The Apex of Glory

963 – 1025 A.D.

The Soldier-Emperors

Nicephorus Phocas – The White Death of the Saracens

John Tzimisces

The Apex

The Young Emperor

The Bulgar Slayer

With the death of Romanus II an amazing period of Byzantine history began. In the short span of just 13 years, two emperors would reign, each man almost completely different from the other. What they did share was their military genius and unflinching personal courage. Under these two men, Byzantium would experience military successes and imperial glory unseen since the days of Justinian and Belisarius. The reign of the soldier-emperors had begun.

While it was not known exactly what caused the death of Romanus II, what was known was that the empress and her two young sons would need a protector. Nicephorus was chosen, and then proceeded to leave for the eastern frontier.

Nicephorus II and Future Basil II

In his absence, a coup was launched, and though the plotters had hoped to turn Nicephorus subordinates against him, the young general John Tzimisces warned him of the danger. His loyal troops then proclaimed Nicephorus emperor (ruling as Nicephorus II Phocas), and the army began to march on Constantinople.

With the able assistance of the city’s populace, the plotters were overthrown and Nicephorus confirmed as emperor and married to the widowed Theophano (wife of the late Romanus II).

It was not long before this keen soldier returned to campaigning: in 965 A.D. the city of Tarsus was captured (which had acted as the Arabs main staging point for their invasions of the Empire for over 200 years)

Likewise, Cyrus was returned to the Empire, ending the 300 years old Byzantine-Arab condominium there.

On top of all this, Antioch was retaken and Aleppo became an imperial vassal, adding to the growing list of Byzantine successes.

In diplomacy however, Nicephorus was less successful: he encouraged the Russians to invade Bulgaria (replacing a weak neighbour with a strong, warlike one).

Likewise, he exacerbated tensions with the Western Emperor Otto I the Great.

Emperor Otto I

Hopes of a dynastic marriage between the future Otto II and a Byzantine Princess which may have drawn the two empires together were dashed, and the western ambassador Liudprand of Cremona (who left us important documentary sources on the history of the tenth century) was treated with great scorn and discourtesy.

Emperor Otto II

Despite Nicephorus early popularity, the fact he only ever showed favour towards the army and the military aristocracy greatly reduced this over time. One example of this ill-considered bias was his tripling the property requirements for peasant small-holders to qualify for military service as armed cavalrymen. Not only did this antagonize these proud farmers, but it disqualified thousands of potential soldiers whose families had defended the Empire for centuries.

Likewise, under the leadership of Svyatoslav I a combined force of Russians, Magyars, and Pechenegs had invaded Bulgaria, and an invasion of the Empire itself seemed imminent in the coming spring: something had to be done.

On December 10, 969 A.D. the general John Tzimisces crossed the Bosporus and entered Constantinople during an intense snowstorm. Heading to the imperial palace with a cadre of supporters, he murdered Nicephorus II and was acclaimed is the streets by his supporters as the new emperor. While he unquestionably had his failings, Nicephorus II had deserved a far better end.

While the manner in which he came to power seems atrocious, John I Tzimisces quickly became one of the best loved rulers Byzantium was ever to have. The reasons were many: his military skills, his charm and good looks, his great generosity, and his love and attention to the poor and the sick.

Emperor John I Tzimisces

While many who have overthrown a ruler claim it was for the good of the state, John Tzimisces proved beyond a shadow of a doubt that his concerns were first and foremost the safety of the Empire and its people.

Almost immediately the new emperor was put to the test: Prince Svyatoslav I of Kiev had led his Russian and barbarian host into Bulgaria, and was preparing to invade the Empire.

In the war that followed, the vast numbers of Svyastoslav’s army came up against the much smaller but better trained and equipped Byzantines.

The real deciding factor however was their leadership: besides the emperor himself Byzantium boasted half a dozen generals of a quality unseen since the bygone days of Belisarius.

These men, both leading their troops and in single combat, decisively crushed the Russian army at the Battle of Arcadiopolis.

While unable to follow up immediately (due to a rebellion inside the Empire), John Tzimisces led his forces the following year into Bulgaria, laying siege to the Rus and defeating Svyatoslav once and for all.

Location of the Siege

Bulgaria, though ‘liberated’, was now absorbed into the Byzantine Empire (though the western portions which had escaped the war’s devastation proved less than willing to surrender their independence).

After the conclusion of the Balkan wars, the emperor turned his attention to the east, where the Fatimid Caliphate had in recent years been expanding from its North African heartland towards the Empire’s borders.

Fatimid Caliphate Over Time

In 974-975 A.D. the Byzantine army made enormous gains, and by the end of this period most of what is now modern Syria, Lebanon, and Israel were back under imperial control for the first time since Heraclius reign in the early 7th century. However, upon heading home to Constantinople in early 976 A.D., John Tzimisces died (poison is a possibility, but there is no way to be sure).

Despite the shortness of his reign, John I Tzimisces managed to accomplish much. He defeated the Bulgars, Russians, Abbasids, and Fatimids, while greatly expanding the Empire’s borders. He was likewise admired by friends and enemies both, demonstrating personal skill and military genius on countless occasions. He likewise proved an unceasing friend to the poor and sick (he left his entire fortune to the unfortunate), and was loved by the people as a result. Despite the grisly way in which he assumed power, he wielded it with wisdom and justice.

