breaking the glass ceiling for women administrators · were collected by “glass ceiling syndrome...

“BREAKING THE GLASS CEILING FOR WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS”

(2017-1-TR01-KA204-045966)

ERASMUS+ Adult Education Strategic Partnership Project

Glass Ceiling Mentorship Program

2019

CONTENTS

MODULE 1 ...........................................................................................................................1

TIME MANAGEMENT TRAINIG .....................................................................................1

I. PART: MODULE GENERAL INFORMATION ........................................................1

II. PART: SCHEDULE.....................................................................................................1

III. PART: NEEDS ANALYSIS .......................................................................................1

IV. PART: PROGRAM CONTENT ................................................................................2

1. GOALS ......................................................................................................................2

2. MODULE CONTENT ...............................................................................................3

3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES ................................................................................. 32

4. ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................................ 32

MODULE 2 ......................................................................................................................... 36

DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING TRAINING ................................... 36

I. PART: MODULE GENERAL INFORMATION ...................................................... 36

II. PART: SCHEDULE................................................................................................... 36

III. PART: NEEDS ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 36

IV. PART: PROGRAM CONTENT .............................................................................. 37

1. GOALS .................................................................................................................... 37

2. MODULE CONTENT ............................................................................................ 38

3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES ................................................................................. 59

4. ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................................ 60

MODULE 3 ......................................................................................................................... 64

COMMUNICATION AND MOTIVATION ..................................................................... 64

I. PART: MODULE GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................... 64

II. PART: SCHEDULE .................................................................................................. 64

III. PART: NEEDS ANALYSIS ...................................................................................... 64

IV. PART: PROGRAM CONTENT ............................................................................... 65

1. GOALS .................................................................................................................... 65

2. MODULE CONTENT ............................................................................................ 66

3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES ................................................................................ 85

4. ASSESSMENT ........................................................................................................ 86

MODULE 4 ......................................................................................................................... 90

GENDER AND AWARENESS .......................................................................................... 90

I. PART: MODDULE GENERAL INFORMATION ................................................. 90

II. PART: SCHEDULE .................................................................................................. 90

III. PART: NEEDS ANALYSIS ...................................................................................... 90

IV. PART: PROGRAM CONTENT ............................................................................... 91

1. GOALS .................................................................................................................... 91

2. MODULE CONTENT ............................................................................................. 91

3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES ............................................................................... 110

4. ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................................... 110

MODULE 5 ....................................................................................................................... 116

MENTORSHIP TRAINING ............................................................................................ 116

I. PART: MODULE GENERAL INFORMATION .................................................... 116

II. PART: SCHEDULE................................................................................................. 116

III. PART: NEEDS ANALYSIS ................................................................................... 116

IV. PART: PROGRAM CONTENT ............................................................................ 117

1. GOALS .................................................................................................................. 117

2. MODULE CONTENT ........................................................................................... 117

3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES ............................................................................... 130

4. ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................................... 130

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MODULE 1

TIME MANAGEMENT TRAINIG

I. PART: MODULE GENERAL INFORMATION

Name of the study: Module of “Time management training” of the project “Breaking the

glass ceiling for women administrators”

Place of the study:

Date of the study:

Attendants of the study:

II. PART: SCHEDULE

Month December

Week 1 2 3 4

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ta

sks

Planning

Needs

Analysis

Program

Preparation

Training

Evaluation

Reporting

III. PART: NEEDS ANALYSIS

Within the scope of the project “Breaking the Glass Ceiling for Women

Administrators”, data for needs analysis, which will be used in order to develop “Time

management training” towards overcoming glass ceiling barriers women administrators face,

were collected by “Glass Ceiling Syndrome Scale” as quantitatively and by “Semi-Structured

Needs Analysis Form” as qualitatively,

In the process of data collection by the scale, as a first step, literature was reviewed

and an item pool was prepared. After that item pool was sent to 11 experts to be analyzed.

According to their feedbacks a pre-application form prepared as 58 items. After the pre-

application the project team made the analyses and finally developed the final form of “Glass

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Ceiling Scale” with 30 items. By this scale, glass ceiling barriers in four partner countries

(Turkey, Germany, Spain, Portugal and Italy) were revealed. These results were used as needs

analysis for this training program.

After this step, a semi-structured interview form was developed by the project team

and face to face interviews were carried out with 5 women administrators. The results of the

interviews were also used as needs analysis for this program.

With all these data and analysis results, it is decided that the frame of training

program were decided as “Social Stereotypes, Multiple Roles, Work Setting and

Organizational Policies” and the training program is decided to be modular.

IV. PART: PROGRAM CONTENT

1. GOALS

Goal 1: Knowledge of basic concepts about time and time management

Attainments:

1. Defines the concepts, “time, psychologic time, biological time, objective time, time

management, time trap”

2. Explains the importance of time management

3. Discusses the risks of improper time management

Goal 2: Comprehends personal characteristics that affect time management

Attainments:

1. Sorts the distinguishing characteristics of A and B type personalities

2. Explains what the perfectionism is with its advantages and disadvantages

3. Realizes the importance of planning in time management

4. Discusses what the procrastination habit is with its causes

5. Explains the importance of stress management in terms of time management

Goal 3: Comprehends the reasons of time-loss that affects time management

Attainments:

1. Exemplifies time traps that interrupt works

2. Discusses the reasons of interruptions that prevent the effective work of school

managers

3. Explains the reasons and results of problems like difficulties in delegation of authority,

confusion of priorities, long work hours, not being able supervise subordinates and

provide necessary information

4. Notices the effect of physical features (untidy table, unsystematic filing, unsystematic

digital folders, and nonfunctional stuff organization) of work environment to time

management

Goal 4: Analyzes her own life in terms of factors that affect time management

Attainments:

1. Critiques her own personal characteristics that affect time management

http://tureng.com/tr/turkce-ingilizce/procrastination

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2. Analyzes her own work habits in terms of perfectionism, planning habit and

procrastination habit

3. Analyzes interruptions in her work environment with its reasons

Goal 5: Does the preparations to manage her personal time

Attainments:

1. Realizes the importance of goal-setting

2. Explains how to do ABC analysis

3. Determines the medium-term objectives for work and private life

4. Transforms the determined medium-term objectives to short-term objectives

5. Does ABC analyze for daily and weekly tasks based on its objectives

6. Does daily and weekly plans based on her priorities

7. Identifies unrealistic points in a plan with its reasons

8. Develops suggestions related to reasons determined

9. Develops suggestions for non-functional settlements, items and other factors in her

work environment

Goal 6: Develops plans for time traps in her work life

Attainments:

1. Determines the suitable times for phone calls and guests in her own work life

2. Explains the principles of meeting management

3. Evaluates her own meeting management based on meeting management principles

4. Realizes the circumstances that it is necessary to say “no”

5. Analyzes the situations that she should say “no” in her own work and private life

Goal 7: Plans for managing subordinates’ time

Attainments:

1. Defines the works done by her that are in somebody else’s job definition

2. Explains the cases that she does not delegate authority although she can

3. Does development plans about unqualified subordinates

Goal 8: Defines time-loss reasons about communication

Attainments:

1. Defines time-loss arise from speaking, writing, listening and reading in work life.

2. Develops precautions about time-loss.

3. Creates solutions based on inadequacies related to effective use of social media

Goal 9: Benefits from time management to overcome class ceiling barriers

Attainments:

1. Recognizes time traps that can be class ceiling barriers

2. Organizes her time to overcome glass ceiling barriers

2. MODULE CONTENT

http://tureng.com/tr/turkce-ingilizce/procrastination

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1. IDENTIFYING TIME MANAGEMENT1

We hear more and more people around us talking about workload and complaining

that time is not enough. Talking about workload and complaining of timelessness are among

the basic approaches of many people in the 21st century. Especially middle-aged and older

individuals see that they feel the time pressure and intensity of things much more when they

compare their lives today with their lives fifteen-twenty years ago.

The living conditions of the past century are different from the living conditions of this

century and therefore, individuals need to shape their lives by taking the current conditions

into account. It is not often possible to solve today's problems with the habits of the past.

Today, the expectations of individuals from themselves and of institutions from individuals

have increased and at the same time, these expectations have changed direction. First of all, it

is imperative to understand this new trend in order to meet expectations. If we can do this, we

can meet the increasing expectations. In order to be able to see the new trend of the age, we

need calmness, observation and adaptation by improving ourselves. At this point, a vicious

cycle arises as in Figure 1. Not being able to evaluate the conditions we are in correctly and

not being able to follow the right methods creates time pressure. Time pressure means making

a constant effort to keep up with something or to execute something on time. In such a case,

there is no time to improve ourselves in order to familiarize with the conditions we are in and

to adapt ourselves to the requirements of the age. When we cannot adapt ourselves, our

previous working habits continue. Because these habits do not provide efficiency and

effectiveness, in other words, since these are not the working methods that should be, it is

needed to work much more. Working hard brings about insufficient time, and this means not

being able to find time to gain the perspective required by the age, to learn new methods and,

in brief, to acknowledge the age. This situation goes on like this. It is summarized in the

following drawing.

1 This paper is prepared based on the master thesis conducted by the author on time management, which is also

mentioned in the references section.

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Figure 1: Timelessness Cycle

Getting out of this cycle requires a conscious effort. On the one hand, to create

additional time for ourselves by using time more effectively, and on the other hand, to use the

time which we have created to acquire skills suitable for the age. Therefore, we will feel less

time pressure and make our lives more enjoyable.

This seminar provides clues to learn / teach how to use time more effectively. It can be

thought that many of the female managers are able to maintain the management by using time

effectively. Therefore, these seminar notes will show us at which points we can support

women around us to help them acquire this skill.

What we have said so far shows that time management is not a phenomenon other than

us. Therefore, in this seminar, we should expect to gain a different perspective and skill by

reorganizing what we have already known rather than learning what we do not know.

Time is an important criterion that we face in every aspect of our lives and we adjust our

actions according to.

Until Einstein, time was considered independent of space. Einstein showed that time

and space were tightly interdependent both with each other and with matter and its movement,

and that one could not exist without the others (Hançerlioğlu, 1979). Thus, it has become

Not being able to

acknowledge the age

and adapt to the age

Maintaining previous working habits Lack of time for self-improvement

Working hard and for a long time to close

the gap

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easier to understand and define time today than before. It is possible to define the time as the

time in which an action took place or the time it will take place or the time it is going through

(TLA, 2019). It is also possible to define time as a certain period needed to accomplish

something (Onal, 1988). Time expresses the universal development of countless and infinite

phenomena that occur consecutively (Hançerlioğlu, 1979). Hence, it exists outside the human

consciousness.

Since ancient times, people have tried to find tools to measure time, and accordingly,

they have used obelisks, hourglasses, candle clocks and water clocks. In the Middle Age,

people made wall clocks having no sensitivity and they introduced electric wall clocks

towards 1840 and quartz wall clocks in 1930. In 1955, people developed atomic clocks having

deviation of one second per 3000 years (Büyük Laurousse, v. 24,1986, 10018).

1.1. Types of Time

Being a dimension of change (Adair & Adair, 1983), time has three types that affect

the individual (Taner, 1990, 45):

1.1.1. Objective Time

Objective time is defined as the time which calendar and clock show, and does not

change according to personal measurements, in other words, which is the same for everyone.

Even if there are different clock applications according to different meridians in the world,

this is actually a difference determined by taking Greenwich center. Around the world, a day

is twenty-four hours, an hour is sixty minutes, and a minute is sixty seconds. In other words,

objective time is the time whose measurement does not change from person to person, and

which is measured by objective criteria and is the same for all.

1.1.2. Psychological Time

Time is fixed while passing, but is flexible when perceived (Açıkgöz, 1994). What is

important here is not the time elapsing for any change, but the individual's perception of that

time. A person who is late for work and waiting for a minibus can perceive a five-minute time

as if it were fifteen minutes. The reader of a gripping book will not even notice how the same

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five minutes pass. Just as the perception of time varies from individual to individual, it

changes under different conditions for the same individual.

Since time is an important cultural element, how a person spends and perceives time is

also influenced by the culture. According to Hall, it is important to use time effectively and

“to be punctual" in monochronic cultures engulfing North America and Northern Europe. In

polychronic cultures, time is perceived as flexible and multidimensional. In Latin America,

Mediterranean and Arab cultures, managers do not see scattered programming and office

visits as a problem (Kreitner, 1995; Öktem, 1993). In other words, while time is important for

individuals in future-oriented or industrialized societies, it is the whole life span in past-

oriented or developing societies. The idea that things that cannot be done today may extent to

tomorrow is common (Berberoglu, 1991; Sargut, 1994). Therefore, the cultural environment

in which we grow affects how we spend our time.

1.1.3. Biological Time

Biological time is the period of wearing out and aging of the organism within the

calendar time. Psychological time is another important factor that prolongs or shortens the

process that is defined as life that begins with birth and ends with death. The biological age of

two people whose chronological age is 50 may be different. In terms of biological age, one

may be 45 and the other 60.

1.2. Time Management and Its Importance

In all the structures extending from the individual to the state, one of the leading

factors in achieving the purpose is the effective use of time by individuals. Individuals and

institutions have various purposes. Activities to achieve these goals are performed over time.

The maximum time that an individual can use for his or her purposes is limited to his / her life

span. Therefore, the individual has to be aware of the time and manage it correctly.

The success criteria of management and organization are divided into two as

efficiency and effectiveness (Dicle, 1982, 78). While effectiveness is a criterion of the extent

to which the organization achieves its objectives over a period of time, efficiency is a criterion

of how well the organization uses its resources. One of the resources is time. As is seen, time

is critical for both efficiency and effectiveness.

