CENTRAL TEXAS COLLEGE SYLLABUS FOR PHYS 1403

STARS and GALAXIES

Semester Hours Credit: 4

INSTRUCTOR: OFFICE HOURS:

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Stars and Galaxies is one of the two introductory Astronomy classes we teach here at Central Texas College. The other class is what we call Solar System. Astronomy was the first of the sciences, and when colleges and universities were established in the middle Ages, it was one of the seven subjects taught to all students. It has always had important applications, including calendar making, time keeping, and navigation. Nowadays, astronomy is adding other practical applications, such as addressing vital questions about climate change on Earth. It is further expanding our knowledge of the solar system and space, where there are potentially unlimited supplies of energy and materials. Over the coming decades and centuries, new resources can begin to free mankind forever from speculation or belief about their position in this universe.

B. But the main job of this class is simply the advancement of knowledge. It will

provide a sense of the mystery and majesty of the universe. As with our ancestors back beyond recorded time, we can’t help but wonder what kind of Universe is this? What are its fundamental laws? How old is it? How big? What does it contain? How has it changed with time, and what may be its future? We now know a great many answers, but behind every curtain of the unknown lay another question, or several.

C. Every part of astronomy, from planets to black holes, has its mysteries.

Astronomers are working on these things. Such pure research is one of the most important human activities. This is only partly because unexpected discoveries and new insights often lead to the biggest payoffs. More importantly, if we ever lose our sense of wonder, and stop trying to understand, the lights will be going out for the human race.

This course may be used as an elective in many programs, and may also fulfill the science requirement for a degree plan in many programs. It is the duty of the student to ascertain whether this course will properly transfer to that student’s targeted university or college.

D. Themes of the Course

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1. The Universe is dynamic and continually evolving. 2. The universality of physical laws discovered on Earth allows us to analyze

and draw conclusions about celestial phenomena that can be studied only at great distances.

3. Scientific conclusions must be based on an exacting comparison of hypotheses to evidence obtained from observations and experimental data.

4. The Universe, because it has objects and environments that cannot be duplicated on Earth, is a unique laboratory for testing scientific hypotheses.

5. Because astronomy is a human endeavor, it is subject to both the limitations and the enhancements of personal relationships, biases, inspiration, and creativity.

6. Most astronomical knowledge accumulates incrementally, with each new piece of knowledge providing a potential foundation for further understanding.

7. Observational and computational technologies play critical roles in shaping our understanding of the Universe.

8. In addition to scientific value, astronomy has practical and philosophical value because humans are participants in, as well as observers, of the universe.

II. LEARNING OUTCOMES

Upon successful completion of this course, PHYS 1403, Stars and Galaxies, the student will be able to:

A. Describe the electromagnetic spectrum and explain the purposes of the different

types of observing techniques and instruments used in astronomy.

B. Explain the significance of the appearance of astronomical objects seen in the sky, describe celestial positions, and explain the working of time zones and calendars.

C. Recognize major constellations, stars, star groups, features on the moon and planets

when seen in the sky.

D. Describe the general characteristics of the various kinds and ages of stars, and explain how they generate energy.

E. Discuss the life cycles of stars. F. Explain the types, components of galaxies and describe their evolution. G. Discuss the origins and evolution of the universe.

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H. Demonstrate competence in using a telescope.

I. Demonstrate the ability to read and interpret astronomical diagrams, charts, graphs, tables, and models (both mental and physical).

J. Show greater understanding and appreciation for the history, nature, and methods of

science and astronomy.

K. Show positive attitudinal changes regarding astronomy and science in general.

L. Demonstrate increased ability to critically think when presented with astronomical problems and situations.

III. INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL

A. The instructional materials identified for this course are viewable through www.ctcd.edu/books

B. REQUIRED LABORATORY BOOK: Twenty-one Activities concerning “Where

We Are in Space and Time”, Project STAR, The Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 1990. If you have already taken PHYS – 1404, (Solar System) then your lab will consist of computer activities from “Starry Night Pro Activities & Observation and Research Projects”. This is in the text book bundle. Also there will be a number of labs involving hands-on activities. Your instructor will provide the hand-outs on how to do those activities.

C. A scientific calculator. D. Experimental Research Notebook (Optional).

IV. COURSE REQUIREMENTS

A. Your primary responsibility is to function as a college student, interested in putting forth the effort required to obtain a passing grade in Stars and Galaxies. You are to put into use all of your learning skills, acquired from past and present educational experiences, in order to carry out this requirement.

B. You may well find it useful and advantageous to answer the end-of-chapter questions

which you will find useful in guiding your review of the reading and video program. Your answers to these discussion questions probably will not be collected (depending on the requirements of your instructor/mentor/proctor), but will form part of your study guide.

C. Each part of the course is not self-contained. You may expect that basic concepts

presented at the beginning of the course will be built upon day by day, added to, expanded upon, etc., so that with time you will have both specific and overall understandings. It is important to link together each piece in an attempt to achieve

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the comprehensive realization.

D. You are expected to maintain good class notes, since any material given in the text and video programs may be included on exams. Pay particular attention to those items that are stressed or emphasized.

E. Regular class attendance is essential for passing the course. Excessive un-excused

absences will result in you being dropped from the course with a grade of “F”. See Section VII below for further information.

V. EXAMINATIONS

There will be four unit exams given at the times announced. Lowest exam score will be dropped. Missed exams will not be made up under any circumstance. There will also be a comprehensive final exam. The final exam cannot be missed.

VI. SEMESTER GRADE COMPUTATION

Hour exams 40% 90% - 100% = A Final exam 10% 80% - 89% = B Quizzes 10% 70% - 79% = C Home work 10% 60% - 69% = D Planetarium & Observations 10% 0% - 59% = F Laboratory 20% Total 100%

VII. NOTES AND ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FROM COURSE INSTRUCTOR

A. Withdrawal from the course: It is the student’s responsibility to officially drop a class if circumstances prevent attendance. Any student who desires to, or must, officially withdraw from a course after the first scheduled class meeting must file an Applications for Withdrawal or an Application for Refund. The withdrawal form must be signed by the student. Application for Withdrawal will be accepted at any time prior to Friday of the 12th week of classes during the 16 week fall and spring semesters. The deadline for sessions of other lengths is as follows:

10-week sessions Friday of the 7th week 8 – Week sessions Friday of the 6th week 5 – Week sessions Friday of the 3rd week

The equivalent date (75% of the semester) will be used for sessions of other lengths. The specific last day to withdraw is published each semester in the Schedule Bulletin.

