albrecht of Brandenburg to hold at the same time the archbishoprics of Mainz and Magdeburg and the administration of a third bishopric in Halberstadt

• Albrecht’s dispensation cost him a great sum, which he borrowed from the Augsburg banding house of Frugger

• To repay his load, Albrecht allowed the sale of indulgences in his district, to which he was allowed to keep half of the proceeds

• The sale of indulgences had taken place since 1506, for building the new basilica of St. Peters in Rome

Johann Tetzel (1465-1519)• Dominican friar• Infamous for selling indulgences in Brandenburg, just across

the border from Electoral Saxony

Luther’s motives – Pastoral and Theological

• Luther was unaware of the deal between Albrecht and Pope Leo, but protested on pastoral and theological grounds: indulgences create a false sense of security and thus are destructive of true Christianity

• As Tetzel approached Saxony, he was refused permission to enter, yet many members of the Wittenberg congregation crossed the borders to buy letters of indulgence

• Luther preached against the abuse of indulgences and prepared his memorable “Ninety-five Theses”

• On October 31, 1517, he sent copies to Archbishop Albrecht of Mainz and Bishop Jerome of Brandenburg, in whose jurisdiction Wittenberg lay; whether he also nailed a copy to the castle church door in Wittenberg is a matter of controversy

The Ninety-Five Theses (1517)

The Ninety-Five Theses• Written in Latin and intended for academic debate• Far less inflammatory in tone and content than Luther’s earlier

97 Theses• However, Luther was now attacking a lucrative source of

revenue for the church, and touching sensitive questions of papal authority

• His theses do not however deny the right of the pope to grant indulgences; rather they question the extension of indulgences to purgatory, and imply that the pope (upon hearing the reasoning of the theses) would repudiate the practice

• Within weeks the Theses were translated into German and disseminated throughout the empire

• Luther had not anticipated the uproar

Johann Maier of Eck (1486-1543)

Luther in debate• Luther’s one-time friend, Johann of Eck, charged him with

heresy; answered Luther’s Theses in a tract entitled Obelisci; Luther replied with his own tract entitled Asterici

• By 1518, formal charges were being drawn up against Luther; he was then summoned to appear before the general chapter of the Augustinians in Heidelberg

• Luther’s “Heidelberg Theses” argued against fee will and the control of Aristotle in theology; he also outlined a “theology of the cross”

• At Heidelberg, Luther won some new adherents, most importantly Martin Bucer and Johannes Brenz (who would later become reformers in Strassburg and Wurttemberg respectively)

Martin Bucer & Johannes Brenz

Leo X responds to Luther• June 1518 – Commissions a censor and examination of

Luther’s books; the Dominican Sylvester Prierias drafts a reply:• “He who says that the Roman church cannot do what it actually

does regarding indulgences is a heretic”• “The Roman church is representatively the college of cardinals,

and moreover is virtually the supreme pontiff”

Luther’s Protector – Frederick the Wise

• Luther’s case would have ended in his speedy condemnation had he not been under the powerful protection of his prince, the elector Frederick III of Saxony

• How far Frederick actually sympathized with Luther (at this early stage) is uncertain; but at all events he was pround of his Wittenberg professor and averse to sending him to Rome where he would have faced certain condemnation

• Frederick secured for Luther a hearing before the papal legate at the Reichstag in Augsburg

• The legate, Cardinal Cajetan, was ordered by the pope not to debate with Luther, but to have him arrested if Luther failed to recant

Tommaso de Vio “Cajetan” (1469-1534)

Luther’s hearing (October 12-14, 1518)• Under pressure from Frederick, Cajetan adopted a more

conciliatory policy; permitting Luther a hearing without debate• Cajetan then ordered Luther to retract his criticisms of the

completeness of the papal power of indulgence; Luther refused

• On October 20, Luther fled from Augsburg, having appealed ot the pope “to be better informed”

• In November, back in Wittenberg, Luther appealed to a future general council; that same month Leo X issued a papal bull which defined indulgences in the same sense in which Luther had criticized them

Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560)

Imperial Politics• In late 1518, the Emperor Maximillian lay dying, and the

turmoil of a disputed election was looming; he would later die in January 1519

• Pope Leo X looked with disfavor on both the candidacy of Charles of Spain and that of Francis of France, because of their designs on Italy; he thus sought the good will of Elector Frederick of Saxony, whom he would gladly have seen chosen

• He was no longer of a mind to go after Frederick’s favorite professor, Martin Luther