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Time has characteristics that address to everyone (Mackenzie, 1989; Arıkan, 1982):

Time cannot be extended. Similarly, it is not possible to shorten time.

Time cannot be renewed. Just as we cannot prevent the time from passing, we

cannot stop time and we have time even if we do not want, so it is impossible to

renew the passing time.

Time cannot be substituted. Many resources can be replaced by other resources,

but we cannot replace time with another.

Time cannot be bought, sold, transferred. We cannot lend time to someone else

just as we cannot borrow time.

Time cannot be saved or stored. There is no such thing as time we do not use in

real life.

The presentation of time is not flexible. For example, as the demand for mobile

phones in the market increases, manufacturers can increase their presentation by

producing phones, but this is not the case for time.

Individuals are in complete equality in terms of the time they have. Every morning a

new 24 hour starts for everyone. Even if the individual could not use the previous day well,

this is his / her 24 hours. They do not have to do anything to get it. This is often the basis of

individuals' inability to use time effectively. Anyhow, they will have another 24 hours the

next day!

What is time management? Of course, it is not possible to manage time physically.

Time management is to carry out our activities in the right way over time and to

minimize the factors that prevent us from doing them. In other words, time management

is to influence the people or events that affect our use of time, to manage ourselves, to

prepare the conditions for us to use the time properly and to make efforts in this

direction.

2. BENEFITS AND POSSIBLE HARMS OF TIME MANAGEMENT

Time management will have benefits and unintended consequences when

mismanaged. Benefits can be listed as:

9

Minimizing the Factors That Interrupt the Work

Time-management sensitivity allows us to be aware of interruptions while we are

working and to control them to a large extent.

Eliminating the Reasons for Working for Long

Time management can eliminate the reasons for working for long of the manager. A

study conducted in the United States showed that a typical manager worked 63 hours a week

and only 34% of them found this time too much (Mackenzie, 1989). The fact that a person has

been working longer than other employees, regardless of the task, may indicate a known or

overlooked problem. The person may be overloaded, as well as doing the tasks that others

need to do, or failing to finish his or her own tasks for various reasons. Often, time

management can shorten working long hours.

Reducing the Stress

The managers who manage their time well will have less stress. Stress is a non-

specific way of responding to any request. (Schuler, 1979). According to a study conducted

among 1000 managers in ten countries on management stress, three of the 12 causes of stress

were identified as time pressure - limitations, long working hours and taking work home

(Adair & Adair, 1993). Time management is often recommended as a method of stress

management.

Slowing down Biological Aging

Biological aging is related to the mental and physical state of the individual. Given

that stress has individual, psychological and physical consequences, it can be seen that there is

a relation between biological aging and stress. Time pressure increases stress and stress

accelerates biological aging. Other individual methods proposed to cope with the above-

mentioned stress are activities such as gymnastics, rest, role management and use of support

groups (Moorhead & Griffin, 1989). For example, in a study examining 17 separate articles

conducted in nine countries, it was found that yoga had a positive effect on the results of

stress in 12 of the articles (Sharma, 2013). However, it is clear that time management is also

needed to do activities like yoga.

Increasing Organizational Effectiveness

Individual and group effectiveness are the steps to achieve organizational

effectiveness. Therefore, in order to be able to talk about organizational effectiveness, it is

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imperative that the manager has effectiveness. According to a study, it was found that the

average effectiveness of organizations was 61% and the average effectiveness of managers

regarding time management was 63%. It was determined that as the effectiveness of managers

on time management increased, organizational effectiveness also increased (Karakoç, 1988).

Facilitating Timely and Correct Decision Making

Since decision-making is the basis of the management activities of the organization,

the manager is the person who thinks and makes decisions (Aytürk, 1990). If the managers

know and apply effective time management, they may have the opportunity to know

themselves, to see their shortcomings, to read and to participate in various training activities,

which makes it easier to make a more accurate decision. Limited time can affect correct

perception. If a person has limited time and needs to do a task immediately, this can cause

time pressure, the person to dwell on some details and not on others, the person to do some

activities and ignore other requests, stimuli, and details (Gibson, Ivancevich et al., 1988).

Making Time for Self Improvement

It is imperative that in order to be able to monitor and think about changes, to improve

themselves, to develop new skills, in other words, to be a good manager and to do what is

necessary, individuals must make time for these actions and tasks. However, researches show

that many managers fail to fulfill this obligation.

Making Time for Private Life

Although the individuals who work long hours and take work home continuously

fulfill their role in the workplace, they will not be able to fulfill their roles as being a spouse,

mother, father, friend or girl / boyfriend. The individuals who disrupt their role in school will

not be a good educator or administrator. When they do not do the tasks they have to do as an

administrator, the administration role will fail. What is desirable, however, is that both roles

must be performed properly. The individual who can manage time effectively will be able to

maintain both work and private life properly.

If time management is not handled consciously, it may have various harms (Adair,

1993; Cüceloğlu, 1996):

1. Turning time management into a goal

Using time management techniques or taking advantage of a variety of means is a tool

to allocate more time to what we will do. Some people do not focus on how these techniques

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and tools yield result after a while, but focus directly on their use and go on using them even

if they do not yield result. However, time management is not a goal, but a tool for achieving

our goals and making it more stress-free.

2. Time management puts people under stress

It is possible for the people who succeed to use time effectively to finish their tasks in

a shorter time and better than before and to be more productive. However, this may cause the

individuals to undertake the tasks that they do not have to do or lead to them to be given new

tasks. Therefore, it may also lead to the problem of timelessness, fatigue, failure to manage

their tasks and consequently excessive stress.

3. Applying pressure on people around them

The individuals who try to manage their time will apply some methods and try to

change something. They might think that they can change everything around them. In order to

see this change, they can annoy and disturb their family, friends, people they work with by

constantly talking about time management, plans and their own tasks.

3. IDENTIFYING THE FACTORS AFFECTING TIME MANAGEMENT

There can be a variety of positive or negative factors that affect our use of time

effectively. Not everyone can be affected by all factors, so first of all, it is very important to

know what adversely affects time management in general and then to determine which of

them plays a role in our lives. In fact, even recognizing these factors will allow individuals to

organize their daily life differently. We can divide these into two: recognizing himself /

herself and recognizing the reasons for losing time.

3.1. Self-recognition

It is the first step in time management that individuals examine their personal

characteristics, planning and procrastination habits, stress management skills and that they can

demonstrate their status objectively.

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3.1.1. Type-A and B personality

In their studies which started in 1961 by examining three thousand middle-aged and

healthy male subjects and lasted eight and a half years, Dr. Friedman and Rosenman found

that people who were grouped as type-A got coronary heart disease twice as much as those

who were grouped as type-B. (Paksoy, 1986; Kose, 1985).

A-type people, when alone, work more efficiently. They are impatient and aggressive

while working with others (Telimen, 1989). Their main characteristic is their constant

struggle against time. Therefore, they try to do the most they can in the shortest time. They

are more competitive, fonder of their work, and they feel more time pressure (Moorhead &

Griffin, 1989). Type-A people are less satisfied with the people around them compared to

type-B people. Given an option, they prefer to work alone instead of being part of a team. A-

type people seem to work faster in many tasks and take work home even though they never

have any time pressure or limitation (Paksoy, 1986). Type-A people tend to ignore their own

needs just as they ignore other people's needs. As a result, these people cannot rest or feel

guilty while they are resting.

The characteristics such as working hard, feeling less fatigue and dealing with more

than one task at the same time make the A-type individual seem more advantageous and

successful than the B-type individual. As a result, most organizations award typical A-type

behavior. Therefore, a lot of men and more and more women who are trying to succeed in the

organization adopt personality characteristics that may be dangerous in terms of their physical

and mental health (Köse, 1985, 63).

Type-A individuals are success-oriented. However, they believe that success depends

on energy and hard work, not planning. They are more concerned with quantity than the

quality of the task and they want to finish more task. They do not have time for their personal

lives.

Type-B individual behaves in the opposite direction to type-A individual. While the

need for success is dominant in type-A individuals, acceptance by others is dominant in type-

B individuals. However, type-B individuals do not trust themselves; they want to be in

friendship with others, not in peace. Type-B individuals are not impatient, aggressive, angry

and hecklers like type-A individuals.

Type-B individuals give importance to quality rather than quantity. Rarely do they try

to do more than one task at the same time. Abstract ideas and concepts are more important for

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them than concrete results. The type of task and the satisfaction they have received from this

type of task is important. According to them, success depends on many factors and very few

of them are under the control of the individual.

The individuals with this type of personality are able to spend more time to resolve the

events, choose from more options and make decisions with better thinking (Telimen, 1989).

Since type-B individuals give importance to quality, more time and effort may be spent than

the task requires. The task performed by the group of type-B individuals is less than that of

the type-A group. Since the individual with this type of personality attaches importance to

good relations, sometimes the group decision can be made according to the decision of the

weakest member.

Most people are between the two ends, which we call type-A and type-B, but they

have more of one's characteristics.

From the point of time management, type-A people can seem positive at first, but

actually, they are not.

For type-A, it may be advisable to:

determine the objectives and plan tasks and time

learn to delegate authority and say no

determine when the quantity is more important and when the quality is more

important and work accordingly

learn to be comfortable with themselves

believe in the benefit of team work and form a team.

For type-B, it may be advisable to:

make task and time planning and try to finalize the tasks they do not like on time

and in a good way.

consider that quantity is also important in addition to quality

not to allow the purpose of being loved by all to direct their behavior.

try to increase the success of the group, in addition to raising the morale of the

group, and serve as a model for the group and undertake more task and to complete

the tasks in a better way and in a shorter time.

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3.1.2. Planning habit

The plan is future-oriented and the future involves uncertainty. If individuals have the

necessary information for planning, they can reduce the risk of uncertainty. However, plans

without adequate preliminary preparation will most likely fail to achieve the goal and perhaps,

it will lead to worse consequences than acting unplanned. This situation causes the individual

to move away from planning and to increase the tendency of not planning.

When people decide their tasks beforehand, they feel that their freedom is limited

(Mackenzie, 1989, 59). Dependence on the plan may cause confusion in the face of an

unanticipated change. Because managers face a variety of situations due to their position, it

seems difficult to plan their tasks completely. However, flexible planning is important for

time management.

Not trusting themselves and believing that they cannot reach the planning goals are

among the reasons for opposing the plan (Türkmen, 1994). Other reasons for the failure of

planning are (Miner, 1978):

Failure to stick to the plan and urgent or daily tasks get ahead of the plan.

Not having a general strategy about the tasks and not realizing the need for a plan.

Failure to set an achievable goal. Unrealistic goals are unlikely to be achieved even

through a plan.

Making strict and detailed planning and to be overwhelmed by too much detail and

procrastination.

Attaching more importance to experience. Not being able to make changes for new

conditions

Avoiding changes that planning may require. Not being able to adapt to the new

roles and tasks or professional relation required by planning, perceiving new ideas

or methods as a threat.

Not being able to understand the structure of long-term planning and what it will

resolve

Failure to use the plan as the actual standard for measuring and interpreting

performance. Failure to examine whether the plan has been implemented and the

reasons for this. Thus, the plan becomes dysfunctional.

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3.1.3. Procrastination habit

Merrill E. Douglass and Larry B. Baker, members of a time management center,

describe the procrastination as the fact that a person does the tasks with less priority instead of

the tasks with high priority (Joseph, 1994, 57). It is that a person cleans the table although she

/ he has to work on a very important task.

Although such situations as doing other tasks within the time period they have

allocated to do a task or within the time period they intend to allocate, delaying the essential

task for a few days later or a little later, not to forget the task, but somehow unable to start

doing it arise from established bad habits, the individual needs to find the root cause of these

habits.

The main reasons underlying the procrastination habit can be grouped under various

headings (Atkinson, 1988; Monchek & Muchnick, 1988)

Fear of Failure: If the individuals do not have sufficient knowledge of the subject,

they think that their ability, skill and time is not enough for the task to be done, or they lack of

self-confidence for no valid reason, they can procrastinate their tasks. Usually, difficult or

unappealing tasks are postponed.

Seeking the Perfect: Seeking the perfect is closely related to setting unrealistic targets.

If individuals do not check whether the objectives set in any subject are achievable under the

current circumstances and if they make wrong decisions despite the inspection, a task that

seems easy and achievable at first begins to look difficult over time. The procrastination

behavior, which may also develop under the mask of waiting for something missing to be

completed or waiting for the most appropriate conditions, can have consequences such as

poorly written reports and hasty decisions.

Negative Use of Anger: A task done in the organization affects other people. A

reviewed report or a written article may be given to other people and this may facilitate their

tasks. Anger caused by personal frictions can cause procrastination problem by creating

feelings such as not being able to facilitate other’s tasks, disrupting other’s tasks and taking

revenge.

Being Extremely Social: If a person is making long phone calls and unnecessary visits

in the organization and if he / she likes to witter about the tasks, it means that he / she is

wasting a lot of time. The people who start the day by reading a newspaper at length in the

workplace even though it is not a necessity for that task, take ten minutes of tea leave without

16

concentrating on their tasks properly and start the day by browsing social media accounts will

naturally procrastinate each task they have to do as much as the time they have spent

unnecessarily.

Dreaming: If imagining the benefits of a project that has yet to be finalized, or the

benefits of a missed opportunity gets ahead of the individual’s tasks, it means that the task is

being postponed.

Unable to Organize Priorities or Reversal: Perhaps the most common procrastination

is to ignore priorities. Procrastination begins once the person leaves his / her important task

and attempts to do a few simple tasks that do not seem to take time. In fact, most of these

simple tasks take more time than expected. In addition, since there may be other things to do

while doing these ordinary tasks, the task to be done in that time period is postponed without

realizing it. If the same thing is repeated every day, the first task in the priority list is likely to

be treated as the last task.