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Students who officially withdraw will be awarded the grade of “W” provided the student’s attendance and academic performance are satisfactory at the time of official withdrawal. Students must file a withdrawal application with the college before they may be considered for withdrawal.

A student may not withdraw from a class for which the instructor has previously issued the student a grade of “F” or “FN” for nonattendance.

B. An Administrative Withdrawal: An administrative withdrawal may be initiated

when the student fails to meet College attendance requirements. The instructor will assign the appropriate grade on the Administrative Withdrawal Form for submission to the registrar.

The following specific rules apply to absences: Each instructor shall keep a record of class attendance. An administrative withdrawal will be submitted when a student’s absences exceed four (4) class meetings, and in the opinion of the instructor, the student cannot satisfactorily complete the course. The final decision rests solely with the instructor. The instructor will note administrative withdrawals as the grade of “F Non-Attendance” on the roll and record book. As a matter of policy, administrative excuses from classes are not provided for any reason. Regardless of the nature of the absence, students are responsible for completing all course work covered during any absence.

C. An Incomplete Grade: The College catalog states, “An incomplete grade may be

given in those cases where the student has completed the majority of the course work, but because of personal illness, death in the immediate family, or military orders, the student is unable to complete the requirements for a course...” Prior approval from the instructor is required before the grade of “I” is recorded. A student who merely fails to show for the final examination will receive a zero for the final and an “F” for the course.

D. Disability Support Services provides services to students who have appropriate documentation of a disability. Students requiring accommodations for class are responsible for contacting the Office of Disability Support Services (DSS) located on the central campus. This service is available to all students, regardless of location. Review the website at www.ctcd.edu/disability-support for further information. Reasonable accommodations will be given in accordance with the federal and state laws through the DSS office.

E. Students are required to be on class on time.

F. For complete information consult the College Catalog!

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VIII. COURSE OUTLINE

A. Unit One: Charting the Heavens: The Foundations of Astronomy, The Copernican Revolution: The Birth of Modern Science, Radiation: Information from the Cosmos, Spectroscopy: The Inner Working of Atoms, Telescopes: The Tools of Astronomy.

1. Unit Objectives: Upon successful completion of this unit, the student will

be able to: a. Describe how scientists combine observation, theory, and testing in

their study of the universe. b. Percieve the size of the universe. c. Explain the concept of the celestial sphere and how we use angular

measurement to locate objects in the sky. d. Describe how and why the sun and the stars appear to change their

positions from night to night and from month to month. e. Explain why Earth’s rotation axis shifts slowly with time, and say

how this affects Earth’s seasons. f. Tell how our clocks and calendars are linked to earth’s rotation and

orbit around the Sun. g. Show how the relative motions of Earth, the Sun, and the Moon

lead to eclipses. h. Explain the simple geometric reasoning that allows astronomers to

measure the distances and sizes of otherwise inaccessible objects. i. Describe how some ancient civilizations attempted to explain the

heavens in terms of Earth-Centered models of the universe. j. Explain how the observed motions of the planets led to our modern

view of a Sun-Centered solar system. k. Describe the major contributions of Galileo and Kepler to our

understanding of the solar system. l. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. m. Explain how astronomers have measured the true size of the solar

system. n. State Newton’s laws of motion and universal gravitation and

explain how they account for Kepler’s laws. o. See the connection between physics and astronomy; specially, the

Newton’s laws of gravity & motion, Kepler’s laws of orbital motion and Einstein’s laws of relativity.

p. Explain how the law of gravitation enables us to measure the masses of astronomical bodies.

q. Describe the basic properties of wave motion. r. Tell how electromagnetic radiation transfers energy and

information through interstellar space.

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s. Describe the major regions of the electromagnetic spectrum and explain how earth’s atmosphere affects our ability to make astronomical observations at different wavelengths.

t. Explain what is meant by the term “blackbody radiation” and describe the basic properties of such radiation.

u. Tell how we can determine the temperature of an object by observing the radiation it emits.

v. Show how the relative motion between a source of radiation and its observer can change the perceived wavelength of the radiation, and explain the importance of this phenomenon to astronomy.

w. Describe the characteristics of continuous, emission, and absorption spectra and the conditions under which each is produced.

x. Explain the relation between emission and absorption lines and what we can learn from those lines.

y. Specify the basic components of the atom and describe our modern conception of its structure.

z. Discuss the observations that led scientists to conclude that light has particle as well as wave properties.

aa. Explain how electron transitions within atoms produce unique emission and absorption features in the spectra of those atoms.

bb. Describe the general features of spectra produced by molecules. cc. List and explain the kinds of information that can be obtained by

analyzing the spectra of astronomical objects. dd. Explain the significance of the various forms of light and how they

are used in astronomy. ee. Sketch and describe the kinds of telescopes, explain their use, and

learn how to use them. ff. Explain the particular advantages of reflecting telescopes for

astronomical use, and specify why very large telescopes are needed for most astronomical studies.

gg. Explain the purposes of some of the detectors used in astronomical telescopes.

hh. Describe how Earth’s atmosphere affects astronomical observations, and discuss some of the current efforts to improve ground-based astronomy.

ii. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of radio astronomy compared with optical observations.

jj. Explain how interferometry can enhance the usefulness of astronomical observations.

kk. Explain why some astronomical observations are best done from space, and discuss the advantages and limitations of space-based astronomy.

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ll. Say why it is important to make astronomical observations in different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.