• Leo X sent his nuncio, Karl von Miltitz (from Saxony) to Wittenberg with a golden rose to present to Frederick

• Miltitz flattered himself that he would be able to heal the ecclesiastical dispute; but he went too far

Miltitz interviews Luther• On his own initiative, Miltitz disavowed Tetzel, and then held

an interview with Martin Luther from January 4-6, 1519• Luther agreed to keep silent on the questions in dispute if his

opponents did likewise, and then to submit the case, if possible, to learned German bishops, and then write a humble letter to the pope

• However, Luther’s colleage Karlstadt had agreed to a public disputation with Johann Eck, and Luther soon found himself drawn into combat

Leipzig Debate (June-July 1519)

• Karlstadt was no match for Eck• Luther was finally compelled to break his silence and enter

into debate himself• However, Eck’s skill at debate drove Luther to make damaging

statements that his positions were in some respect those of John Huss, and that in condemning Huss the revered Council of Constance had erred

• To Eck, this was a forensic triumph, declaring that anyone who could deny the infallibility of a general council was “a heathen and a publican”

Luther’s Condemnation

• Luther had already rejected the inerrancy and infallibility of the pope

• Now his rejection of the infallibility of general councils seemed to place him entirely outside the pale of Catholic thought

• His position seemed to allow final appeal only to the Scriptures

• Eck felt that the whole controversy could now quickly come to an end by a papal bull of condemnation, which he set himself to secure

• Leo X finally issued this bull, Exsurge domine, on June 15, 1520• Luther responded by publicly burning the bull

Luther in the “thick of battle”• Luther had many supporters among the humanists, including

some who were rallying behind him to lead a national conflict with Rome; Luther however renounced physical force

• He saw his task as liberating Germany from a papal system of control that he was coming to regard as “Antichrist”

• In May 1520, he wrote his first substantial tract outlining the doctrine of justification by faith alone, entitled On Good Works

• Also written in 1520:• To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation• Babylonian Captivity of the Church• The Freedom of the Christin

Luther burns the Papal Bull and the Canon Law (1520)

Charles V (1500-1558)• House of Hapsburg; grandson of Emperor Maximilian• Also grandson of Isabella of Castile, making him the heir

apparent to the Spanish throne (would become Charles I of Spain), and master of a considerable portion of Italy and the new territories in the Americas;

• Also heir to the Netherlands and the Austrian territories of the house of Hapsburg

• Elected in June 1519 to succeed Maximilian as Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (i.e. Germany)

• In Germany, however, Charles authority was greatly limited by the territorial powers of the local princes

• Charles was a relative unknown, and no one was certain how he would side in the religious struggles of the day

Diet of Worms (January 1521)• Charles called a Reichstag to meet at Worms, partly to prepare

for the outbreak of war over the rival claims of France and Spain in Italy, and partly to adjudicate the “Luther-issue”

• The papal nuncio, Aleander, pressed for a prompt condemnation of Luther, especially after the papal bull Decet pontificem was issued in January 3, excommunicating Luther

• But Luther had wide popular support in Germany, and Frederick, a master of diplomacy, argued that Luther never had an adequate hearing; Frederick and many other nobles believed he should be heard by the Reichstag prior to any action by that body

Diet of Worms…• Charles wavered between the two options, believing that

Luther was a damnable heretic, but politician enough not to oppose German sentiment too sharply or throw away the possible advantage of making the heretic’s fate a lever in bringing the pope to the imperial side in the struggle for France

• Luther was thus summoned to Worms under the protection of an imperial safe-conduct; his journey to Worms was a popular ovation

• In April 1521, Luther appeared before the emperor and the Reichstag

Diet of Worms…• Before Luther was laid out a row of books, and he was asked

whether he would recant of them or not• Luther requested time for reflection; a day was given to him • On the next afternoon he was once more before the assembly• He acknowledged that much was said “too strongly” during

the heat of controversy, but that the substance of what he had written he could not retract, unless convinced of its wrongfulness “by the testimony of Scripture or by clear reason”

• The emperor could hardly believe his ears, that anyone could deny the infallibility of a general council, and so cut the discussion short

“I cannot do otherwise. Here I stand.”Luther at Worms, 1521

The Fallout of Worms• Luther alienated the emperor, but won the respect of much of

the German nobility; he further endeared himself to his own prince, Frederick of Saxony

• Charles honored the safe-conduct, and Luther started on his journey home

• A month later he was put under the ban of the empire and ordered to be seized for punishment and his books burned; Luther lived out the rest of his life under imperial condemnation as a heretic and rebel