3.1.4. Stress management

The factors that create stress can be grouped under four headings as work-related

factors, organizational factors, non-organizational factors and individual factors (Köse, 1985,

31).

According to a review conducted on 276 senior managers and 1204 low-level

employees working in a financial institution, the main source of stress for people at the lower

level is role ambiguity and work overload and for the senior level is again work overload and

conflicting roles (Akat et al., 1994 as cited in Weinniann). Senior managers are less stressed

as they have more freedom than mid-level managers, and their decision-making and initiative

areas are wider. According to researches, middle-level managers have a heart attack with a

rate 40% more than senior managers (Sabuncuoglu & Tuz, 1995). For middle-level managers,

the pressure from both senior managers and low-level employees results in stress.

Organizational factors such as being responsible for people, lack of group unity, failure in

career expectations, rapid progress, lack of participation in decision-making, intra-group and

inter-group conflict, and insufficient group support may also increase the stress of the

manager.

Family problems or matters, relocation, and today's economic and political problems

are also important sources of stress.

17

The individuals’ stress is also influenced by individual factors such as their interest in

task, their perception of events and their type-A or type-B personality. An individual with

type-A personality experiences more stress than others.

It is very important for individuals to be able to analyze the stress caused by their own

personality characteristics and organizational and non-organizational stress sources.

3.2. Identifying the reasons for losing time by the individual

In order to be successful in time management, individuals must know the reasons for

losing time as well as knowing themselves. Information about the most common causes of

time loss is given below.

3.2.1. Time Traps

Mobile phone and social media: Usually, just as you are about to start a boring task,

the ringing phone or incoming visitor creates satisfaction or suddenly, the person remembers a

friend of hers / his and decides to call. Thus, both his / her time and the time of the person she

/ he has called are wasted and the task is interrupted. (Adair & Adair, 1993). The phone call

made in such a case also provides a very convenient basis for procrastinating a difficult task.

Today, the use of social media is increasing at an incredible rate. According to the report of

We are social platform, the total population increased by 1.1% in the period of April 2018-

April 2019 while the number of mobile social media users increased by 11%, and reached

about 3.5 billion people today (Wearesocial, 2019). Looking at incoming messages during

task is a very common time trap.

Visitors: Researches revealed that a typical manager spent at least 3-5 hours a day for

the visitors, most of whom were the subordinates (Mackenzie, 1989) and that visitors being

among the most interrupting factors ranked first among senior managers and fourth among

mid-level managers (Sarpkaya, 1997). For teachers, it is common for a student or a parent to

turn up during a time that he devotes to work during the absence of a course. Although some

schools and teachers plan and announce meeting hours, especially for parents, many parents

come to meet outside these hours. Planning visits and visitors is an important skill in both

work and private life.

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Meetings: The meetings held in institutions have generally five types (Adair & Adair,

1993; Margerison, 1989):

Order Meeting: This type of meeting is organized by the manager to assign a task to his /

her subordinates or to introduce strategies that will determine future behavior.

Consultation Meeting: Information is exchanged at this meeting. A decision is not

required to take.

Board Meeting: The Board meeting is organized between people who are in equal

standing and who have professional knowledge or skills. Responsibility for the decisions

taken at this meeting rests with all participants.

The Committee Meeting: It is a meeting in which representatives of various working

groups are more or less in the same position and come together to decide on a common

issue. The responsibility of the decisions lies with all participants.

Negotiation-Reconciliation Meeting: In this meeting, the parties have different goals, but

they have common interests due to their relations with each other. Decisions are made by

negotiating rather than by voting. Responsibility to support the decisions taken is shared.

If the purpose or agenda of the meeting is not well defined, a large number of people

are attending, or if they have no concern with the purpose and agenda, the participants are not

prepared, the timing of the meeting is poor, the chairman is inadequate to manage the

meeting, and if action plan is not determined, the meeting becomes a time trap.

For the manager, knowing what kind of meeting she / he will attend will help him / her

to manage his / her own behavior and to better understand the behaviors of others.

Urgent tasks: A task that is not on the schedule of the day but appears to be an

immediate task is urgent. The tasks can be divided into four groups based on their urgency

and importance. It is important for the manager to recognize these four groups to avoid

interruptions (Adair & Adair, 1988; Cüceloğlu, 1995).

Both important and urgent task such as for the students, being at risk because of

psychological problems, the projects that need to be completed immediately and the explosion

of the glass during the storm.

Important but not urgent task such as strategic planning for the next three years,

preparing students for the project competition, examining the demonstration plan of the

student community we are president of.

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Urgent but not important task such as most of the incoming phone calls, letters to be

written and social media messages to be answered and preparing treats for the guests coming

home in the evening.

Neither urgent nor important task such as replacing flower pots, arranging books on

the bookshelf, and surfing on the internet.

3.2.2. Unable to say “No”

The fact that individuals do not refuse anyone who asks for their help causes them to

be unable to manage their time effectively. The anxiety of not breaking anyone often leads us

to inadvertently undertake a task or to agree to do something even though we do not have time

to do it. If we do not know that every offer and every request does not need to be accepted, or

if we do not know how to reject it, the requests of others will prevail over our own wishes and

objectives. The requests such as “Let's have a coffee and then start working.”, “Next week my

niece / nephew is getting married, I'm going to look for clothes for the wedding, will you

come to the mall with me?”, “I am preparing a project, I do not know what to write in this

section, could you write something for me?” can be easily turned into time trap. If we do not

know to ask ourselves questions like “Will I accept this request, do I have time, and can I

accept it by limiting it, if I accept it, will I disrupt my tasks?”, the time trap will catch us.

3.2.3. Replacement of priorities

It is important for the goals to be set for both institutions and individuals. If the

objectives are not clear, urgent tasks will appear as if they were important and will be

prioritized.

3.2.4. Long working hours

The habit of taking work home or working until late, although it is not necessary, may

result in undertaking of various tasks that the individual does not have to do. The idea that I

have enough time or I can do it at home may lead to allocate the most inefficient hours for

important tasks, procrastinate significant tasks and spend more time on routine tasks than it

should be.

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3.2.5. Inadequate subordinates and not delegating authority

Some people try to do everything themselves at home or in work life. This results in a

lack of time and energy for what they need to do to achieve their important goals after a

while.

The ability to delegate authority is one of the key features that make a leader different

from others. Too much or too little delegation of authority wears out the manager in a short

time (Horton, 1992). There are many reasons why managers do not delegate authority or

delegate authority insufficiently. Failure to find anyone to delegate, distrust of subordinates,

subordinates' unwillingness to take responsibility, unclear roles, insufficiency of managerial

information systems, hesitation about the competence of subordinates, fear of losing control

may prevent managers from delegating authority. Unable to delegate responsibility may also

cause this (Wells, 1993; Türkmen, 1994; Horton, 1992). In private life too, the idea of doing a

task more quickly, doing it better and doing it until describing it to another person results in

undertaking every task, therefore, this results in the necessity of having to do that task at a

later time.

3.2.6. Unnecessary or insufficient information

If we do not have necessary information to do a task or make a decision, we may lose

a lot of time. Too much information is also distracting and it requires the ability to analyze

and use it. Often, the mistakes we have made in communication or not having learned the

necessary knowledge and skills in time make us lose time and energy in both work and

private life.

Insisting on an issue, except when we are right about our thoughts, can be an

indication of insufficient listening or insufficient learning (Carrell, Jennings & Heavrin,

2006). That means we have a problem with information. This problem leads to inaccurate

decisions and failure to make the tasks properly, and therefore, it results is unnecessary effort

and failure, unpredictability of the next step, and wasting energy in the wrong places.

So far, we have examined the factors that prevent effective use of time. Below are the

methods that we can use to manage time effectively.

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4. METHODS FOR EFFECTIVE TIME MANAGEMENT

Managing time is, above all, managing ourselves. Therefore, below are the methods of

managing ourselves to help us find time more easily for important things for our lives.

4.1. Setting goal

It is important to be aware of our goals and to tell them ourselves clearly. Before

setting goals, an individual should determine values and life roles. Even if the values are not

realized, they give direction to life. If an activity leads to a conclusion about one's basic

principles, values based on these principles, and philosophy of life, the importance of that

activity naturally increases. Therefore, the manager should recognize the values and roles that

affect his / her current life and realize their importance for herself / himself (Adair & Adair,

1993; Cüceloğlu, 1995).

The question of what I cannot give up in my life often helps to reveal values. Values

can be related to principles, beliefs, individuals, situations. One should list certain life roles.

This will also help the individual to recognize his / her values. Listing roles may not be easy.

However, one can observe for a week or two to determine which roles are important

(Cüceloğlu, 1995).

The individual may have roles such as spouse, mother, sibling and child in the family.

The roles related to task or occupation can be teacher, assistant manager, business people,

craftsmen etc… In addition, the individual has social roles such as neighbors and sports club

members. The person who will use time effectively must determine the most important ones

of these roles.

When determining their objectives, they should pay attention to the fact that their

objectives are related to these roles and they will not conflict with their values. One can do

this more practically by dividing their goals in private life and work life goals. Irmak, for

example, may have set a goal to do a master degree related to her work life. This is a goal that

Irmak has long wanted to achieve. In order to achieve this aim, it is required to get 50 points

from the foreign language exam and pass the scientific interview exam of the university.

These goals are quite big and important. Therefore, there are many things to be done to

achieve these goals.

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To be aware of our goals is critical, but awareness is not enough to succeed. There are

various books on the market, which include messages such as “You can succeed if you want”.

I am aware of my goal to do master degree and I want to achieve it. I need to take action, do

the right things in the right way and on time. That is to say, demanding it alone is not enough.

Difficult tasks that show little progress in each stage are called "great tasks" in time

management terminology. This kind of tasks that seems quite easy at first intimidate us over

time. As the impossibility of achieving the goal becomes apparent, this task is postponed with

the idea of doing it at an appropriate time rather than taking action. The task (or great task)

appears to be larger and more difficult than it seems. The reason why short-term goals are

allocated more time than long-term goals is that they are often more easily accessible

(Atkinson, 1988). All of the things that need to be done in order to achieve the goal constitute

the task. Therefore, our goals and tasks are often intertwined. The purpose of gaining right for

the master's degree and the things to be done for this can be evaluated as great goal / task.

One should follow the following method for difficult and long-term purposes

(Atkinson, 1988):

1. Be committed to achieving this goal,

2. Divide the purpose into more easily accessible parts,

3. Divide the divided parts into tasks or purposes of the year, month, week, day.

Take the purpose of the master's degree above.

1. Let us answer the questions such as whether we really want this, why we want to do

a master's degree. If we decide on that we really want, let us go to step two.

2. Considering our foreign language level, let us say that at the end of 1.5 years, we

aimed to be successful in the language exam and to be ready for the interview.

Let us turn this aim into the goals of 6-month periods. For example, at the end of the

first six months, to finish studying the main grammar topics. At the end of the second 6

months, to complete the other subjects to be studied for the language and take at least 40 in

the practice exams, and to read a main course book and take notes for the interview exam. At

the end of the third 6 months, to raise the language level to 50, to finish studying 2 main

course books and 20 articles for the interview.

3. Now, we can divide the grammar topics to be studied and the book we will work on

for scientific interview into monthly parts such as studying three grammar topics and

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one unit of the book each month. According to our workload and other roles, we

examine how many hours per week and per day we can prepare for foreign language

and interview preparation. For example, if we can study foreign language for one hour

on Mondays, Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays, we divide our weekly foreign

language subjects into those days. On Tuesdays and Saturdays, we study the topics we

have set for the interview.

Such a purpose-oriented planning will save us from waiting without any preparation

and from confronting, being afraid of and giving up a gigantic purpose in the last two months.

After listing the goals and dividing the difficult goals into pieces, a person can turn his

/ her tasks concerning his / her professional and private life purposes into separate lists.

4.2. Prioritization (ABC Analysis) and Pareto Analysis

Prioritization (ABC analysis) and Pareto analysis are very similar. Generally, there are

many important or insignificant goals in short-term goals. ABC analysis proposes to classify

the tasks according to the importance of our objectives. The basis of time management is, in

fact, accepting the fact that we cannot do everything. If we cannot do everything, we have to

give up doing some tasks. What tasks make sense to stop doing? Should a person give up

wiping the windows or reading a book to her / his child or learning new teaching techniques

in her / his field or posting something on social media to her friends she graduated from the

same university?

The division of the objectives or tasks into three groups according to their importance

and priorities is called prioritization or ABC analysis. We label the most important tasks A,

the moderately important ones B, and the insignificant C. The reason why ABC analysis is

called like this is that these three groups are generally named as A, B and C.

The following method can be followed in the order of priority (Şenol, 1989):

A- The most important group: The objectives in this group are the most desired and

the most basic objectives.

B- Moderately important group: The objectives in this group are those which may be

postponed for a period of time but which are important.

C- Insignificant group: The purposes in this group are of the kind that will not cause

any harm if left aside.

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We can combine our goals in private life and our professional life into separate tables or

combine them into a single table. However, the important thing here is not to focus on just

one.

Table 1. ABC Analysis

A B C

Preparing for the

exam to become a

manager

Being a well-

groomed business

person

Separating clothes

that are not worn in

the wardrobe

To follow

developments

related to my

department

Developing cartoon

drawing

Being online on

social media

Keeping in touch

with my child's

school

Organizing home

library in a

systematic way

Making the cabinet

used in school

functional

Protecting health

and weight

In the table above, each item reflects a purpose, but it is not reflected which tasks

should be done for that purpose. Turkmen's (1994) proposal for this is quite functional: For

each purpose in the list of objectives, it is necessary to ask “how”. The "why" question will

determine the top purpose and the "how" question will determine the lower purpose.