2. Learning Activities:

a. Read the related text material prior to the lecture. b. Attend class lectures and take notes. c. Learn about prisms and gratings by hands-on activities. d. Watch demonstrations on how telescopes function and are used. e. Observe planetarium demonstrations. f. Enjoy selected audio-visual material as appropriate.

3. Unit Outline:

a. Chapter 1: Charting the Heavens: The Foundations of Astronomy 1-1. Our Place in Space

i. Scale ii. SI and USCS system & Distances iii. Evolving Planets iv. Earth’s Structure v. Scientific Notation vi. Astronomical Unit (AU) vii. Light Travel & Distance viii. Emptiness of Space ix. Light Year (LY) x. Star Clusters and Gas Clouds xi. Our Galaxy xii. Cluster of Galaxies xiii. Superclusters, Filaments, & Voids xiv. Angular measures xv. Degree, minutes, seconds.

1-2. Scientific Theory and the Scientific Method i. Hypothesis, theory ii. Theoretical model iii. Scientific method:

iv. Theory, prediction, observation. v. Testing a theory, experiment and proof.

1-3. The “Obvious” View i. Constellations in the sky ii. Grouping of stars iii. Astrology

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iv. The Celestial Sphere v. The celestial poles vi. The celestial equator vii. The celestial coordinates viii. Declination and right ascension. 1-4. Earth’s Orbital Motion i. Day-to-Day Changes ii. Solar day iii. Diurnal motion iv. Sidereal day v. Seasonal Changes vi. The Zodiac vii. The summer solstice viii. The winter solstice ix. The seasons x. equinoxes xi. Autumnal equinox xii. Vernal equinox xiii. Tropical year xiv. Long-Term Changes xv. Precession xvi. Sidereal year. 1-5. Astronomical Timekeeping i. Meridian ii. Variations in the solar day iii. Mean solar day iv. Time zones

v. Standard time vi. Greenwich mean time vii. Universal time viii. Tropical year ix. Leap year x. Julian calendar xi. Gregorian calendar

1-6. The Motion of the Moon

i. Lunar Phases ii. Sidereal month iii. Synodic month iv. Eclipses v. Partial lunar eclipse

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vi. Total lunar eclipses vii. Partial solar eclipses viii. Total solar eclipses ix. Umbra x. Penumbra xi. Annular eclipses xii. Eclipse seasons xiii. Eclipse geometry xiv. Eclipse seasons xv. Eclipse tracks.

1-7. The Measurement of Distance

i. Triangulation and Parallax ii. Baseline iii. Trigonometry iv. Geometric scaling v. Cosmic distance scale vi. Sizing Up Planet Earth vii. Parallax Geometry viii. Measurement of Earth’s radius.

b. Chapter 2: The Copernican Revolution: The Birth of Modern Science

2-1. The Ancient Astronomy i. Stonehenge ii. The Big Horn Medicine Wheel iii. The Caracol Temple iv. The Sun Dagger

2-2. The Geocentric Universe

i. Observations of the Planets ii. Prograde Motion iii. Retrograde Motion iv. Planetary motion v. Inferior planets vi. Superior Planets vii. Inferior conjunction viii. Superior conjunction ix. A Theoretical Model x. Geocentric Universe xi. Epicycle xii. Deferent

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xiii. Ptolemaic model xiv. Evaluating the Geocentric Model.

2-3. The Heliocentric Model of the Solar System

i. Nicolaus Copernicus ii. The Copernican revolution iii. The Foundations of the Copernican Revolution.

2-4. The Birth of Modern Astronomy

i. Galileo’s Historic Observation ii. Galilean Moons iii. I0, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto iv. Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems v. The Ascendancy of the Copernican System.

2-5. The Laws of Planetary Motion

i. Brahe’s Complex Data ii. Brahe’s observatory, Uraniborg iii. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion iv. Shapes of planetary orbits v. Ellipse vi. Focus (plural: foci) vii. Semimajor axis viii. Eccentricity

2-6. The Dimensions of the Solar System i. Solar Transit ii. Astronomical unit 2-7. Newton’s Laws i. Newtonian Mechanics ii. Newton’s First law of motion iii. Newton’s 2nd law of motion iv. Newton’s 3rd law of motion v. Newton’s law of Universal Gravitation. 2-8. Newtonian Mechanics i. Planetary Motion ii. Solar Gravity iii. Kepler’s Laws Reconsidered iv. Center of Mass v. Weighing the Sun vi. Orbits of two bodies

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vii. Escape Speed viii. The Circle of Scientific Progress.

c. Chapter 3: Radiation: Information from the Cosmos

3-1. Information from the Skies i. Electromagnetic radiation ii. Light and Radiation iii. Visible (spectrum) light iv. Radio, infrared, ultraviolet rays v. X-rays and Gamma Rays vi. Wave motion (velocity) vii. Wavelength, period, frequency and amplitude viii. Amplitude ix. The components of visible light x. Visible spectrum

xi. Nanometer(nm), Angstrom (0A )

3-2. Waves in What?

i. Matter waves ii. Sound wave iii. Light wave iv. Interaction between charged particles v. Electric Field vi. Magnetic field vii. Electromagnetic waves viii. The wave theory of radiation ix. What is light? Wave or Matter?