• Frederick had Luther “kidnapped” by admirers as he journeyed home to Wittenberg, and brought secretly to Wartburg castle, near Eisenach, where for months his hiding place was unknown

Luther at Wartburg• He went under the pseudonym, “Knight George”; he grew out

his tonsure and grew a beard• From Wartburg, his attacks in writing on Roman practice only

grew more intense• But the most lasting fruit of his enforced retirement was his

German translation of the New Testament, begun in December 1521 and published in September of the next year

• Meanwhile, back in Wittenberg, the young Philip Melanchthon began a small volume of work called Loci communes or Cardinal Points of Theology; with its publication began the systematic presentation of Lutheran theology; it would be enlarged and modified in many later editions

Luther’s Theology

The Word of God• Scripture as the starting point and final authority for theology• Luther’s Doctrine of Scripture was based on the Gospel of John’s

testimony that “the Word was with God, and was God”• Supremely, the Word of God was none other than God• Christ is the Word of God incarnate• Scripture testifies to Christ, the Word

• What makes the Bible the Word of God is not that it is infallible, not that it can serve as a source of authority for theological religious debate, but rather the Bible is the Word of God because in it Jesus, the Word incarnate, comes to us

• It was not the church that made the Bible, but the gospel, Jesus Christ, that had made both Bible and church

• Final authority rests not in the church nor in the Bible, but in the gospel, in the message of Jesus Christ, who is the incarnate Word of God

The Knowledge of God• Luther agreed with traditional theology that it was possible to

know something about God by purely rational or natural means• However, knowledge about God is not true knowledge of God• One does not get to know God by speculation – what Luther

referred to derisively as “a theology of glory” which seeks God in things that humans consider most valuable and praiseworthy (creating a God after our own image)

• In contrast, Luther suggested that the God of revelation is very different in that God’s highest self-disclosure takes place in the Cross of Christ – “a theology of the Cross”

• In the Cross, God destroys our preconceived notions of divine glory; a radically different way – weakness, suffering, a stumbling block

Law & Gospel• God is made manifest in two ways: Law and Gospel• Word of Judgment & Word of Grace – the two always come

together: one cannot hear of grace without hearing also of judgment

• Justification by faith, the message of God’s forgiveness, does not mean that God is indifferent to sin; on the contrary, sin is repugnant to divine holiness, and speaks a word of divine judgment

• But God also speaks a word of forgiveness , which does not contradict the judgment of the law; rather in showing the gravity of sin, the gospel is then surprisingly good news

• This constant dialectic between Law & Gospel means that the Christian is at one and the same time both sinful and justified

The Church & Sacraments• Luther was not an individualist; he was convinced that the

church was an essential element of the Christian message• The Christian life was not that of an individual’s direct

communion with God, but rather that of a Christian life to be lived within the community of believers (“mother church”)

• The “universal priesthood of believers” meant not that each person was one’s own priest , but rather that each Christian was a “priest” for the entire community; it was intended to strengthen the community of believers, not weaken it

• Within the life of the church, the Word of God comes to us in sacraments

• For a rite to be a true sacrament, it must have been instituted by Christ, and it must be a physical sign of the promise of the gospel

Baptism• Baptism and Holy Communion (for a time he thought perhaps

Penance too); other rites were beneficial, but ought not be considered sacraments of the gospel

• Baptism, a sign of death and resurrection, is the sacrament in which we are made members of the body of Christ; faith is essential to baptism, for without faith the sacrament is not valid

• However, this does not mean that one must have faith before baptism, as in the case of infants who are incapable of faith

• The initiative in baptism is always God’s, therefore it is appropriate to baptize the infants of believers, who are then raised in the context of faith, are taught the faith, and exhorted to have faith

Communion• Luther rejected a great deal of commonly accepted doctrine

regarding the Mass (i.e. Communion); he was particularly against private masses, to the idea of communion as a repetition of the sacrifice of Calvary, to the notion of merit, to the doctrine of transubstantiation, and to the reservation of the sacrament

• Nonetheless, he continued to believe in its supreme importance and to the presence of Christ in Communion

• While insisting on the need for the “preached Word” he was convinced in the necessity of the “visible Word” in Communion as the center of Christian worship

• The question of the manner of Christ’s presence cause controversy not only with Catholics but also with other Protestants

Christ’s Presence in Communion

• Luther categorically rejected transubstantiation as a pagan theory, which inspired other unscriptural ideas such as the Mass as a meritorious sacrifice