Let us illustrate this.

Objective: To pass the exam for becoming a manager. Why? To advance in my

career, to apply what I have learned, to show that a woman can be a very good manager, etc…

How? By studying on topics such as legislation, leadership, school management etc…

Objective: To make the cabinet used in school functional. Why? To find what I look

for in my cabinet easily and to be an example to my students, etc… How? Making a shelf

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inside the cabinet and pasting two hangers. How? Taking measurements and taking shelves

and hangers from a large store.

Generally, important goals are those that will be achieved gradually and in a longer

period of time. As mentioned in the previous article, it is necessary to know how to divide

these great purposes / tasks. Most people allocate some time daily in their minds to the tasks

that they must do to achieve one or two important goals. Only then does the problem begin.

During the day, C tasks takes priority and the time allocated in the mind is used for C tasks,

not for A tasks. Therefore, both those who say “I don't like the written plan, I don't need it”

and those who cannot achieve their goals can do the following:

To write the most important and desirable goals in work and private life. These

should not be too many, for example two.

To turn these objectives into short-term objectives.

To turn tasks to be done for these objectives into daily or every two days tasks

To allocate time outside of the time allocated to these tasks to B and C tasks. Our

plan should not include only group A tasks.

During the day and while I plan a day, I must first do my A priority tasks, if there is

time left, I must do my B priority tasks, and if I still have time, I must do my C priority tasks.

This means, for example, that my guests came home without informing me in advance and I

was not able to refuse. Most of the tasks I considered doing was disrupted. If I have two hours

left after my guests leave, I should spend at least half or 80% of this time on my A priority

tasks, not on unnecessary social media surfing or organizing wardrobe. C priority tasks are the

ones that are OK even if not performed, and that we like to do most of the time, relax us even

if they do not serve our main goals and, at the same time, save us from being mechanical.

Therefore, filling all of our time with A priority tasks is not sustainable throughout our lives.

Here is the critical approach: Time must be reserved for our A priority tasks. If some tasks

need to be postponed, A priority tasks should not be postponed.

There are various recommendations in the literature for daily planning. Alain Lakain

states that the manager should devote 75% of her / his time to the tasks she / he has to do,

20% to the tasks she / he needs to do, and 5% to the tasks she / he likes to do (Atkinson,

1988). Turkmen's proposal is that 65% of time should be reserved for A type tasks; 20% of

time for B type tasks and 10-15% of time for C type tasks (Turkmen, 1994).

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Now let us look at the Pareto Principle. This principle, named after the Italian

economist and sociologist Vilfredo Pareto, was adopted in management by Joseph Juran.

The principle of Pareto can be explained as follows (Adair & Adair, 1993; Mackenzie,

1989; Abay, 1994): This principle is based on the fact that people place more emphasis on

insignificant issues than significant ones. The most important 20% of the factors determine

80% of the results, the next 30% determine the 15% of the results and the remaining 50%

determine the 5% of the results.

This principle of Pareto, also called 80/20 rule, which is summarized as "important but

few, unimportant but many", also applies in time management. For most tasks that provide

20% of the results, 80% of the time is allocated, and for the few important tasks that provide

80% of the results, 20% of the time is reserved.

Figure 2. Pareto analysis

Let us suppose we have 7 hours a day out of school time. The development of our

child is one of the most important factors outside our work life. I also want to improve myself

as a good intellectual. These are the issues that I care about most outside my work life. So

how much of this 7 hours can I allocate to these issues? Let us see what I have got time for.

2.5 hours for cooking, setting-clearing table, eating and housework; 1 hour for studying or

playing with my child, 1 hour for watching TV or series, 1 hour for surfing on social media, 1

27

hour forchatting with the household and resting; half an hour for reading a book. I could

spend an hour for my child and half an hour for my own development.

According to Pareto analysis, the time I have allocated for my child and my own

development is less than the importance I attach to these issues. Even, most of the time I do

not have the energy to use the time I have allocated to my own development. Actually, there

are things I have wanted to do for years, but I cannot. There is an imbalance in terms of the

importance of the issues in my life and the time I allocate to them.

Therefore, first of all, I have to increase the time I spend for my child and myself. For

this, I can reduce the time I spend on other tasks. To achieve this, I need to examine my

situation in terms of my personality characteristics and time traps. I need to find honest

answers to the questions such as Are my priorities replacing?, Am I a perfectionist in some

tasks (am I overly scrupulous about things like cleaning, kitchen work)?, Can I pass on some

tasks (such as sharing tasks with my wife and child, and recruiting a servant for some tasks)?,

Are there any tasks that will pose a problem even if I do not perform? and Do I show

procrastination behavior ( is it easier for me to do housework than doing tasks that will

improve myself)? Secondly, the time period in which I will take care of my child and that I

will allocate to my own development must be a period in which my energy must be high.

Even if I have time, it will be very difficult and inefficient to do something for my

development after all my energy is gone.

Why is it important to devote time to the important goals of our lives in a continuous

and systematic way? Let us do a calculation: If we work for 1 hour every day for a very

desirable purpose, it means that we will have allocated 30 hours per month and 365 hours per

year. This means 15.2 full days per year. In terms of working hours, that is, if we work 8

hours a day, that will be 45.6 working days. That means one and a half month on average. In a

12-month period, I will have spent nearly one and a half months working hours for myself and

the goal I have desired so much. Sometimes, we do not do anything for years for a purpose

that we really want. However, if we devoted one hour a day for five years, it would make 45

X 5 = 225 working days. Having 225 days by working just 8 hours per day! If a person works

8 hours a day for a purpose for 225 days, she / he can achieve many of her / his goals. You

can do another calculation that is even more flexible. Suppose that we work half an hour a day

or 1 hour every two days. It equals to 115 days in five years and 22 working days in a year.

The opposite can also be considered. During the day, we spend time on many

unnecessary things. A person who watches an unnecessary TV series for 1 hour per day or

28

does an extra hour of homework per day spends 225 working days in 5 years. Calculating this

time as 2 hours or 3 hours can give people a much better understanding of what they can give

up or what they can achieve.

4.3. The Pomodoro Technique

The Pomodoro technique is a technique that was developed by an Italian called

Francesko Cirillo and that focuses on the continuous work of the person. Pomodoro means

tomato in Italian (Crillo, 2019a.).

Crillo's (2019a) technique is based on the use of a kitchen timer in the form of a

tomato, which is named after it. The basic principle is to set the timer to 25 minutes while

doing any task, not to stop working for anything during that time, and to stop 5 minutes when

the timer rings. Every 25 minutes and 5 minutes is called a pomodoro. After completing the

four pomodoro, a long break is taken. This long break lasts for about 15-30 minutes. If a

working period of twenty-five minutes is interrupted for any reason, it should start over when

restarting to work (Crillo, 2019a; 2019b).

In this way, it is possible to work 8 to 16 pomodoro per day according to our own

conditions. In Pomodoro technique, it is not possible to play with the phone, read a message,

get a tea and coffee, etc… during a 25-minute working period. We should wait 5-minute

break for these. During the rest, we do not think or do anything about the subject we are

working on.

In Pomodoro technique, it is important to determine how much time is spent on which

tasks and how many pomodoro are needed for our tasks (Crillo, 2019a). For example, you

need to prepare a report. You have a week to do that. As we have learned before, this can be

treated as an great task and be divided. Let us say we split it into five days and the last two

days are reserved for review and formal corrections. How many pomodoro do I need for the

part I will write tomorrow? Let us say I need four pomodoro. Therefore, tomorrow I'm going

to devote four pomodoro for my tasks, and I'm not going to be interested in anything else

during the task. Pomodoro technique can be considered as a powerful tool in terms of working

discipline rather than a planning technique alone. 25 minutes is not even half an hour, so it is

a comfortable time to work without having a break.

It is possible to adapt and use this technique not only for mental activities, but also for

organizing a cabinet. The important thing is to work uninterruptedly while doing a task. For

29

example, thanks to this technique, we can look at a photo while organizing the cabinet and

dive into memories, and we can call the friend in the photo and talk to her / him during the

five-minute break.

4.4. Important-Urgent Table

Dwight D. Eisenhower is said to have talked to his subordinates about the importance

and urgency of the affairs during World War II. According to Eisenhower, there is an inverse

relationship between what is important and what is only urgent. The more important a task is,

the less likely it is to be urgent. The more urgent a task is, the less likely it is to be important

(Douglas & Douglas, 1993). According to Covey (2016), who developed the important-urgent

table in time management based on Eisenhower's evaluations, the most important thing that

distinguishes successful people from others is the ability to distinguish what is important and

what is the most important and act accordingly.

Figure 3. Urgent-Important Table

In this table, the tasks in cell 1 are the ones that should be given priority. They are both

important and urgent. For example, a student having an accident at school. The tasks in cell 2

are important, though not urgent, and tend to be postponed because they are not urgent. For

example, to prepare for the master degree exam two years later or the managerial exam one

year later, and to make efforts to increase the participation rate of the parents to the meetings

IMPORTANCE

Yes No

UR

GE

NC

Y

No

1 3

URGENT-IMPORTANT URGENT-UNIMPORTANT

Yes

2 4

NON-URGENT-

IMPORTANT

NON-URGENT -

UNIMPORTANT

30

in the school. The tasks in cell 3 are urgent but not important. These tasks give the impression

that they need to be done immediately because they are urgent and they often replace the tasks

in cell 1 or cell 2. In other words, they are treated as if they were important even though they

are not important. For example, most incoming phones, incoming social media messages, to

hang out with a friend who extends her / his head through the door and says “How are you?,

Let us have a tea / coffee together. The achievement of the goals for many people and the fact

that many people spend their days, weeks, or even their lives with the unhappiness of not

being able to reach their goals is related to whether they can distinguish the urgency and

importance of the tasks.

The tasks in the first cell have a high priority, so they need to be handled immediately.

The tasks in the second cell are also very important and time should be devoted to them.

However, if these things are a great task, they must be divided and their time must be planned.

The tasks in the third cell seem to be important, but in fact, because of the time pressure, they

are the tasks that break into our actual tasks, and so most of them can be passed on or

postponed. We must either direct the task to another person or postpone it to an appropriate

time without breaking the person. When urgent tasks are postponed, it will become clear that

they are not important actually. The tasks in the fourth cell are of the kind that do not cause

any problems even if they are not performed. We must decide whether we will do these tasks

in the third and fourth cells by looking at our priorities or not. If we have proceeded enough in

the daily or weekly time period of the tasks in the first and second cells that are important for

us, that is, if we have done what we have to do, we can spend time and energy on the tasks in

other cells.

It is important to know how to handle the time traps, that is, the things that interrupt

our tasks, although they are not important. For this, we can use the methods we have learned

above by integrating.

Putting the phone on silent (during a 25-minute pomodoro) is an important step when

you are working. If we remember we should call someone, it will be a good solution to make

a to-do list for the things to be done later and note it down. Thus, it may be appropriate to

reserve a separate pomodoro to return to incoming phones and to use a separate time period

(for example, a five-minute break or long break) in which we can make phone calls that we

have remembered, and it may even be appropriate to reserve a separate pomodoro for phone

calls concerning our jobs that we need to make. In other words, it is very timesaving to group

phone calls and make them in a certain time frame.

31

To group events, such as checking social media accounts, responding to incoming

emails, and reviewing incoming documents, as we do on phones, makes it more efficient.

For visitors, planning is also recommended. Unplanned visitors and visitors coming in

the middle of a task can be said to be more appropriate for me to visit you after … minutes

(The same applies to phones. It can be said that I am not available at all right now, is it OK if

I call you later?).

Welcoming uninvited visitors standing up makes it easy for the visitor to stay for a

short time. Sometimes, it is effective to make the other person feel that the interview has

reached its purpose with some expressions such as “So, to sum up …”, “So, it is our duty …”

and “So, we agreed, the next time we meet …” in order to state that the negotiations we have

held are over. Similarly, standing up by saying “Thank you very much for coming” is also

effective in ending the visit without breaking the other side.

It is also important not to say yes to the requests of the people around us under any

circumstances in time management. It is effective to check whether the person who has asked

us to do something is making enough effort for it, and sometimes, to say that “Look at these

stages first, then let us look at it together” or to say it clearly if we cannot really make time.

For example, one of our friends does not understand a regulation and wants us to explain it to

her / him. Rather than embracing the problem and examining it immediately, pasting the

regulation into the USB stick and asking the person to highlight the points that are complex

will halve our tasks.

Educating and developing individuals around us will also save time for us in the long

term. These people can be students, teachers, and subordinates at school, and in private life,

they can be our child, spouse, brother, friend, etc. A common mistake is not to have a task

done because that person cannot do it at the time and quality we want. However, in order to

educate the people around us, it is necessary to give them enough responsibility and enough

time. If we do this, after a while we will see that our burden is lightened.

It is important to remember that you need to spend some time before you can save

time.

So far, we have examined methods that can help us and those around us in order to

make our time more enjoyable and reach our life goals more easily. Undoubtedly, there is no

magic wand for time management, but if we become aware of the above reasons for losing

32

time, we can develop a system that is most suitable for ourselves. It should not be forgotten

that if we don't do this, no one can help us.

3. LEARNING EXPERIENCES

a. Introduction Activities

i. It is asked to trainees whether they have a problem about lack of time.

ii. It is asked to trainees to think and share their opinions about the questions “What

kind of resources does administrator have to manage her organization? Why the

time is different from those resources?

iii. 80/20 Rule (Pareto Analysis) is explained. Attendants are asked how much they

follow this rule.

b. Instruction Activities

i. Presenting basic concepts about time.

ii. Explaining what is time management? What are its advantages and

disadvantages?

iii. Brainstorming on what are the factors affecting us about using our time

effectively?

iv. Presenting factors affecting time management and classifying them.

v. Practicing the activity below:

1. Identify the two most important goals for your work and private life and

turn them into short-term goals.