3-3. The Electromagnetic Spectrum

i. The spectrum of radiation ii. AM, FM radio wave ii. Infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, Gamma rays iii. Atmospheric Opacity iv. The Wave nature of radiation v. Diffraction vi. Interference vii. Polarization

3-4. Thermal Radiation i. Temperature and motion ii. Kelvin scale iii. Blackbody Spectrum PHYS 1403 12

iv. Blackbody Curves, Ideal versus Reality v. The Radiation Laws vi. The Wien’s Law vii. Stefan’s Law viii. Astronomical Applications ix. Astronomical Thermometer x. The Sun at many wavelengths 3-5. The Doppler Effect i. Redshift ii. Blueshift iii. Radial velocities iv. Measuring velocities with the Doppler Effect

d. Chapter 4: Spectroscopy: The Inner Workings of Atoms

4-1. Spectral Lines i. Spectroscope ii. Emission Lines iii. Absorption lines iv. Solar spectrum v. Kirchhoff’s Laws vi. Identifying starlight

4-2. Atoms and Radiation i. Atomic Structure

ii. A Model of Atom iii. Different Kinds of Atoms iv. Electron Shells v. Ground State vi. Classical Atom vii. Quantum Atom viii. Radiation as particles ix. Photon x. The Photoelectric Effect

4-3. The Formation of Spectral Lines

i. The Excitation of Atoms ii. The Formation of a Spectrum iii. The Hydrogen Spectrum iv. The Fluorescence v. Kirchhoff’s Laws Explained vi. More Complex Spectra vii. Emission Nebula

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4-4. Molecules i. Chemical Bonds ii. Rotation and Vibration of molecules iii. Electron Transitions iv. Hydrogen spectra v. The Shapes of Spectral Lines

4-5. Spectral-Line Analysis i. A spectroscopic Thermometer ii. Measurement of Radial Velocity iii. Line Broadening iv. Line profile v. Doppler shift vi. Thermal Broadening vii. Rotational Broadening viii. Information from Spectral Lines ix. The Message of Starlight.

e. Chapter: 5: Telescopes: The Tools of Astronomy 5-1. Optical Telescopes

i. Refracting and Reflecting Telescopes ii. Refracting Lens iii. Reflecting Mirrors iv. Comparing Refractors and Reflectors v. Image Formation vi. Spherical Aberration vii. Chromatic Aberration viii. Types of Reflecting Telescopes ix. Newtonian Telescopes x. Cassegrain Telescopes xi. HST Detectors

5-2. Telescope Size

i. Light Gathering Power ii. Resolving Power iii. Collecting Area iv. The Resolving Powers of a Telescope v. Angular resolution vi. Sensitivity

5-3. Images and Detectors

i. Image Acquisition

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ii. Charged-Coupled Devices (CCDs) iii. Image Processing iv. Background noises v. Wide-Angled Views vi. Photometry vii. Photometer viii. Spectroscopy

5-4. High-Resolution Astronomy

i. Atmospheric Blurring ii. Atmospheric Turbulence iii. Seeing iv. Seeing disk v. Light Pollution vi. Active Optics vii. Real-Time Control viii. Adaptive Optics

5-5. Radio Astronomy

i. Radio Telescopes ii. Early Observations iii. Essentials of Radio Telescopes iv. Arecibo Observatory v. The value of Radio Astronomy vi. Haystack Observatory

5-6. Interferometry

i. Interferometer ii. A Radio Interferometer iii. VLA Interferometer iv. Interferometry at other Wavelengths v. Optical Interferometry

5-7. Space-Based Astronomy

i. Infrared Astronomy ii. Infrared Telescopes iii. Ultrviolet Astronomy iv. Ultraviolet telescopes v. High-Energy Astronomy vi. Einstein Observatory vii. Chandra Observatory viii. X-Ray Observatory ix. Gamma-Ray Astronomy

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5-8. Full-Spectrum Coverage

i. Objects studied in Radio frequency ii. Objects studied in Infrared frequency iii. Objects studied in Visible frequency iv. Objects studied in Ultraviolet frequency v. Objects studied in X-Ray frequency vi. Objects studied in Gamma ray frequency

B. Unit Two: The Sun, The Family of Stars, The Interstellar Medium, and the

Star formation. 1. Unit Objectives: Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

a. Describe the general and specific characteristics of the sun; its

source of energy, mechanism of energy transfer from its core to its exterior and mass loss.

b. Summarize the overall properties and internal structure of the Sun. c. Describe the concept of luminosity, and explain how it is

measured. d. Explain how studies of the solar surface tell us about the Sun’s

interior. e. List and describe the outer layers of the Sun. f. Discuss the nature and variability of the Sun’s magnetic field. g. Describe the various types of solar activity and their relation to

solar magnetism. h. Outline the process by which energy is produced in the Sun’s

interior. i. Explain how observations of the Sun’s core changed our

understanding of fundamental physics. j. Explain how stellar distances are determined. k. Discuss the motions of the stars through space and how those

motions are measured from Earth. l. Distinguish between luminosity and apparent brightness, and

explain how stellar luminosity is determined. m. Explain the usefulness of classifying stars according to their colors,

surface temperatures, and spectral characteristics. n. Explain how physical laws are used to estimate stellar sizes. o. Describe how a Hertzsprung – Russell diagram is constructed and

used to identify stellar properties. p. Explain how knowledge of a star’s spectroscopic properties can

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lead to an estimate of its distance. q. Explain how the masses of stars are measured and how mass is

related to other stellar properties. r. Summarize the composition and physical properties of the

interstellar medium. s. Describe the characteristics of emission nebulae, and explain their

significance in the life cycle of stars. t. Discuss the properties of dark interstellar clouds. u. Specify the radio techniques used to probe the nature of interstellar

matter. v. Discuss the nature and significance of interstellar molecules. w. Summarize the sequence of events leading to the formation of a

star like our Sun. x. Explain how the formation of a star depends on its mass. y. Describe some of the observational evidence supporting the

modern theory of star formation. z. Explain the nature of interstellar shock waves, and discuss their

possible role in the formation of stars. aa. Explain why stars form in clusters, and distinguish between open

and globular star clusters.

2. Learning Activities: a. Read the related text material prior to the lecture b. Attend class lectures and take notes c. Observe the sky using the unaided eye d. Explore the sky using the telescope e. Answer assigned questions to check on comprehension. f. Participate in planetarium demonstrations.

g. Enjoy selected audio-visual material as appropriate.