• The Medieval idea of the Mass as sacrifice was contrary to justification by faith

• On the other hand, he was not ready to reduce Communion to a mere sign or symbol; he took the words of Jesus at the institution as very clear and undeniable proof of his physical presence in the sacrament: “this is my body…this is my blood”

• Affirmed that in Communion believers truly and literally partake of the body (and blood) of Christ

• The bread is still bread, and the wine is wine, but now the Body and Blood of the Lord are also in them

The Two Kingdoms• God established “two kingdoms” – one under law and the

other under the gospel (state and church)• The state must operate under the law, its main purpose to set

limits to human sin and its consequences• Christians ought not to expect the state to be ruled by the

gospel, nor the state to always support orthodoxy, nor require that the state always be ruled by fellow believers in order to obey them

• In the kingdom of the gospel, civil authorities have no power; Christians are not subject to the state with regard to religious matters

• However, as Christians are citizens of both kingdoms, they are obliged to obey both

An Uncertain Decade“Luther is now to be seen as a convicted heretic. He has twenty-one days from the fifteenth of April. After that time, no one should give him shelter. His followers also are to be condemned, and his books will be erased from human memory.” EDICT OF WORMS (1521)

Luther at in Exile at Wartburg• By burning the papal bull, Luther had challenged papal

authority; At Worms, by refusing to recant, he had challenged the authority of the emperor and the Reichstag

• Hidden at Warburg after Worms, Luther spent his time in writing; meanwhile his collaborators in Wittenberg continued the work of reformation

• Foremost among his collaborators was Andreas Karlstadt and Philip Melanchthon

Karlstadt & Melanchthon

Luther’s early reluctance• Luther’s fear of God and of unwarranted innovation meant that

he had been hesitant to take concrete steps towards visible reform in the church

• In his absence (while he was still in exile), his followers were not so hesitant

• A number of monks and nuns left their monastic communities and were married; worship was simplified and in German; masses for the dead were abolished, as were days of fasting and abstinence; Melanchthon began to administer communion in “both kinds”

• At first Luther supported these changes, but soon began to question the excesses that were reported to him from Wittenberg

• When Karlstadt and his followers began tearing down images of saints in the churches, Luther recommended moderation

The Zwickau Prophets• Then three layman from neighboring Zwickau appeared at

Wittenberg, declaring themselves to be prophets; they claimed that God spoke to them directly, so they were not in need of the Scripture

• Melanchthon was at a loss as to how to answer their claims, and asked Luther’s advice

• Luther felt so strongly that nothing less than the gospel was at stake that he decided he must leave the safety of Wartburg and return to Wittenberg; he informed Frederick the Wise of his intentions, telling him that he was counting, not on Frederick’s protection, but on God’s

• Politics was in Luther’s favor, and he was able to return without being arrested and executed by Charles V

The Attitude of the Emperor• Charles V was determined to stamp out the Lutheran “heresy”• But he was threatened by more powerful enemies, and could

not allow himself the luxury of alienating those among his German subjects who supported Luther

• Charles V’s most dangerous enemy was Francis I of France, who was threatened by Charles’s rise in power, for he was now both Charles I of Spain and Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire and holder of vast territories that practically surrounded France

• Shortly before the Diet of Worms, Charles had clashed with Francis in Navarre; from 1521-1525, Charles was repeatedly at war with Francis

The “Italian War” of 1521-1526

• Combatants: Francis I, Charles V, Papal States, Republic of Venice, and Henry VIII

• Exacerbated by papacy’s need to ally itself with Charles in order to suppress Lutheranism

Adrian VI (1522-1523)• Last non-Italian pope until the late 20th century• Born in Utrecht (from the Low Countries)• Charles V’s tutor; ushered in a program of reformation that he

hoped would respond to the critics of the church and steal Luther’s thunder

• Died a year and half after his election

Clement VII (1523-1534)• Signaled a return to the policies and temperament of Leo X• More interested in the arts and Italian politics than

ecclesiastical matters• Soon there would be serious friction between Clement and

the Emperor, Charles V

Battle of Pavia (1525)• The King of France was captured by Imperial troops, and the

conflict between the two most powerful monarchs seemed to come to an end; Charles and Francis then signed a peace treaty

However…• Back in France, Francis saw the terms of the treaty as overly

harsh, and he conspired with Clement VII for his support against Charles

• Charles was hoping for both Clement and Francis’s support to hold back the Turkish menace on his eastern border and to help stamp out Lutheranism; but instead both Francis and Clement declared war on Charles