With the death of John Tzimisces rule over the Empire returned to the Imperial family. The sons of Romanus II began their joint rule. One, the pleasure loving nonentity Constantine VIII, was largely in the background of his illustrious brother Basil II, who would by the end of his reign earn one of the most unique, and terrifying titles ever bestowed upon a ruler: the Bulgar-Slayer.

While the new emperor was an intelligent man, he was also young and inexperienced. After years of rule by successful generals, some in the military aristocracy wondered why simple birth entitled him to the throne.

As such young Basil was beset by rebellions inside the Empire, particularly that of Bardas Skleros, the hero of Arcadiopolis.

The Emperor only managed to suppress these thanks to the loyalty of the great general Bardas Phocas, who proceeded to defeat Skleros’ rebellion.

As time went on the young man gained confidence and experience, but just as it seemed that stability might be achieved, a new threat emerged. The Bulgarians under their leader, the future Tsar Samuel, rose against imperial rule.

Tsar Samuel

In 980 A.D. Samuel began striking outside his borders, and in 986 A.D. seized the Byzantine city of Larissa in what is now Greece.

Basil II proceeded to lead an army into Bulgar territory, but in the process of returning from the lacklustre campaign, the force was ambushed by the Bulgars and largely destroyed.

Having narrowly escaped, the emperor swore vengeance against the entire Bulgar nation, and would one day exact a revenge far more dire than anyone could predict. In the meantime, the trouble simply didn’t end. Responding to the emperor’s embarrassing defeat, Bardas Phocas raised the banner of revolt, and sought to seize the crown for himself.

Things were looking grim, but an unlikely source of aid was en-route. The Prince of Kiev, Vladimir the Great, sent 6,000 Norse warriors to assist the Emperor, only asking for the hand of Basil’s sister in marriage.

Vladimir the Great

While the marrying of an imperial princess to a heathen barbarian was quite a thing to ask, Vladimir was considering a new religion for his people, and this marriage could tip the balance in favour of Christianity.

Basil thusly agreed to the terms, and leading his newfound army (which would form the basis of the famous Varangian Guard: northern European mercenaries serving as the imperial guard and loyal to the emperor alone), crushed the rebel armies in early 989 A.D.

In repayment of this assistance, the princess Anna was sent to be Vladimir’s bride, with him converting to orthodox Christianity.

This was important, as it marks the emergence of Russian orthodox culture, with its historic and emotional ties to Byzantium that have lasted even into the modern era.

Up until 989 A.D., constant disorder and conflict plagued Basil’s reign. Now however, things were about to change. Having dealt with the rebel aristocrats, he now prepared to avenge himself on the Bulgars

While preliminary operations were prepared, he was called away to deal with the Fatimid Caliphate’s invasion of the Empire’s eastern territories. Moving across Anatolia in an unheard of 16 days with an army of 17,000 men, he saved Aleppo, and secured the situation.

On his way back to the capital however, he noticed the enormous plantations and excessive wealth of ‘The Powerful’, much of it ill-gotten. He then promulgated new laws that affected a major shift in the wealth of the Empire, benefitting peasants greatly (as well as the Emperor himself) and reducing many of the powerful families to destitution. No longer would they threaten the Emperor: he had finally avenged himself upon this insolent, rebellious class.

Byzantine Empire c.1000 A.D.

Samuel, in the absence of the emperor, had continued his attacks against the Empire. Unsure of what to do with the Byzantine lands on the Adriatic coast (which given their location made them extremely difficult to govern and defend) Basil hit upon an idea.

In exchange for ferrying Byzantine troops in war, the government of Venice was given these lands to rule under Byzantine suzerainty. In a single move, these vulnerable possessions acquired a new protector, while the Empire gained an important naval ally.

The offensive against the Bulgars continued, with Basil’s slow, methodical advance unaffected by Samuel’s usual guerilla tactics.

While the conflict stretched on, an unexpected turning point arrived. In 1014 A.D. Basil defeated Samuel in the great Battle of Kleidion, and captured the Tsar’s army.

Now was the time for the awful revenge he had sworn so many years ago: of the 15,000 prisoners taken, 99 out of every hundred were blinded. The ‘lucky’ 1 in 100 had only one eye put out, and was tasked to lead his 99 blind colleagues back to the Tsar’s capital.

When Samuel saw the horrific sight of thousands of his blind subjects struggling home across the countryside, he was said to have suffered a heart attack and died on the spot.

While there are debates over just how brutal Basil’s treatment of the Bulgarians was, he was obviously successful in reducing their will to fight. After another four years of carrying on the struggle, the Bulgars surrendered.

For the last decade of his reign, Basil set about consolidating the gains he had made. The Bulgars as his new subjects were treated with leniency.

Byzantine Empire c.1015 A.D. (Bulgaria to be absorbed)

Likewise in the east new military districts were established to help ensure the defence of the newly won territories in that region.

Ever eager to build on past success however, Basil had yet more plans. While the Empire had succeeded in holding onto southern Italy, Basil wished to retake Sicily from its Arab conquerors. Preparations were underway when, just before Christmas in 1025 A.D., Basil II died.

While Basil II had brought the Empire to a height of power not seen in centuries, he had failed in one, critical way: he had never produced a male heir. Had he done so, a strong son like himself might have led the Empire to even greater successes. However, the lack of a strong heir meant that an almost certain decline would take place. The day after his death, that decline began.