3. Unit Outline:

a. Chapter 16: The Sun: Our Parent Star

16-1. Physical Properties of the Sun i. Overall Properties

ii. Differential Spin iii. Surface temperature

iv. Heat Flow in the Sun v. The Photosphere

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vi. The Chromosphere vii. The Solar Corona viii. Helioseismology ix. Luminosity

16-2. Solar interior i. Mathematical models ii. Hydrostatic Equilibrium iii. Solar Oscillation iv. Solar interior v. Energy Transport vi. Solar Granulation 16-3. The Sun’s Atmosphere i. Solar Spectrum ii. The spectral lines iii. The Transition Zone and the Corona iv. The Solar Wind 16-4. Solar Magnetism

i. Sunspots and Active Regions ii. The Sunspot Cycle iii. The Sun’s Magnetic Cycle iv. Magnetic Cycles on other Stars v. Prominences and Flares vi. Coronal Activity vii. The Solar Constant viii. Maunder minimum

16-5. The Active Sun i. Active regions ii. Prominences iii. Flares iv. Coronal mass rejection v. The Sun in X-Rays vi. Coronal Holes vii. Mass ejection viii. The changing Solar Corona

16-6. The Heart of the Sun i. Solar Energy Production ii. Nuclear Binding Energy iii. Weak force, Strong force

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iv. Nuclear Fission v. Hydrogen Fusion vi. Charged Particle Interactions vii. Coulomb Barrier viii. Proton-Proton Chain ix. Deuterium, Positron viii. Energy transport ix. Radiative and Convective zone

16-7. Observations of Solar Neutrinos

i. The Solar Neutrino Problem ii. The Davis solar neutrino experiment iii. Neutrino Detectors iv. Neutrino Physics and Standard Model v. Neutrino Telescopes

b. Chapter 17: The Stars: Giants, Dwarfs, and the Main Sequence

17-1. Measuring Distances to the Stars

i. The Surveyor’s Method ii. The Astronomer’s Method iii. Stellar Parallax iv. Parsec v. Proper Motion vi. Our nearest neighbors

17-2. Luminosity and Apparent Brightness

i. Brightness and Distance ii. Flux iii. Absolute Visual Magnitude iv. Calculating Absolute Visual Magnitude v. Magnitude-Distance Formula vi. Distance Modulus vii. Luminosity viii. Luminosity ix. Absolute bolometric magnitude

17-3. Stellar Temperatures i. Luminosity, Radius, and Temperature ii. Reading The H-R Diagram iii. Giants, Super giants, and Dwarfs iv. Luminosity Classification v. Spectroscopic Parallax vi. Color and Blackbody Curve

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vii. Stellar Spectra viii. Spectral Classification

17-4. Stellar Sizes

i. Direct and Indirect Measurements ii. Giants and Dwarfs iii. Red giants iv. Red Supergiants v. White dwarf

17-5. The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram i. Luminosity versus temperature ii. Colors of Stars iii. The Main Sequence iv. Blue Giants v. Blue Supergiants vi. Red Dwarfs 17-6. Extending the Cosmic Distance Scale i. Spectroscopic Parallax explained ii. Stellar Luminosity Classes 17-7. Stellar Masses i. Binary Stars ii. Visual Binaries iii. Spectroscopic Binaries iv. Eclipsing Binaries v. Mass Determination 17-8. Mass and Other Stellar Properties i. Stellar Mass Distribution ii. Stellar Radii and Luminosities

c. Chapter 18: The Interstellar Medium

18-1. Interstellar Matter

i. Gas and Dust ii. Milky Way Mosaic iii. Dark Clouds iv. Extinction and Reddening v. Extinction and Reddening vi. Dust Grain vii. Overall Density

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viii. Compositi0n ix. Dust Shape

18-2. Emission Nebulae

i. Observation of Emission Nebulae ii. Dust Lanes iii. Galactic Plane iv. M20-M8 Region v. Trifid Nebula vi. Nebular Structure vii. Nebular Spectra viii. Emission Nebulae ix. Emission Nebulae Spectrum x. Forbidden Lines xi. Orion Nebula

18-3. Dark Dust Clouds

i. Obscuration of Visible Light ii. Obscuration and Emission iii. Absorption Spectra iv. Horsehead Nebula v. Absorption by Interstellar Clouds

18-4. 21-Centimeter Radiation i. Electron Spin ii. Spin Quantization iii. Radio Emission 18-5. Interstellar Molecules i. Molecular Spectral Lines ii. Molecular Emission iii. Molecular Tracers

d. Chapter 19: Star Formation

19-1. Star-Forming Regions

i. Star Birth in Giant Molecular Clouds ii. Heating by Contraction iii. Protostars iv. Evidence of Star Formation v. Young Stars in the Universe vi. Extragalactic Star Formation vii. Gravity and Heat

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viii. Modeling Star Formation

19-2. The Formation of Stars Like the Sun i. Stage:1 An Interstellar Cloud ii. Cloud Fragmentation iii. Stage2: A collapsing Cloud Fragment iv. Stage3: Fragmentation Ceases v. Protostar Character vi. Stage4: A Protostar vii. Protostar on the H-R Diagram viii. Stage5: Protostellar Evolution ix. Stage6: A Newborn Star x. Stage7: The Main Srquence at Last

19-3. Stars of Other Masses i. The Zero-Age Main Sequence (ZAMS) ii. Protostellar Evolutionary Tracks iii. Failed Stars iv. Brown Dwarfs

19-4. Observations of Cloud Fragments and Protostars

i. Evidence of Cloud Contraction ii. Observation of Brown Dwarfs iii. Evidence of Cloud Fragments iv. Evidence of Protostars v. Protostellar Winds

19-5. Shock Waves and Star Formation i. Shock waves in space ii. Protostellar Outflow iii. Generations of Star Formation iv. A wave of star Formation 19-6. Star Clusters i. Clusters and Associations ii. Clusters and Nebulae iii. The Cluster Environment iv. Cluster Lifetimes v. Discovery of Eta Carinae

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C. Unit 3: Stellar Evolution, Stellar Explosions, Neutron Stars, and The Milky Way Galaxy