• In 1527, imperial troops, mostly Spanish and German, invaded Italy and marched on Rome; the pope was forced to flee

• Since many of the troops were Lutheran, the sack of Rome took on religious overtones

• In 1528, a French army, with English support, came to the pope’s aid and forced the imperial troops to withdraw; Charles then sued for peace, first with the pope, and then with Francis

Turkish Threat in Austria (1529)• Once again Charles was preparing to take strong measures

against “heretics” in his own territories, when the Turks, led by Suleiman, marched on Vienna, the capital of Austria

• The fall of Vienna would open up the whole of Germany to Turkish invasion

• This forced Charles and his German subjects to set aside any religious differences and join in a campaign against the Turks

• The defense of Vienna was successful, and Suleiman was forced to withdraw

• It was only after the siege of Vienna that Charles was finally able to turn his attentions on Germany and the Lutheran issue

Meanwhile, during Charles’s long absence from Germany…• The Knights Revolt (1522-23)• Many Germans of the knightly class, who had become

impoverished over the years, blamed their conditions on Rome and saw Luther as their champion; Luther in no way encouraged them

• Soundly defeated by the German princes as Trier; Luther and his followers saw this as an unnecessary tragedy

The Peasants’ Revolt (1524-25)

• For decades, the conditions of the lower rungs of German peasantry had been worsening

• There had been peasant rebellions in 1476, 1491, 1498, 1503, 1514 – but none of these was widespread

• The rebellions in 1524 and 1525 were different because of their religious overtones, because many of the peasants believed that the teachings of the reformers supported their economic demands

• Luther himself refused to extend the application of his teachings to the political realm in terms of revolution; yet there were many who disagreed with him on this point

• Foremost was Thomas Muntzer, a native of Zwickau, whose teachings were similar to the “prophets” from his village who had created such a stir in Wittenberg

Teachings of Thomas Muntzer (1489-1525)

• He claimed that what was most important was not the written word of Scripture but the present revelation of the Spirit

• His spiritualist doctrine had political consequences, for he taught that those born of the Spirit must form a theocratic community in order to bring about the Kingdom of God

• Luther had Muntzer removed from Wittenberg, but Muntzer returned and join the peasants in their rebellion

The Twelve Articles (Summary)

1. Every municipality shall have the right to elect and remove a preacher if he behaves improperly.

2. The preachers shall be paid from the great tithe. A potential surplus shall be used to pay for the poor and the war tax. All other tithes to be abolished.

3. It has been practice so far, that we have been held as villain, which is pitiful, given that Christ redeemed all of us with his precious bloodshed, the shepherd as well as the highest, no one excluded. Therefore, it is devised by the scripture, that we are and that we want to be free.

4. It is unfraternal and not in accordance with the word of God that the simple man does not have the right to catch game, fowls, and fish. For, when God our master created man, he gave him power over all animals, the bird in the air and the fish in the water.

5. The high gentlemen have taken sole possession of the woods. If the poor man needs something, he has to buy it for double money. Therefore, all the woods that were not bought…shall be given back to the municipality so that anybody can satisfy his needs for timber and firewood thereof.

6. One shall have understanding (pretty much reduce) with regard to the covee which keeps increasing from day to day to how our parents served in accordance with exclusively the word of God.

7. The nobility shall not raise the peasant's corvee in excess of what was established at bestowal.

8. Many properties can not support the levies (lease fees). Honest men shall inspect these properties and shall determine the levy upon their discretion so that the peasant shall not do his work in vain, for every person is worth his pay.

9. New rules are ever made for the great outcry “große Frevel” (a fine that had to be paid to the court). One does not punish with regards to the subject but at discretion. It is our opinion that we shall be punished by old, written penalty with regards to what was done and not to favor.

10. Several have appropriated meadows and acres (community land that was at the disposition of all members), that belong to the municipality. Those we want back to our common hands.

11. The “Todfall” (a sort of inheritance tax) shall be abolished altogether and never again shall widows and orphans be robbed contrary to God and honor.

12. It is our decision and final opinion that if one or several of the articles mentioned herein were not in accordance with the word of God, those we shall refrain from if it is explained to us on the basis of the scripture. If several articles were already granted to us and it emerged afterwards that they were ill, they shall be dead and null. Likewise, we want to have reserved that if even more articles are found in the writ that were against God and a grievance to though neighbor.