2. Identify the tasks that will carry you to the goals you have identified.

3. Group your work in terms of urgency and importance by considering a

week ahead of you. (Act accord with Pareto Analysis).

4. Identify the works you will give up and transfer to someone else.

5. Identify possible time traps and precautions needed to be taken for them.

6. Carry out a time plan for a week.

c. Conclusion Activities

i. Evaluate your plan with your peer.

4. ASSESSMENT

a. In what ways should an administrator know herself to be able to use time effectively?

b. What are the time traps for an administrator? How can you manage interruptions?

c. What are the key points of saying no?

d. What is the relationship between objectives and priorities?

e. If you determine five principles for an effective time management from this course,

what would be these principles?

33

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yöneticilerin zaman kullanma yaklaşımları ve bir model önerisi. Unpublished doctoral

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https://tdk.gov.tr/

https://wearesocial.com/

36

MODULE 2

DECISION MAKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING TRAINING


Name of the study: Module of “Decision making and problem solving training” of the

project “Breaking the glass ceiling for women administrators”

Place of the study:

Date of the study:


II. PART: SCHEDULE

Month December

Week 1 2 3 4

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ta

sks

Planning

Needs

Analysis

Program

Preparation

Training

Evaluation

Reporting



Administrators”, data for needs analysis, which will be used in order to develop “Decision

making and problem solving training” towards overcoming glass ceiling barriers women

administrators face, were collected by “Glass Ceiling Syndrome Scale” as quantitatively and

by “Semi-Structured Needs Analysis Form” as qualitatively.



37













1. GOALS

Goal 1: Knowledge of the basic concepts of decision making for educational organizations

Attainments:

1. Defines the decision-making phenomenon

2. Apprehends the importance of decision making in educational organizations

3. Discusses the effect of decision making on educational organizations

Goal 2: Implementation the decision making process

Attainments:

1. Defines decision making process

2. Discusses the characteristics of decision making process

3. Recognizes the importance of decision-making

4. Applies the stages of decision making process

Goal 3: Understanding decision-making models and types

Attainments:

1. Selects the appropriate decision making model in a decision phase

2. Classifies decision types

Goal 4: Determining ways to deal with indecision

Attainments:

1. Expresses the reasons for indecision

2. Discusses the effects of indecision on organization

3. Recognizes the hidden traps in the decision making process

Goal 5: Applying decision making approaches

Attainments:

1. Applies Vroom-Jago model

2. Applies Delphi technique

38

Goal 6: Applying supporting techniques that can be used in decision making

Attainments:

1. Applies the techniques of appointing the lawyer of the devil, brainstorming, Gordon

technique, sinectic, Philips 66 according to the nature of the issue and decision

Goal 7: Understanding the importance of problem solving for educational organizations

Attainments:

1. Defines the problem state

2. Discuss ways to solve problems

3. Understand that there is a systematic way of problem solving

Goal 8: Applying the steps of problem solving

Attainments:

1. Describes the problem solving steps on a case study

2. Applies the problem solving steps in a subsequent order

Goal 9: Using decision-making and problem-solving to overcome glass ceiling barriers

Attainments:

1. Knows qualified decision-making ways to overcome glass ceiling barriers in work

environment

2. Knows the ways to overcome the glass ceiling barriers encountered by solving

problems with scientific steps

2. MODULE CONTENT

1. BASIC CONCEPTS OF DECISION-MAKING

The dictionary meaning of the word " decision "is the absolute judgment made

thinking about an issue or a problem" (TDK, 2019). While decision-making is a process of

reaching a judgment, decision-making in an organizational sense is to choose among various

alternatives (Güney, 2012). Therefore, the choice made by the manager or any stakeholder on

an organizational issue is an organizational decision (Koçel, 2013). In other words, while

decision is a result, decision-making is a process.

The decision making process, which is one of the important elements of administration

field, is included within the management processes. While Mintzberg (1973) and Stewart

(1976) take decision-making to the top of managerial action, Simon (1959) considers

decision-making as the heart of management. For a qualified management, the decision-

making process needs to run in a healthy way.

39

Regardless of whichever organization they are in, all managers are decision makers.

Decision making is considered as an important competence criterion for the manager. To

solve and develop the problems faced by an organization in the process of achieving its

objectives depends on whether the decisions taken are effective and productive, that is, it

depends on the organization's ability to achieve the desired result. An effective and efficient

decision is the decision that makes it possible to choose the most suitable option for the

organizational conditions and to obtain the most organizational benefit with the least resource

usage (Uras, 1995). Therefore, the manager who is confronted with a number of alternatives

in achieving the objectives of the organization and has to decide the best of these alternatives

for the organization needs to be specialized in the nature of the decision process, the effects of

the participation in the decision meking process, the stages of the decision making process,

the decision making models and approaches, and the reasons of indecision.

2. PARTICIPATIVE DECISION MAKING PROCESS IN EDUCATIONAL

ORGANIZATIONS

The decision-making process in organizations entered the field of management science

with the 1930s, and the importance of participation in the decision-making process was

explained based on efficiency. With the term of participation, it is stated that the members of

the organization should be effective in the decision process and in some cases they should

initiate the decision. Scientists who put forward the necessity of participation in the decision

suggested that productivity would increase when the stakeholders participate in the decision-

making process and stated that there is a relationship between decision-making and

organizational efficiency (Hicks, 1979, 31). For example, the results of Coch and French's

(1984) research conducted at Harwood on the results of engagement in decision-making

revealed that stakeholder engagement increased efficiency. In the research, the employees

were divided into three groups, the first group was informed only about the changes in the

organization, the second group was informed about the reasons, necessity and other details of

the changes and they were given the right to organize these changes through their

representatives, and as for the third group, it was given the right to participate in the planning

of changes and new works by the group in addition to the detailed explanation of the changes.

As a result of the experiment, it was found that production decreased in the first group, cease

of employment and complaints increased, as for the second and third groups, it was found that

40

production increased to high levels, and the cease of employment and complaints decreased

(Uras, 1995). Therefore, decisions and participation in all organizations, including educational

organizations, play a key role in achieving the objectives.

In educational organizations, many decisions are made at central level, provincial and

district level and school level. These decisions could be decisions that vary in a wide range of

nature regarding the various dimensions of education and training. Implementation of a new

education program, distribution of budget, type and content of student selection and

placement exams, teachers 'working hours, personal rights, festivals to be held in provinces,

ceremonies, teachers' branch works, design of teachers' room, appointment of officials for

ceremonies, organizing school trips, professional development activities, procurement of

goods, canteen auctions and such several issues require the administrator to make a choice

and make a decision. In such cases, while administrators try to choose the best among the

alternatives; they need to both follow the decision-making process and steps in a healthy way

and benefit from the functional features of the decision-making.

Participation in the decision is an effective method in (a) motivating employees and

improving the quality of the decision, (b) adopting changes and innovations to the lower

levels, and changing social attitudes, (c) giving responsibility to the lower levels, (d)

balancing individual goals with personal goals, (e) enabling the lower levels to express their

opinions on matters of concern to them, (f) improving the morale of employees and increasing

job satisfaction and (g) conducting social relations in a more calm and friendly environment

(Acet, 2006).

Both the level of participation and decision-making structures are of importance for

decision-making to be functional for the organization. According to Bridges (1967), a school

administrator should take into account the subordinates' expertise and personal interest while

having subordinates include in decision making. The approach to be used for this situation is

presented in Table 1.

41

Table 1. Interest and participation in the decision making

Do subordinates have personal interest?

Yes No

Do the subordinates

have expertise?

Yes

Probably S/he involves

subordinates in the decision-

making process.

Sometimes S/he involves


making process.

No

Sometimes S/he involves


making process.

Subordinates are excluded from

the decision-making process.

Source: It is created based on Bridges (1967).

As can be seen, an administrator can identify the stakeholders s/he wishes to

participate in, while taking into account the interest and expertise. The administrator may

choose to include those who have interest and expertise in the decision to be taken, and not to

choose those who do not have interest or expertise in the decision. If s/he thinks that expertise

or interest will have a positive impact on the decision-making process, he can also include the

stakeholders who do not have expertise but interest; or the stakeholders who do not have

interest but expertise.

The functional characteristics of the decision-making which is subject to the

researches can be summarized as follows:

The opportunity to participate in decision-making in policy-making is an important

factor in teachers' motivation and commitment to school.

Participation in the decision making positively affects the teachers' professional

satisfaction.

Teachers prefer their administrators to involve themselves in the decision-making

process and they want to work with principals who implement participatory

management.

Failure occurs when the decisions of administrators are of low quality or are not

accepted by subordinates.

Teachers want to participate in some decisions, not every decision, a balance should

be established. The fact that participation in the decision is too low or too high is

harmful for the organization.

42

Depending on the nature of the decision issue, the roles of school heads and

teachers also vary (Hoy & Miskel, 2012).

Teachers involved in the decision process provide different perspectives. In this

case, solution suggestions are enriched.

The teacher participating in the decision represents the group who thinks like

her/him and thus, representation of different interest groups can be provided in the

decision.

Participation in the decision is not an approach that can be adopted in every decision

of school management. Sometimes, administrators can make a decision by using the available

data sources directly considering the time problem, non-specialist issues, the nature of the

decision, the situation of inter-stakeholder conflict, and the tendency of the subordinates to

follow the decision of the superiors. The roles of administrators in decision-making can be

classified as integrative, parliamentary, tutor, lawyer and director. The integrative role is

directed at unanimous decision-making to bring different ideas together in harmony; in the

parliamentary role, open discussions are encouraged to achieve the group decision through a

democratic process; in the role of the tutor, the issue to be decided is explained in many ways

and the resistance to change is tried to overcome; in the role of a lawyer, advice is received

from the subordinates to improve the quality of the decision; as for the role of director, in

order to increase productivity, the decision is made by the manager in the absence of

subordinates' interest and expertise (Hoy & Miskel, 2012).

3. DECISION-MAKING PROCESS AND IT'S STAGES

The solution of a problem that occurs in the organizational life, in fact, brings along a

decision-making process, this is because, the decision-making process is a method of

combating and overcoming problems and uncertainty (Eren, 2011). The decision process

involves all the management processes and all aspects of organizational life as it includes not

only the selection of the most suitable options among which the outcome is predictable, but

also the stages of a plan for the solution of the problem, implementation of the plan and

evaluation of its success (Uras, 1995). Therefore, the analysis of the decision process provides

a road map for decision making.

43

In the decision-making process, first of all, the purpose or the problem must be clearly

identified and examined. Subsequently, this objective and problem should be examined in

depth and alternatives should be determined in the way of reaching the target or solution. In

order to choose the best among these alternatives, selection criteria should be determined, and

the best should be determined by cost-benefit analysis. Finally, it is required that the decision

be implemented and the result be evaluated. These steps to address briefly is of importance in

order to determine the path to be followed in a decision phase:

3.1. Goal Setting and Problem Defining

A clear presentation of the objective or problem in the decision process is a

prerequisite for a solution. The need to set a goal or recognizing the problem is also

considered as the first stage of the decision process. The manager should be aware of a

situation to be decided about and then set a purpose for it. The objectives are required to be

action oriented (Koçel, 2015). For example, providing teachers with professional development

experiences. On the other hand, the purpose and the associated explanation with that is also

required to be expressed. For instance, to be the most successful school in the region by

providing teachers with professional development experiences or to increase motivation by

providing teachers with professional development experiences. In addition, the objectives are

required to be measurable and be expressed in an inclusive manner. For example, to increase

motivation by providing teachers with professional development experiences within 2 months.

The decision-making sometimes comes into play when defining sub-goals that serve the

objectives of the organization and sometimes when there are obstacles in reaching these goals.

The fact that the manager notices the obstacle is related to his perceptions. While a situation is

not considered as a problem for manager A, it can be considered as a problem for manager B.

Or, sometimes, when the problem cannot be identified in a healthy way, a permanent solution

cannot be provided when dealing with side effect problems instead of the actual problem. For

example, if the attendance rate is low because teacher motivation is very low, and the school

administrator thinks that the participation problem is caused by communication, it may

provide a short-term solution to announce meeting dates each teacher personally via signed

papers, but in the long term the attendance rate will decrease again. Therefore, the manager

has to determine the problem according to her/his abilities in the decision process. The data,

information, complaints and reports reaching a manager regarding a problem are processed

according to the perception of the manager and the problem definition is made according to

this perception. There is an interesting story in the management literature that shows the

44

solution of the problem at first hand is to define the problem correctly. The story sets out the

potential cost of perception in solving a problem.

Story involves a multistoried office building in New York. Occupants began

complaining about the poor elevator service provided in the building. Waiting times for

elevators at peak hours, they said, were excessively long. Several of the tenants

threatened to break their leases and move out of the building because of this.

Management authorized a study to determine what would be the best solution. The

study revealed that because of the age of the building no engineering solution could be

justified economically. The engineers said that management would just have to live with

the problem permanently.

The desperate manager called a meeting of his staff, which included a young

recently hired graduate in personnel psychology. The young man had not focused on

elevator performance but on the fact that people complained about waiting only a few

minutes. Why, he asked himself, were they complaining about waiting for only a very

short time? He concluded that the complaints were a consequence of boredom. Therefore,

he took the problem to be one of giving those waiting something to occupy their time

pleasantly. He suggested installing mirrors in the elevator boarding areas so that those

waiting could look at each other or themselves without appearing to do so. The manager

took up his suggestion. The installation of mirrors was made quickly and at a relatively

low cost. The complaints about waiting stopped. Today, mirrors in elevator lobbies and

even on elevators in tall buildings are commonplace.