1. Unit Objectives: Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

a. Explain why stars evolve off the main sequence. b. Outline the events that occur as a Sun-line star evolves from the

main sequence to the giant branch. c. Explain how the Sun will eventually come to fuse helium in its

core, and describe what happens when that occurs. d. Summarize the stages in the death of a typical low-mass star, and

describe the resulting remnant. e. Contrast the evolutionary histories of high-mass and low-mass

stars. f. Discuss the observations that help verify the theory of stellar

evolution. g. Explain how the evolution of stars in binary systems may differ

from that of isolated stars. h. Explain how white dwarf in binary-star systems can become

explosive. i. Summarize the sequence of events leading to the violent death of a

massive star. j. Describe the two types of supernovae, and explain how each is

produced. k. Describe the observational evidence for the occurrence of

supernovae in our Galaxy. l. Explain the origin of elements heavier than helium, and discuss the

significance of these elements for the study of stellar evolution. m. Outline how the universe continually recycles matter through stars

and the interstellar medium. n. Describe the properties of neutron stars, and explain how these

strange objects are formed. o. Explain the nature and origin of pulsars, and account for their

characteristic radiation. p. List and explain some of the observable properties of neutron-star

binary systems. q. Discuss the basic characteristics of gamma-ray bursts and some

theoretical attempts to explain them. r. Describe how black holes are formed, and discuss their effects on

matter and radiation in their vicinity. s. Describe Einstein’s theories of relativity, and discuss how they

relate to neutron stars and black holes. t. Relate the phenomena that occur near black holes to the warping of

space around them.

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u. Discuss the difficulties in observing black holes, and explain some of the ways in which the presence of a black hole might be detected.

v. Describe the overall structure of the Milky Way Galaxy, how the various regions differ from one another.

w. Explain the importance of variable stars in determining the size and shape of our Galaxy.

x. Describe the orbital paths of stars in different regions of the Galaxy, and explain how these motions are accounted for by our understanding of how the Galaxy formed.

y. Discuss some possible explanations for the existence of the spiral arms observed in our own and many other galaxies.

z. Explain what studies of Galactic rotation about the size and mass of our Galaxy, and discuss the possible nature of dark matter.

aa. Describe some of the phenomena observed at the center of the Galaxy.

2. Learning Activities:

a. Read the related text material prior to the lecture b. Attend the lecture on topics c. Observe the sky with the unaided eye. d. Observe the sky using the telescope e. Try to answer assigned questions to check on comprehension. f. Watch selected slides and films as appropriate.

3. Unit Outline:

a. Chapter 20: Stellar Evolution: The Life and Death of a Star

20-1 Leaving the Main-Sequence

i. Stars and the Scientific Method ii. Hydrostatic equilibrium iii. Structural Change iv. Core hydrogen burning v. Star’s stability vi. The Life of a Main-Sequence Star vii. The Life Expectancies of Stars

20-2. Evolution of a Sun-like Star

i. Stage 8: The Subgiant Branch ii. Solar Composition Change iii. Hydrogen-shell-burning

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iv. Subgiant v. Stage 9: The Red-Giant Branch iv. Explain what is redgiant branch v. The CNO Cycle vi. Red Giant on the H-R Diagram vii. Stage 10: Helium Fusion viii. Helium Flash ix. Electron Degeneracy Pressure x. Horizontal Branch xi. Stage 11: Back to the Giant Branch xii. Helium-Shell Burning xiii. Helium Giant Branch xiv. Reascending the Red-Giant Branch

20-3. The Death of a Low-Mass Star

i. The Fires Go Out ii. G-Type Star Evolution iii. Stage 12: A Planetary Nebula iv. Red-Giant Instability v. Ejected Envelope vi. Stage 13: A White Dwarf vii. White Dwarf on the H-R Diagram viii. Sirius Binary System ix. Distant White Dwarf x. Stage 14: A Black Dwarf xi. Comparing Theory with Reality xii. Learning Astronomy from History

20-4. Evolution of Stars More Massive than the Sun

i. Red Supergiants ii. High-Mass Evolutionary Tracks iii. Mass loss from Giant Stars iv. The End of the Road

20-5. Observing Stellar Evolution in Star Clusters i. The Evolving Cluster H-R Diagram ii. Newborn Cluster H-R Diagram iii. Young Cluster H-R Diagram iv. The Theory of Stellar Evolution v. Old Cluster H-R Diagram 20-6. Stellar Evolution in Binary Systems i. Classification of Binary Stars

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ii. Roche Lobes iii. Mass-Transfer Binaries iv. Contact Binary v. Close Binary-Star System vi. Binary Evolution vii. Algol Evolution

b. Chapter 21: Stellar Explosions: Novae, Supernovae, and the

Formation of the Elements

21-1. Life after Death for White Dwarfs i. Novae ii. Close Binary system iii. Nova Explosion iv. The fate of the Sun, Nova? v. Nova matter Ejection

21-2. The end of a High-Massive Star

i. Fusion of Heavy Elements ii. Collapse of The Iron Core iii. Supernova iv. Photo disintegration v. Core-collapse supernova vi. Nuclear Masses and Nuclei vii. Heavy-Element Fusion

21-3. Supernovae i. Supernova’s progenitor ii. Novae and Supernovae iii. Supernova Light Curves iv. Carbon-Detonation Supernovae v. Supernova 1987A vi. Supernova Remnants vii. Two Types of Supernova viii. Crab Supernova Remnant ix. The Crab in Motion x. Vela Supernova Remnant

21-4. The Formation of the Elements i. Types of Matter ii. 115 elements iii. 116 and 117 elements discovered iv. Abundance of Matter

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v. Stellar Nucleosynthesis vi. Hydrogen and Helium Burning vii. Proton Fusion viii. Carbon Burning and Helium Capture ix. Helium Fusion x. Carbon Fusion xi. Iron Formation xii. Alpha Process xiii. Making Elements Beyond Iron xiv. Making the Heaviest Elements xv. Observational Evidence for Stellar Nucleosynthesis 21-5. The Cycle of Stellar Evolution i. Supernova Energy Emission ii. Spectra of Stars

c. Chapter 14: Neutron Stars and Black Holes

22-1. Neutron Stars and Black Holes: Strange States of Matter i. Neutron Stars ii. Stellar Remnants iii. Neutron-Star Properties iv. Neutron degeneracy pressure v. Neutron star’s rotaton vi. Neutron star’s magnetic field