Luther’s attitude towards the Peasants’ Revolt

• Luther was at a loss as to what his position to be; this may be complicated by his “two kingdoms” doctrine

• When he first read the Twelve Articles he addressed the princes, telling them that what was demanded was just, because the peasants were sorely oppressed

• But when the peasants took up arms, Luther tried to persuade them to follow a more peaceful course

• Finally, an exasperated Luther called on the princes to suppress the movement by force

• When the rebellion was drowned in blood, Luther urged the princes to be merciful; his words were unheeded

• More than 100,000 peasants were killed

Outcome of the Rebellion• Catholic princes blamed Lutheranism for the rebellion• Most moderate princes began to take measures to curb the

“heresy” in their territories• Vast numbers of peasants, convinced that Luther had betrayed

them, either returned to the old faith or became Anabaptists• While Germany was undergoing such turmoil, Catholic

moderates throughout Europe were forced to choose sides between Lutherans and his opponents; the most famous of these was Erasmus

Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536)

The Literary Battle between Erasmus and Luther• Erasmus wanted to stay out of the controversy, but since he

had frequently criticized the corruption and ignorance of the clergy, he didn’t have the luxury to remain silent

• Erasmus had looked with favor upon the early Lutheran movement; but did not find the resultant discord much to his liking

• Erasmus had never advocated a “radical reformation” in theology, and therefore, when forced to speak out, was bound to take the side of Luther’s adversaries

• Yet instead of attacking Luther on such issues as justification by faith, the mass, or the authority of the pope, he raised the issue of FREE WILL

• Luther, a follower of Augustine, affirmed the doctrine of predestination, seeing it as the corollary of justification by faith and the free gift of God

• Erasmus attacked him on this point, publishing a treatise entitled, On the Freedom of the Will

• Luther responded with his classic book, The Bondage of the Will, in which he applauded Erasmus for focusing his attention on a “fundamental issue” and not a peripheral matter like the sale of indulgences, the relics, saints, etc.

• He nonetheless defended his position with characteristic vehemence, essentially making Erasmus and the rest of the humanists out to be Pelagians

• Many humanists at the point abandoned Luther; Melanchthon (Luther’s “right hand”) nevertheless maintained cordial relations with Erasmus and his friends

Imperial Diets• Diet of Nuremberg (1523) – In Charles V’s absence, the Reichstag

adopted a policy of tolerance towards Lutheranism, in spite of protests of the legates of both the pope and the emperor

• Diet of Spire (1526) – Charles again was indisposed due to war with Francis I and Pope Clement; the Reichstag formally withdrew the Edict of Worms and granted each German state the freedom to choose its own religious allegiance; Austria and southern Germany opted for Catholicism, while the north began to implement Lutheran Reformation

• Second Diet of Spire (1529) – The renewed threat of imperial intervention provoked the moderate princes to join the ranks of the staunch Catholics; the result was the Edict of Worms was reaffirmed; this prompted the Lutheran princes to present a formal “protest” – thus receiving the name “Protestants”

Diet of Augsburg (1530)• Charles finally returned to Germany and was able to attend• Whereas Charles had refused to listen to Luther at Worms,

this time he requested an orderly exposition of the points at issue in the Lutheran Reformation

• The document that was presented, written by Philip Melanchthon, is now known as the “Augsburg Confession”

• It was intended only to represent the Protestants of Saxony, but other princes and leaders also signed it, and thus it became the instrument whereby most Protestants presented a united front against the emperor

• When the signatories refused to recant, an infuriated Charles ordered that they must recant before April of the following year, or suffer the consequences

A Dire Situation…• The survival of Protestantism was threatened• If Charles joined his Spanish resources with those of his

German princes, he would easily crush any Protestant prince who refused to recant

• The Protestant princes decided their only hope was to offer a common front; after long hesitation, Luther finally agreed that it was licit to take up arms in self-defense against the emperor

The League of Schmalkald• Philip of Hesse & John Frederick I of Saxony

The Empire threatened yet again…• Both sides were making ready for a long and cruel war, when

international events once more forced Charles to postpone action

• Francis I was once again preparing for war against Charles, and the Turks were planning to avenge their earlier failure to take Vienna

• To counteract such powerful enemies, Charles needed a united Germany; the circumstances demanded negotiation rather than war

Peace of Nuremberg (1532)• Stipulated that Protestants would be allowed to remain in

their faith, but could not seek to extend it to other territories• The imperial edict of Augsburg was suspended; in return the

Protestants offered their support against the Turks• They also promised not to go beyond what they had declared

to be their faith in the Augsburg Confession• Despite the agreement, Protestantism continued to advance

into new territories