As can be seen in the story, managers may sometimes need contradictory perspectives

when defining problems. Therefore, one of the most important stages of the decision process

is to understand the problem in the best way. Albert Einstein's statement whic is “If I had an

hour to solve a problem, I would spend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and 5 minutes

thinking about solutions”(Kosslyn and Nelson, 2017) emphasizes the importance of defining

the problem in a healthy way in reaching solution.

The stage of problem identification in the decision-making process is also shaped by

the perceptions of individuals. This effect, known as freaming effect, is based on the studies

of Kahneman and Amos Tvertsky starting in 1979. The results of the research revealed a

significant difference between the rate of selection of different propositions that have the

same meaning. People have a tendency not to prefer a proposition given to them if it contains

negative expression. When these choices are presented in the form of two positive and

negative equal propositions, and when the inconsistencies in choosing the positive and not

45

choosing the same meaning are expressed to them, they are even ashamed (Nobel Price,

2019). Therefore, a manager should consider the impact of freaming effect when taking the

support of stakeholders in the decision process or when evaluating the proposition to choose

on her/his own.

3.2. Analysing Goals and Problems

In order to make a healthy decision, all the issues related to the decision should be

known in detail (Güney, 2012). Therefore, defining goals or problems is not sufficient to

make choices. The objectives, causes, characteristics, urgency of the problems, cost of

unsolved problem and the results to be produced should also be analyzed. For example, when

there is a problem, such questions:

What is the actual situation? Are the real problem or the symptoms tackled?

Are the data representing the situation reliable?

Who is the source of this data?

Is the target clearly defined?

Has the nature of the problem been demonstrated in various dimensions?

Is this problem related to another issue?

If so, what are the sub-problems?

What will result if the problem is not resolved?

How do these results reflect in the organization?

How is the priority of the problems? should be examined in detail (Koçel, 2013).

Some of the most common techniques used in problem analysis are pareto analysis,

fishbone technique (cause-effect analysis) and flow diagram.

Fishbone technique

This technique involves writing down the main causes of a problem and the sub-

causes associated with these main causes. This approach, first used in total quality

management practices, is used to identify and systematically illustrate possible causes of a

problem. In the fishbone technique, the problem is written on the right side of the diagram,

which is the head of the fish. The main reasons are written to the starting point of each awn

bone formed by lines drawn to the left side of the diagram. With the sub-reasons related to

these reasons, the diagram is sub-branched. In other words, each awnbone and lower awns

46

lying on the left express the reasons and sub-reasons (Tok, 2017). An example of a fishbone

diagram presented in Figure 1, where problems in teacher-student relations in a school are

presented:

Figure 1. Example Fishbone Diagram

Source: Bekereci, (2016).

Pareto analysis

This technique was named after the Italian economist and sociologist, Vilfredo Pareto. The

decision-making process can be simplified by classifying the data obtained in solving a

problem. Pareto analysis data are used in classification (Ishikawa, 1986). Vilfredo Pareto

observed that in 1897 80% of the Italian wealth belonged to 20% of the Italian population

(Peter, 2002) and in other studies also found that this ratio is usually the same. In his studies,

Pareto discovered that there may be a mathematical model between the negligible majority

and the important minority with the 20% - 80% rule (McCann, 2001). In other words, if 20%

of the data related to a problem determines 80% of the result, it makes sense to produce a

solution over 20%. 80% insignificant part can be neglected in the solution of the problem

(Koçel, 2013).

47

3.3. Identifying and Evaluating Alternatives

Following the evaluation of the dimensions of a problem in detail, solution

alternatives, namely decision options are introduced (Güney, 2012). In this phase, personal

differences and creativity of managers are of importance. The brainstorming technique can be

benefitted to produce creative and different alternatives. Participation in the decision enriches

the options in this phase. Produced alternatives should be technically feasible, financially

affordable, socially desirable, high in success rates, accountable in their long-term and short-

term effects, largely in line with the expectations of stakeholders and predictable in its

possible consequences (Koçel, 2013). Once options have been identified for the solution of

the problem, these options should be evaluated from various angles.

3.4. Determining Selection Criteria and Decision Making

At this stage, the criteria for a satisfactory decision should be determined. Alternatives

should be ranked from the least satisfactory to the most satisfactory (Hoy & Miskel, 2012). As

a criterion, indispensable properties should be determined, too. For example; cost, such as

being limited to the available resources. Sometimes the expectations of senior executives

become an important criterion. Criteria such as human relations, time component, experience,

past events, sixth sense can be used to choose between alternatives (Koçel, 2013). In the

decision-making phase, the manager should choose the most appropriate one for these

problems. Some deadlocks may come in sight during this selection. For example, two options

may be regarded as equally appropriate in the solution. In this case, either can be selected

randomly. None of the options alone may be sufficient to solve the problem. In this case,

multiple selections can be made by grouping some of the options. If this is not desired, the

previous phase can be returned.

If none of the selected options is the active solution, one can go back to the top and

select different options. If many options are considered appropriate, there may be a problem

in the information gathering phase and new data should be returned to this phase (Güney,

2012). Consequently, the manager should evaluate alternatives in this way and make a

decision.

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3.5. Implementing the Decision and Evaluating the Result

The phase of implementing the decision is actually the phase of implementing an

action plan. The selection made consistently in this phase is applied and the result is observed

and evaluated (Hoy & Miskel, 2012). In this phase, it should be checked whether the results

match the expectations. If the results are positive, the decision is functional, but if not, the

decision-making process must be resumed (Güney, 2012).

4. DECISION MAKING MODELS AND TYPES OF DECISION

Certain decision models are used in decision making. The most common of these

models are the classical decision model, the administrative decision model and the garbage

can model. In the selection of these models, such issues as the individual preferences of the

administrators, whether the problems are programmable or not; or the degree of uncertainty of

the problem are effective (Eren, 2011).

4.1. Classic Decision Model, Administrative Decision Model, Garbage Can Model

4.1.1. Classic Decision Model

This model assumes that decisions should be completely rational. It includes the phases of

identifying the problem, examining the problem, evaluating the possible options and their

possible consequences, determining the most appropriate option, applying the decision and

evaluating the problem. The difficulty of evaluating all options and their consequences limits

this model (Hoy and Miskel, 2012). In the model, there are norms about how actually

decisions should be made, and the administrator cannot go beyond them. In reaching the

result; the instructions to be followed are clear. While this model is useful in closed systems,

in open systems such as educational organizations it is a limited model (Eren, 2011).

4.1.2. Administrative Decision Model

The model first introduced by Simon (1947) is not the most rational solution, but is the

one which seeks the most satisfactory solution. When considered the complexity of

49

organizational problems and the limited capacity of man; problems cannot be solved by linear

thinking. The basic assumptions of this model are as follows:

While administrative decision-making produces solutions to some organizational

problems; it is a dynamic process that can cause some problems, too.

It is not possible to be rational in all aspects of the decision-making process;

therefore, managers try to make satisfactory decisions.

Decision-making is an example of a general behavior found in all basic rational

management tasks and functional areas of organizations.

Values are a complementary element to decision-making (Hoy & Miskel, 2012).

Satisfaction in complex and uncertain situations is more consistent than seeking

rationality. Because; not every situation in the organization can be measured by quantitative

data and when the qualitative data is in use, the administrative decision model is guiding.

(Eren, 2011).

4.1.3. Garbage Can Model

This model adresses the ambiguity in decision making process. On the basis of

empirical research, it is found that ambiguity is one of the most important characteristics of

universities and colleges in the USA. This model assumes that decisions are results of

ambiguous processes not of rational processes. Cohen and March (1986) liken this process to

garbage can.

A key to understanding the processes within organizations is to view a choice

opportunity as a garbage can into which various problems and solutions are dumped by

participants. The mix of garbage in a single can depends partly on the labels attached to the

alternative cans; but it also depends on what garbage is being produced at the moment, on the

mix of cans available, and on the speed with which garbage is collected and removed from the

scene. (Cohen and March, 1986; cited in Bush, 2003).

Ambiguity is seen in every step of deision making and it is almost impossible to

determine cause effect relations in an organization (Hoy and Miskel, 2012). According to

garbage can model,

1. Problems are the concern of people inside and outside the organization. They arise

over issues of: lifestyle; family; frustrations of work; careers; group relations within the

50

organization; distribution of status, jobs and money; ideology; or current crises of mankind as

interpreted by the mass media or the next-door neighbour. All require attention. Problem

solution alternatives may be apart from problem itself.

2. Solution is somebody’s product. A solution may not be enough to define problem.

Problem may be defined in the way of solution.

3. Participants come and go. Since every entrance is an exit somewhere else, it also

changes the solutions.

4. Choice opportunities arises when decision making occurs (Cohen and March, 1986;

cited in Bush, 2003).

The garbage can model helps to explain why there are solutions to non-existent

problems, why solutions are produced without analyzing the problem, why the problem

cannot be solved and why only certain problems are solved. The model, on its own, is not an

action plan. It draws attention to the harmony of the problem and solution and the variables

for the quality of the decision (Hoy & Miskel, 2012).

4.2. Corporate, Strategic, Administrative, Operational decisions

Institutional decisions are the ones related to making decisions about issues such as

investing, starting a business and getting into trade. Relations between organization and its

environment in strategic decisions is of importance. In strategic decisions, in addition to the

environment, internal dynamics are also considered. The status and objectives of other

organizations in strategic decisions are also of importance. Administrative decisions are the

ones related to all dimensions of the organization. Taking into account both material and

human resources, decision-making is part of the management process. Therefore, decision

processes in educational organizations are mostly administrative decisions. Operational

decisions, on the other hand, are action-oriented decisions and may arise when an application

is in question (Eren, 2011).

5. PROCESS OF INDECISION AND COPING STRATEGIES

The process of indecision is sometimes confronted by managers. This may have a

wide variety of reasons. Since it expresses uncertainty for the organization, it needs to be

51

resolved and clarified. Therefore; it is important to know the reasons and consequences of

indecision, the hidden traps in decision making and the characteristics of qualified decisions.

5.1. Causes of Indecision and Consequences

In the decision-making process, there are many instances of instability. Lack of

information and data, distorted information, gossip, rumors complicate the decision process.

In cases where the objectives and problems are not clear, it is difficult to identify solution

alternatives and to choose among those identified. Solutions may not be satisfactory and

decision-makers may not want to choose any of these alternatives. The uncertainty of the

selection criterion may also cause indecision; because, the selection becomes impossible

when it is not clear what alternatives will be evaluated. Indecision may also occur when

solutions are too close to each other. If the professional skills of the manager are also

insufficient to manage the decision process, indecision may occur again. Or, the administrator

may also avoid making decisions because he is concerned about the difficulties that may arise

as a result of the decision. The preferred alternative may result in new problems; and the

concern of these problems can also complicate decision-making. Personal indecisiveness may

also affect this process if the administrator does not want to take risks. Sometimes political

situations, conflicts and power struggles within the organization can also lead to indecision.

As the distance between the person and the person who will make the decision increases, the

objectivity of the manager decreases and the subjectivity increases. In this case indecision

may also occur. In addition, fear of criticism in relation with the quality of selection and

consequence may also lead to indecision. Finally, when the organizational goals and the

personal goals of the administrators coincide; they may have difficulty in making choices

(Koçel, 2013). Such indecisions raise various consequences for the organization. The most

important result of indecision in management is the cost of time. As a result of indecision,

business disrupts, the administrator and other stakeholders get stressed, confidence in the

administrator may be reduced and losses may occur since the opportunities at hand are not put

to use effectively. Organizational uncertainties may occur. Conflicts may also arise between

stakeholders. Activities cannot be conducted in a coordinated manner and healthy planning

cannot be made (Güney, 2012).

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5.2. Hidden Traps in Decision Process

In addition to the administrative traps in the decision process; there are also some

psychological traps. Administrative traps can be eliminated through a good decision-making

process. As for psychological traps, they can be eliminated through awareness in this process.

John s. Hammond, Ralph L. Keeney and Howard Raiffa exemines 8 psychological

traps that have a high potential to affect our decisions in organizations. Anchoring is giving

disproportionate weight to the first information you receive. So, it is necessary to be careful

while gathering data. Status quo means favoring alternatives that perpetuate the existing

situation. Sunk costs means making choices in a way that justifies past, flawed choices.

Confirming evidence trap means seeking information that supports your existing point of

view. Framing trap represents the wrong formulation of the problem. Extreme confidence trap

causes to exagrate the reliability of foresights. Caution trap causes to take too many

unnecessary precautions. Estimating and forecasting trap means being overly influenced by

vivid memories when estimating (Hammond, Keeney and Raiffa 1998). The manager should

be aware of these psychological traps in the decision process and try not to be influenced by

them.

5.3. Characteristics of Qualified Decisions

Qualified decision for each organization and situation; can be defined in different

ways. On the other hand, in general, a good and qualified decision needs to own certain

characteristics. A good decision should be in line with the objectives of the organization. A

good decision should be the one with the lowest cost and highest gaining among the options.

A good decision is the one with the right timing. Realistic and reasonable decisions should be

made in accordance with organizational opportunities. As soon as a good decision is made, it

should be put into practice and by evaluating the results throughout the process, required

arrangements should be made. A good decision should benefit both the organization and its

stakeholders, and should not involve excessive risk. A good decision must have passed

through the entire decision-making process, and decisions which have unpredictable results

should not be made (Güney, 2012).

53

6. DECISION-MAKING APPROACHES

Managers can make decisions not only individually, but also from time to time, as part

of participatory management. There are some decision-making approaches which could be

utilized in this process. Some of those are The Vroom-Jago model,decision tree and Delphi

technique.