22-2. Pulsars

i. Pulsar Radiation ii. The lighthouse model iii. Neutron Stars and Pulsars iv. Crab Pulsar v. Gamma-Ray Pulsars vi. Isolated Neutron Stars vii. Binary Neutron Stars

22-3. Neutron-Star Binaries i. X-Ray Sources ii. Microquasar iii. Millisecond Pulsars iv. Pulsar Planets 22-4. Gamma-Ray Bursts i. Distances and Luminosities

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ii. Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory iii. Cosmolgical Distances iv. What causes the Bursts? 22-5. Black Holes i. The Final Stage of Stellar Evolution ii. Escape speed iii. Black Hole Properties iv. The Event Horizon 22-6. Einstein’s Theories of Relativity i. Special Relativity ii. The Michelson-Morley Experiment

iii. The new laws of Motion iv. General Relativity v. Curved Space and Black Holes

22-7. Space Travel Near Black Holes i. Tidal Forces ii. Approaching the Event Horizon iii. Gravitational Redshift iv. Deep Down Inside v. Singularity vi. Quantum Gravity 22-8. Observational Evidence for Black Holes i. Stellar Transits ii. Black Holes in Binary System iii. Black Holes in Galaxies iv. Supermassive Black Holes v. Intermediate-Mass Black Holes vi. Tests of General Relativity vii. Do Black Holes Exists? viii. Gravity Waves: A New Window on the Universe

d. Chapter 23: The Milky Way Galaxy: A Spiral in Space

23-1. Our Milky Way Galaxy

i. The structure of our Galaxy ii. Galactic Disk iii. Galactic Bulge iv. Galactic Halo v. Galactic Plane

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vi. Andromeda Structure vii. Spiral Galaxies

23-2. Measuring the Milky Way

i. Stellar Population ii. Spiral Nebulae and Globular Clusters iii. A New Yardstick iv. Pulsating Variable Stars v. The Cosmic Distance Scale vi. Period-Luminosity Relationship vii. The size and shape of our Galaxy viii. The Shapley-Curtis Debate

23-3. Galactic Structure

i. Stellar Populations in Our Galaxy ii. The Spatial Distribution of Stars iii. Stellar Populations iv. Orbital Motion

23-4. The Formation of the Milky Way

i. Observation ii. Formation iii. Merger of several systems

23-5. Galactic Spiral Arms i. Radio Maps of the Milky Way ii. Spiral Structure iii. Survival of the Spiral Arms iv. Differential Galactic Rotation v. Spiral Density Waves vi. Origin of the Spiral Structure 23-6. The Mass of the Milky Way Galaxy i. Weighing the Galaxy ii. Galactic Rotation iii. Rotation Curve iv. Dark Matter v. Dark Halo vi. The Search for Stellar Dark Matter vii. Missing Red Dwarf viii. Gravitational Lensing

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23-7. The Galactic Center i Galactic center close-up ii. Galactic Activity iii. The Central Black Hole

D. Unit Four: Galaxies, Galaxies and Dark Matter, Cosmology, The Early Universe,

and Life in the Universe

1. Unit Objectives: Upon completion of this unit, the student will be able to:

a. Describe the basic properties of normal galaxies. b. Discuss the distance-measurement techniques that enable

astronomers to map the universe beyond the Milky Way. c. Describe how galaxies are observed to clump into clusters. d. State Hubble’s law and explain how it is used to derive distances to

the most remote objects in the observable universe. e. Specify the basic differences between active and normal galaxies. f. Describe some important features of active galaxies. g. Explain what drives the central engine thought to power all active

galaxies. h. Describe some of the methods used to determine the masses of

distant galaxies. i. Explain why astronomers think that most of the matter in the

universe is invisible. j. Discuss some theories of how galaxies form and evolve. k. Explain the role of black holes and active galaxies in current

theories of galactic evolution. l. Summarize what is known about the large-scale distribution of

galaxies in the universe. m. Describe some techniques used by astronomers to probe the

universe on very large scales.

n. State the cosmological principle, and explain its significance and observational underpinnings.

o. Explain what observations of the dark night sky tell us about the age of the universe.

p. Describe the Big Ban theory of the expanding universe. q. Discuss the possible outcomes of the present cosmic expansion. r. Describe the relationship between the density of the universe and

the overall geometry of space. s. Say why astronomers think the expansion of the universe is

accelerating, and discuss the cause. t. Explain what dark energy implies for the composition and age of

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the universe. u. Describe the cosmic microwave background and explain its

importance to the science of cosmology. v. Describe the characteristics of the universe immediately after its

birth. w. Explain how matter emerged from the primeval fireball. x. Describe how radiation and matter evolved as the universe

expanded and cooled. y. Explain how and when the simplest nuclei formed. z. Discuss the consequences of the formation of the first atoms. aa. Summarize the horizon and flatness problems and describe how the

theory of cosmic inflation solves them. bb. Describe the formation of large-scale structure in the cosmos. cc. Explain how studies of the microwave background allow

astronomers to test and quantify their models of the universe. dd. Summarize the process of cosmic evolution as it is currently

understood. ee. Evaluate the chances of finding life elsewhere in the solar system. ff. Summarize the various probabilities used to estimate the number

of advanced civilizations that might exist in the Galaxy. gg. Discuss some of the techniques we might use to search for

extraterrestrials and to communicate with them.

2. Learning Activities:

a. Read the related text material prior to the lecture (see lecture schedule)

b. Attend the lecture on topics c. Observe the sky with the unaided eye. d. Observe the sky using the telescope e. Answer assigned questions to check on comprehension. f. Watch the selected slides and films as appropriate.