6.1. The Vroom-Jago model -decision tree

The model developed by Victor Vroom and Arthur Jago is used to determine the

appropriate mode of participation when subordinates participate in a decision. The model

consists of three dimensions namely: five forms of behaviors of the administrator in the

decision-making process, questions to help analyze decision-making and the electoral process

used when making choice from autocratic to democratic (Eren, 2011). According to this

model, the AI type leader, himself, with the possible information; solves the problem or

decides. The AII-type leader solves or decides the problem himself after receiving all the

necessary information from his subordinates. The CI-type leader personally consults his

subordinates about the problem, gets their opinions and decides. The CII-type leader discusses

the problem with his subordinates in a group setting and decides himself on the basis of their

ideas. The GII-type leader discusses the problem with his subordinates in a group setting and

the solution is reached with the consensus of the group (Vroom & Jago, 2007). The decision

tree showing the decision model of Vroom and Jago is presented in Figure 2:

54

Manners of Decision Making

QR: To what extent is the quality of this decision important?

CR: To what extent is it important that the decision be adopted by subordinates?

LI: Do we have sufficient information for a high quality decision?

ST: Is the problem under consideration well defined?

CP: If I make the decision myself, am I absolutely certain that subordinates will accept this

decision?

GC: Have subordinates acknowledged the objectives to be achieved in solving this problem?

CO: In terms of preferred solutions, are there differences and conflicts between subordinates?

SI: Do subordinates have sufficient information for a high quality decision?

AI: As an administrator, you can solve the problem and make the decision.

AII: You can take the required information from your subordinates and solve the problem.

CI: You can discuss the problem individually with appropriate subordinates and make decision

without taking a group meeting.

Şekil 2. Vroom-Jago Decision Tree

Source: Eren, (2011). Yönetim ve organizasyon. İstanbul: Beta Yayıncılık.

6.2. Delphi technique

The Delphi technique was developed in the 1950s by Olaf Helmer and Norman

Dalkey, who worked for RAND in the United States. The aim of the technique is to make

predictions about the future, to reveal expert opinions and to reach consensus. The Delphi

technique can be used especially when there is a need to make decisions in political or

emotional settings, or when decisions are likely to be influenced by strong groups. Delphi

55

technique involves privacy, analysis of group response and controlled feedback. In the

application of Delphi technique; consecutive surveys are given to experts. At the end of each

application, the results are communicated to the participants. This practice lasts until a

compromise is reached. The product of this process is reconciliation (Şahin, 2001).

7. WAYS TO MAKE DECISION MAKING EFFECTIVE

There are several ways to make decision-making effective. Some of these ways are

namely the method of appointing Devil’s advocate, the brainstorming technique, the Gordon

technique, the Synectic and the Philips 66 technique. The Devil’s advocate takes on the role

of generating extraordinary alternatives in decisions to be made by the group. In the first

place, the person who thinks of things which are unthinkable and raises contradictory ideas is

appointed as the advocate of the devil, and when tried to produce ideas against him, quite rich

ideas can arise. Brainstorming technique is also a creative approach to problem solving. All

ideas are thrown into a pool and no criticism is allowed, ideas are not praised and discussions

are avoided. Based on the ideas put forward, the best option is the purpose to reach. As for the

Gordon technique; it is a group conference technique. As in brainstorming, ideas are

produced, but there is an in-depth discussion. Participants do not know the quality of the

problem as well as the manager and produce solutions without prejudice. This application is

resumed with 5-12 participants in approximately 3 hours. Synectic, on the other hand, is

applied through establishing special solution teams and searching for solutions for weeks on

the problem. As for The Philips 66 technique, it is used in decision-making processes with

very large groups. First of all, small groups are required to make their own decisions, and it is

conveyed to a higher group through group leaders. It is the state of brainstorming carried out

with multiple groups (Eren, 2011). Through these techniques; the process of participation in

the decision can be made more effective and creative.

8. PROBLEM SITUATION AND BASIC PROBLEMS IN EDUCATIONAL

INSTITUTIONS

Decision making process is essentially a problem-solving process. All of the previous

chapters on decision-making also apply to problem solving. On the other hand, reviewing the

56

characteristics of the problem and possible problems of a school is functional for the problem-

solving process.

8.1. Characteristics of the Problem

From a puzzle to a problem that requires an appropriate decision of action, problem is

a concept which has a wide spectrum. It can be defined as an existing and undesirable

condition. The problem in general refers to the difference between the existing state and the

the required state. There are various definitions of the problem. Things that impede the

achievement of the target (Bingham, 1998) are indecisiveness that disturb the individual

physically or intellectually and the cases where multiple solutions are possible. It is a

challenge and obstacle for an individual or organization (Karasar, 2009). The problems differ

according to the solution and difficulty level. While certain problems are solved by logical

and others by emotional maturity, others make it compulsory to examine events and facts

from different angles. The common point between the solutions of the problems is to

eliminate the obstacle to reach the target (Cüceloğlu, 1994). To eliminate this obstacle; the

effort process should be handled with a systematic approach. Therefore, it is important to

follow the steps of problem solving in solving a problem.

8.2. Probable Problems of a School

A school faces various problems. These problems may be problems related to the

management of the school, there may also be problems with teachers, students and parents.

Lack of working hours and breaks in schools, class sizes, teachers' feeling unworthy,

communication with parents, physical conditions of the school, inadequate material may be

the usual problems of a school (Başturan, 2018). Problems and conflicts arising from school

principals (Tezcan Koçer, 2014); is one of the most common problems in educational

organizations. Principals have problems principally in education services, personnel services

and school operation. The problems in the personnel services are mostly related to the

legislation and the higher authorities, while the problems related to the school administration

are mostly related to the financial deficiencies (Turan, 2007). Disciplinary problems caused

by students (Sinoğlu Günden, 2019; Bayraktar, 2016; Duran, 2011) are among the main

problems of educational organizations. Problems such as low student achievement, bullying

among students, attendance and dropout of students, job satisfaction and motivation of

57

teachers, and intimidation are also problems of educational organizations. In order to solve

these problems in educational organizations, problems should be analyzed in smoothly; as

well as; problem solving steps should be applied systematically.

8.3. Problem Solving Steps

Problem solving steps are based on the classification of certain steps in systematic approach

to the solution of the problem. These steps can be considered as defining the problem,

defining the problem in an enunciable way, producing solution methods, finding alternatives,

searching the solution methods, applying the decided method to the problem, evaluating the

results and reaching the general result.

a. Determination of the problem

The first step in problem solving is to determine the problem. All the underlying causes of the

problem are addressed. For example, the fact that an employee in the organization is late for

work poses a problem. The employee may be late for work due to workplace, wages,

manager, family or health. Warning or punishment in this process is not the solution. First, the

sources of the problem should be identified (Aytürk, 2010); because it may not always be

possible to see the problem clearly (Başaran, 2000).

b. Defining the problem in an enunciable way

Once it has been identified, it is necessary to collect information about the problem in

order to express it clearly. In the process of gathering information, it is required to

investigate the facts, to consult previous similar problems and their solutions, to consult

experts, to examine the available documents, and to refer to legislation and resources (Aytürk,

2010). Collecting valid and reliable information about the problem ensures that other steps are

sound and smooth (Albayrak, 2002).

c. Producing solution methods, finding alternatives

Assumptions and alternatives should be addressed when generating solutions to the

problem. There are multiple solutions to a problem; and these pathways need to be analyzed

in a healthy way as in the decision-making process (Aytürk, 2010).

d. Investigation of solution methods

The selected solutions should be analyzed in terms of feasibility, possible cost,

possible outcomes and impacts; and all these variables should be taken into consideration

(Stevens, 1998).

58

e. Applying the decided method to the problem

The selected solution is to be the best for the organizational purposes. The solution

should be put into practice as quickly as possible (Bingham, 1998).

f. Evaluation of results and general conclusion

The solution put into practice should be continuously monitored and evaluated for the

development of the organization. The effectiveness of a solution is also guiding in

overcoming the possible problems that may arise in the future (Aytürk, 2010).

9. RELATIONSHIP AMONG GLASS CEILING SYNDROME, DECISION PROCESS

AND PROBLEM SOLVING

Educational organizations frequently face a problem or a decision situation. Qualified

decision-making process in an organization is important to gather the interest and

involvement of subordinates. Sound decision-making as one of the management processes is

one of the important elements that empowers an administrator since it will also refer to

successful management, which is because administrators are also referred to by the quality of

the decisions made. In particular, the strengthening of the decisions made by women

administrators on the positive results, may also lead to overcoming organizational glass

ceiling barriers. Gainings and satisfaction as a result of qualified decisions will shape the

perception of the manager. Today, researches revealing differences in perception among

administrators and other stakeholders in educational organizations are available. The positive

perception of the manager can bring along a culture of cooperation, healthy data flow and

participation in the decision. In addition, since qualified decision-making and problem-

solving process will reveal an organizational structure where problems are minimized; it will

also increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. Male-dominated

communication networks, which are difficult for female managers to enter, can also be

overcome by qualified decisions and systematic problem solving. In a certain case, the

qualified decision of the female manager can be a source of consultation and strengthening of

her communication with subordinates and superiors. The success of not only female managers

but also female teachers in decision-making and problem solving can help overcome

organizational barriers. Therefore, it is important that female teachers are good problem

solvers and decision makers both in their individual and organizational lives.

59



i. What issues do you have to decide on in everyday life and business life?

Discuss

ii. Discuss the most important decisions you make as a school administrator and

the results.

iii. How does your decision making process and its results affect you and your

school? Discuss


i. What should a school administrator do if a positive decision for a school of

governance would have negative consequences for his/her social life?

ii. What principles should an administrator consider when making decisions?

iii. What kind of a way should be followed when making a decision? What are the

conditions for making a healthy and correct decision?

iv. What are the issues you are experiencing the most indecision your school?

What are the reasons for this indecision?

v. What do you do to engage stakeholders to decision making process? Which

subjects do you decide with group?

vi. What approaches can you use in group decision making?

vii. What are the ways you use or you can use to make your decisions effective?

viii. What are your most common problems in your school? How do you try to

solve these problems?

ix. What is the relationship between effective decision making process, problem

solving and glass ceiling?


i. Build up a case study on the negative effects of indecision on educational

organizations.

ii. Write down the most common traps when deciding on an issue.

iii. Share your most difficult decision and impact of it on your organization.

iv. Share what you need the most in solving your school's problems.

60

4. ASSESSMENT

a. Explain the relationship between decision-making and problem-solving.

b. Discuss the importance of engagement in decision-making in educational

organizations.

c. What are the effects of decision-making? What are the decisions that affect your

organization the most?

d. What are the characteristics of a qualified decision?

e. What are the effects of the decision-making process and problem solving in

overcoming your career barriers?

61

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Turan, H. (2007). Çankaya ilçesi'inde görev yapan ilköğretim okul müdürlerinin yönetim

işlevlerinde karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve sorun çözme uygulamaları (Ankara İli

Çankaya İlçesi Örneği). (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Ankara Üniversitesi,

Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Ankara.

Uras, M. (1995). Örgütlerde karara katılmanın koşulları. Kuram ve Uygulamada Egitim

Yönetimi Dergisi, 1(2), 305-304.

Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A. G. (2007). The role of the situation in leadership. American

Psychologist, 62(1), 17-24.

Yıldırım, İ. (1989). Okul örgütlerinde karar verme ve karara katılma. Eğitim ve Bilim, 13(73),

18-24.

http://sozluk.gov.tr/

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MODULE 3

COMMUNICATION AND MOTIVATION


Name of the study: Module of “Communication and motivation training” of the project

“Breaking the glass ceiling for women administrators”

Place of the study:

Date of the study:


II. PART: SCHEDULE

Month December

Week 1 2 3 4

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ta

sks

Planning

Needs

Analysis

Program

Preparation

Training

Evaluation

Reporting



Administrators”, data for needs analysis, which will be used in order to develop

“Communication and motivation training” towards overcoming glass ceiling barriers women

administrators face, were collected by “Glass Ceiling Syndrome Scale” as quantitatively and

by “Semi-Structured Needs Analysis Form” as qualitatively.

In the process of data collection by the scale, as a first step, literature was reviewed and

an item pool was prepared. After that item pool was sent to 11 experts to be analyzed.




65



After this step, a semi-structured interview form was developed by the project team and

face to face interviews were carried out with 5 women administrators. The results of the


With all these data and analysis results, it is decided that the frame of training program

were decided as “Social Stereotypes, Multiple Roles, Work Setting and Organizational

Policies” and the training program is decided to be modular.


1. GOALS

Goal 1: Knowledge of basic concepts of communication

Attainments:

1. Defines the concepts of communication, source, receiver, message, channel,

encoding, sender, feedback

2. Knows the basic differences between verbal and nonverbal communication

Goal 2: Development of inner and outer organizational communication skills in work life

Attainments:

1. Comprehends communication channels used in administration

2. Comprehends the basic necessities required for effective inner and outer

organizational communication

3. Uses communication as a tool for effective organizational administration

Goal 3: Knowledge of basic concepts of motivation

Attainments:

1. Defines the concepts of motivation, motive, reward, punishment, intrinsic and

extrinsic motivation

2. Explains the theories of motivation

Goal 4: Use of motivation theories in organizational administration

Attainments:

1. Comprehends the different ways of motivating employees in the frame of motivation

theories

2. Develops effective motivation strategies in administrative processes of the

organization

3. Motivates employees in the administrative processes of the organization

Goal 5: Development of communication and motivation skills in order to overcome glass

ceiling barriers

Attainments:

1. Comprehends the key role of communication and motivation in the process of

overcoming glass ceiling barriers that women administrators face

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2. Practices the tools of communication and motivation effectively in organizational

administration

3. Develops communication and motivation strategies that will be used by women

administrators in order to overcome glass ceiling barriers

4. Practices communication and motivation processes towards overcoming glass ceiling

barriers

2. MODULE CONTENT

Communication, has been the most important tool for the development of mankind. It

has been assumed the role of transmitter to share the messages, feelings among people in

various ways from the first ages till now. The concept of coomunication can be considered in

three types: verbal, non-verbal and written. Although communication is an indispensible tool

for sharing among people, it is a necessary tool for the organizations, too.