3. Unit Outline

a. Chapter 24: Galaxies: Building Blocks of the Universe

24-1. Hubble’s Galaxy Classification

i. Hubble Classification Scheme ii. Spiral Galaxies iii. Barred Spirals Galaxies iv. Elliptical Galaxies v. Dwarf Elliptical Galaxies

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vi. Irregular Galaxies vii. Magellanic Clouds viii. Irregular Galaxy Shapes ix. The Hubble Sequence x. The Galactic “Tuning Fork”

24-2. The Distribution of Galaxies in Space

i. Extending the Distance Scale ii. Standard Candles iii. Tully-Fisher Relation iv. Cluster of Galaxies v. Local Group

24-3. Hubble’s Law

i. Universal Recession ii. Hubble’s Constant iii. The top of the Distance Ladder

24-4. Active Galactic Nuclei i. Normal Galaxies ii. Galactic Radiation iii. Galaxy Energy Spectra iv. Active Galaxy v. Seyfert Galaxies vi. Relativistic Redshifts and Look-Back Time vii. Radio Galaxies viii. Radio Lobes ix. Quasars 24-5. The Central Engine of an Active Galaxy i. Energy Production ii. Active Galactic Nucleus iii. Energy Emission iv. Dusty Donut v. Nonthermal Radiation vi. Synchrotron Radiation

b. Chapter 25: Galaxies and Dark Matter: The Large-Scale Structure of the Cosmos

25-1. Dark Matter in the Universe

i. Masses of Galaxies and Galaxy Clusters ii. Galaxy Rotation Curves

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iii. Galaxy Masses iv. Visible Matter and Dark Halos v. Dark Galaxy vi. Intracluster Gas

25-2. Galaxy Collisions

i. Cosmic Cartwheel ii. Galaxy Encounter iii. Collision is common phenomena iv. Merger v. Milky Way Collision

25-3. Galaxy Formation and Evolution i. Mergers and Acquisition ii. Hierarchical Merging iii. Evolution and Interaction iv. Starburst Galaxies v. Types of Merger vi. Making the Hubble Sequence vii. Tidal Streams in the Milky Way 25-4. Black Holes in Galaxies i. Black Hole Masses ii. The Quasar Epoch iii. Active and Normal Galaxies iv. Active Galaxies and the Scientific Method 25-5. The Universe on Large Scales i. Clusters of Clusters ii. Galaxy Evolution iii. Superclusters iv. Redshift Survey v. Local Supercluster vi. Virgo Supercluster in 3-D vii. Galaxy Survey viii. Quasar Absorption Lines ix. The Universe on Larger Scales x. The Sloan Digital Sky Survey xi. Quasar “Mirages” xii. Gravitational Lens xiii. Mapping Dark Matter

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c. Chapter 26: Cosmology: The Big Bang and the Fate of the Universe

26-1. The Universe on the Largest Scales i. Cosmology ii. The End of Structur iii. Galaxy Survey iv. The Cosmological Principle v. Isotropic vi. Pencil-Beam Survey vii. A stunning View of Deep Space

26-2. The Expanding Universe

i. Olbers’s Paradox ii. The Birth of the Universe iii. Primeval Fireball iv. Where was the Big Bang? v. The Cosmological Redshift

26-3. The Fate of the Cosmos i. Critical Density ii. Escape Speed iii. Critical Density iv. Model Universe v. Two Futures of our Universe 26-4. The Geometry of Space i. Relativity and the Universe ii. Cosmic Curvature iii. Curved Space iv. Closed Universe v. Open Universe

26-5. Will the Universe Expand Forever?

i. The Density of the Universe ii. Cosmic Acceleration iii. Dark Energy iv. Cosmological Constant v. Quintessence

26-6. Dark Energy and Cosmology i. The Composition of the Universe

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ii. Geometry of the Universe iii. Cosmic Age Estimates 26-7: The Cosmic Microwave Background i. Discovery ii. 2.7 K Temperature iii. Cosmic Blackbody Curves iv. Microwave Background Spectrum v. Microwave Sky d. Chapter 27: The Early Universe: Toward the Beginning of Time 27-1. Back to the Big Bang i. Cosmic Composition ii. Radiation in the Universe iii. Radiation-Matter Dominance iv. Particle production v. Pair Production vi. Thermal Equilibrium 27-2. The Evolution of the Universe i. Before the Big Bang? ii. The Radiation Era iii. Grand Unified Theories iv. Freeze-Out v. Quarks and Leptons vi. More on Fundamental Forces vii. The Matter and Dark-Energy Eras 27-3. The Formation of Nuclei and Atoms i. Helium Formation in the Early Universe ii. Deuterium and the Density of the Cosmos iii. The First Atoms iv. Radiation-Matter Decoupling 27-4. The Inflationary Universe i. The Horizon and Flatness Problems ii. Cosmic Inflation iii. Scalar Fields iv. Vacuum Energy v. Epoch of Inflation vi. Implications for the Universe vii. Inflation as a Theory

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27-5. The Formation of Structure in the Universe i. The Growth of Inhomogeneities ii. Dark Matter iii. Hot dark Matter iv. Cold Dark Matter 27-6. Cosmic Structure and the Microwave Background i. Cosmic Microwave Background Map ii. Early Structure

e. Chapter 28: Life in the Universe: Are We Alone?

28-1 Cosmic Evolution

i. Life in the Universe ii. Arrow of Time iii. Chemical Evolution iv. Amino acids and nucleotide v. Urey-Miller Experiment vi. An Interstellar Origin vii. Diversity and Culture

28-2 Life in the Solar System

i. Life as we Know it ii. Search for Martian Life iii. Extremophiles iv. Alternative Biochemistries

28-3 Intelligent Life in the Galaxy

i. The Drake Equation ii. Rate of Star Formation iii. Fraction of Stars Having Planetary System iv. Number of Habitable Planets per Planetary System v. Fraction of Habitable Planets on Which Life

Actually Arises vi. Fraction of Life-Bearing Planets on Which

Intelligence Arises vii. Fraction of Planets on Which Intelligent Life

Develops and Uses Technology viii. Average Lifetime of a Technological Civilization ix. Number of Technological Civilizations in the

Galaxy

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28-4. The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

i. Meeting Our Neighbors ii. Pioneer 10 Plaque

iii. Radio Communication iv. The Water Hole v. Leakage

vi. Project Phoenix

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