1. COMMUNICATION

The origin of the word communication comes from Latin word “komunis” and means

to constitution of partnership. Communcation is based on the relationship between people and

interpersonal communication is defined as sending meaningful messages from one person to

another, too. Communication, in general, states the relationship between sender, channel,

message, receiver and environment (Şahin & Aral, 2012; Timuroğlu & Balkaya, 2016). To

Shannon & Weaver (1949) communication is an influencing process between brains. Lasswell

(1948) defines communication as the change of messages between people.

Communication is an enterprise of reproduction of one’s own existence in the process

of life. If we consider about a human or a society, the existence of communication is

inevitable (Karadağ, 2015). To Erdoğan (2007):

“For Marx, no one communicates just to send or receive messages. It is a compulsory and

integrated part of production of a person’s own biological, social and psychological

existence . Where is a human there is communication. If there is no communication we

cannot talk about society.”

Studies show that communication has three fundamental characteristics (MEGEP,

2011a):

Communication requires people: Communication can only be realized due to

the needs of peolpe on understanding eachother

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Communication requires sharing: Sender and Receiver should agree on the

common meaning of the message

Communication is symbolic: Symbols are gestures, mimes, sounds, letters,

numbers and words.

Communication occurs only when sender and receiver understands the message same

(MEGEP, 2011a). Therefore, it can be stated that communication is a n activity of encoding

the meaning mutually.

1.1. Elements of Communication

Communication is a double sided process, which starts with source and continues

with feedback an a circular way. There are six basic elements of communication. In many

sources they are given as source, message, coding, channel, receiver and feedback. For a

healthy communication, the process of communication should be conducted right and the

elements affecting the process negatively should be well analyzed and eliminated (Karadağ,

2015).

1.1.1. Source

Source is the key element of communication process. The one who starts

communication is the source. The source is primarily responsible for the communication

process. Because, the one who starts the process and who codes the message first is the

source. Source firstly forms the message in her/his mind, then codes it and sends it to the

receiver through the channel. It is important that sender and receiver should have the same

information about the message at this point.

In this process, many factors such as pre-knowledges of the sender about the message,

abstract elements (setting, psychological situation, qualityf of the message etc.) can affect the

continuity of communication. Source expects receiver to show a behavior as a reply to

message. If only source has enough information about the message she/he send, she/he can

provide the information needed by the receiver (MEGEP, 2011a).

When source send the message to the receiver, then encoding starts and the reactions

of the receiver can be independent from the source’s control from now on. So, it should be

considered carefully how source coded the message, which words s/he chose, how s/he

addressed the receiver, how s/he used gestures and mimes and how important the content of

the message is for the receiver. Therefore, source has to have some critical skills such as

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effective coding of the message, messages right transmission to the receiver, right use of body

language, better writing skills, for an effective communication (Küçük et at., 2012).

1.1.2. Message

Verbal or non-verbal versions of phenomenons such as, ideas, emotions and opinions

that source wants to share with receiver/s. These verbal and non-verbal outputs can be defined

as the products of the source in the process of communication, in general (Küçük et al, 2012).

Communication is the process of right encoding of the message by the receiver. The most

concrete data is the message in this process. Receiver, starts the encoding process by

considering her/his situation, the channel, type of the communication together. Another

important dimension of the message is that it is not just the verbal codes. Messages contains

many variables like moves, gestures, mimes, words (verbal or written), setting.

An effective message should has some critical features. These are (MEGEP, 2011a):

Convenience to the knowledge, thoughts and experiences of the receiver

Convenience to attitudes, beliefs and values of the receiver

Convenience to the needs, requests and aims of the receiver

Convenience to receiver’s areas of interest

Convenience the roles and position of the receiver in society.

Source sends the message to the receiver by coding and receiver takes the message

within the scope of her/his personal characteristics, sociological backgroun, fund of

knowledge. Thus, it is important to know the characteristics of the receiver well and to set up

a connection with these characteristics and the message for an effective communication

process (MEGEP, 2011a).

1.1.3. Coding –Encoding

Coding is defined as the transformation of the information, ideas and emotions into

the message to be sended and transformation of emotions and thoughts of the source into the

symbols that are formed in a way that understandable by others. In another words, it is the

settlement of the symbols that are used as the identificator of the messages, under some basic

rules. Encoding is, the making sense of the message from the sender by the receiver and the

revealing the data that message contains (Karadağ, 2015; MEGEP, 2011a). The ideas that

source wants to transmit are transformed into a message by coding with the symbols that

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receiver knows, too. Coding of the message by the source also includes the source’s

experiences. The environment or the context is very important in coding, too. Daily talks,

formal communication environments or technical speechs shows differences according to the

communication settings and each of them requires different codes (MEGE, 2011).

This situation is known as frame of reference. Mutual life and experiences provides

communication styles to be similar and due to this, this forms the basis of encoding. To the

frame of reference, the common point for the individuals is where communication occurs.

Figure 1. Frame of reference (MEGEP.2011)

1.1.4. Channel

The messages’ way in the process after the coding till the encoding is called as

channel. Channel can be defined as the tool which carry the signal determined for

communication. It can occur 3 different stypes: verbal or behavioral (physical), phones or ICT

tools (technical) and schools, newspapers, other publishments etc. (social). We can also define

channel as the tools used for transmitting the message for sharing between source and

receiver.

The concept of channel involves many different tools such as light waves, radio

waves, voice waves etc. These tools are mediators featured as motivator of sense organs of

human. These mediators can be classified according to the dimensions of being perceived by

sense organs (MEGEP, 2011a). It is necessary to see the channel as the way of sending a

message. In organizational communication, channels can be classified as formal and informal

channels. Hierarchical orders, boards, internet tools, formal correspondences are formal

channels. Inter or intragroups, gossips, other news and conversations with others in the

organizations are informal channels (Küçük et al., 2012).

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1.1.5. Receiver

For communication we need at least one source and one receiver. Receiver is the one

who perceives the message sent by the source. Receiver can be defined as a target who

encodes the messages. The target can not only be a person, but also an organization. Receiver

continues the communication circle by perceiving the message, encoding it and giving

feedback. In interpersonal communication process, receivers play a more active role;

however, when media is used in the process, this role can be less active. It is accepted that in

the process of communication, if the messages are coded according to the characteristics of

the receiver, then the communication will be more effective (Küçük et al., 2012; MEGEP,

2011a).

1.1.6. Feedback

Feedback is the response to the message after encoding it. After the receiver re-encode

her/his response, s/he sends it back to the source. The one who is the source of rthe first

message, now turns to the receiver in the process of feedback (MEGEP, 2011a). Feedback can

be defined as verbal or wtirren response to the message perceived. It is a circular process. In

another words, it is a control process (Küçük et al., 2012).

Figure 2: The circle of communication (MEGEP, 2011a).

1.1.7. Noise

Everything blocking the perception or transmission of the message by the receiver can

be called as noise. Noise hinders all the process of communication. Besides blocking the

transmission of the message; affection of the quality of the message is called as noise. While

there are physical elements of noise, there are some other elements related to the receiver such

as curiosity, perception, being eager or not (Küçük et al., 2012).

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1.2. Types of Communication

Types of communication can be classified as verbal, non-verbal and written; however,

by considering the technological developments in modern world, we can add a fourth type

which is electronic communication. There ara other classifications such as communication

with one-self, interpersonal communication, group communication and mass communication.

Considering the source, we can classify the types of communication as personal,

organizational and mass communication. Considering the group communication, we can

classify the communication types as formal and informal. Considering the channel, we can

classify the communication as visual, audio, tactual, telecommunication and mass

communication. Also we can use face to face and telecommunication considering the time

and place (MEGEP, 2011a).

1.2.1. Communication Types According to Flow of Information

Types of communication according to the direction of flow of information and position

of the people are “upward communication” and “horizontal communication”. We can see

these kind of communication in organizational communication practices.

1.2.1.1. Upward-Downward Communication

In upward-downward communication, orders are sent from up to down and wishes,

requests and complaints are sendt from down to upper levels. In organizations, related orders,

performance evaluations, organizational directives and goals are being transmitted from up to

down (Tınaztepe, 2012; Ilgar, 2000).

1.2.1.2. Horizontal Communication

Horizontal communication is the one among same level workers in an organization

and based on flow of information. It is used for task share and coordination among the staff in

general. In the case of any problems or conflicts horizontal communication is used. For a

successfull intraortanizational communication upward and horizontal communication should

be used efficiently (Tınzatepe, 2012).

Horizontal communication is generally used among informal groups in an

organization. Any information is shared by horizontal communication among the staff at the

same level. As these information is verbal it can show differences from person to person. The

negative sides of this kind f information can be decreased by informative announcamenets by

the administrative boards, by so, right information can be cleasly spread inside the

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organization. Another way to decrease the negative effects is to inform the staff by using

downward communication channels (Ilgar, 2000).

1.2.2. Communication Types According to the Channel

Communication types according to the channel can be classified into four types. These

are verbal communication, written communication, non-verbal communication and electronic

tools. Choosing the best way for communication is very important for an effective

communication. Source must choose the best method, channel and setting in which the

message will be sent (Can, 2005).

1.2.2.1. Verbal Communication

This type can be defined as daily speech. Face to face meetings, seminars, briefings,

phone calls are all called as verbal communication types. As verbal communication can be

face to face it can also be made through TV, radio or teleconference.

It is needed to seperate language and metalanguage. In language dimension face to

face communication is considered. In metalanguage dimension, tone of voice, emphasizes,

speed of voice are effective. What is told is important in the dimension of language and how

is told is important in metalanguage dimension (MEGEP, 2011a).

In schools, the most effective way of communication is verbal communication. Verbal

communication is the most effective channel, for changing behaviors, emotions and beliefs.

1.2.2.2. Written Communication

It is the most frequently used type of communication in organizational

communication. As the time for reaching the receiver is longer, feedback process is longer too

in this type of communication. It is used by upper levels for sending orders to lower positions

and by lower levels for sending reports, suggestions and complaints to upper positions. The

role of written communication is vitally important in wider organizations.

Here are why written communication is important in organizational communication

(MEGEP, 2011a):

Rising professionalism in the area of information

Increasing number of scientific studies

Important developments in the structures of organizations

Professionaliztion of the field of administration

Economic structure’s need for information

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1.2.2.3. Non-verbal Communication

Body language is very important in the process of communication. In communication

process even no words is used; body language means many more things. In communication

role percentages are %10 by words, %30 by tone of voice and %60 by body language.

Therefore, it should be considered that body language is ver important in communication. The

importance of it can change from person to person according to the relationship among people

and the setting of the communication (Kacasavaş, 2007).

Body language usage goes back to the beginning og human history. It is one of the

basic types of communication. Primarily tool for communication is language. On the other

hand, body language, eye contact, gestures and mimes are helping elements in the process of

communication. Considering the beginning of history of mankind, it can be seen that

primitive societies primaly used non-verbal communication in earlier times. Bod language

mostly can send untold messages (MEGEP, 2011a).

Types of non-verbal communication are (MEGEP, 2011a):

Use of place: Places used are designed as the expression of authority and

statue

Body language: The distance between two communicating people is shown by

using body language

Verbal figuration: Besides the basic meaning, other meanings are also

produced.

1.2.2.4. Electronic Tools

Communication tools has changed rapidly from past to today, and this process can be

taken under three stages. Tribal stage, printary stage and electronic stage. In tribal stage face

to face communication menthod is used in general. Printary stage is the one when dependence

to the verbal communication is over, decreasing of face to face communication and turning to

individuality in communication. Present day is called as electronic stage and individualism is

still raising today (Yayla, 2017). Radios, cellphones, televisions, computers, fax,

smartphones, tablets and other tools can help to reach more people in less time. Today, the

communication in schools are carried out through electronic written communication tools.

Social media and new communication applications (whatsapp, skype, messenger etc.)

are added to these tools lately and they are used effectively by everybody. In this context

smartphone applications are the most frequent communication channels. So, in organizations

staff should be effective in use of these channels for better communication.

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1.3. Organizational Communication

Organizations need communication in operating all their tasks. An organization’s

communication system is called in general as “organizational communication”. There are

many organizational communication definitions used by theorists. So, it is important to define

organizational communication. Organizational communication is a technical-economical and

social process in which performance goals’ (defining the goals, flow of information,

performance evaluation etc.), information, experience and data are shared between

departments of an organization, organization and environment and organization and staff and

other shareholders (Timuroğlu & Balkaya, 2016). Organizational communication is all the

practicess in order to elimintae misunderstandings, to open new colloborative ways, to

coordinate the parts of the system (Sarpkaya, 2010).

Organizational communication has the role of flow of information among inside and

outside of the organization to realize the daily responsibilities of an organization. Without

intraorganizational communication, tasks cannot be achieved. Organizations today maintaints

their activities in a more dynamic and changing environment. Therefore, communication has a

vital role in open system organizations today (MEGEP, 2011a).

Communication has gained a different type as the time passed. Advancing technology

has changed the way of communication and documentation. People today “collecting data”

instead of “finding information”; they talk about “new software programs” instead of

“meetings”. This developments has changed our thinking habits, too. Alhough type of

communication and communication tools have changed; an effective communication is still

has the key role for successfull organizations (MEGEP, 2011ab). Adaptation to environmental

developments by an organization can only be possible with an effective communication.

Getting the new information from the environment is also possible with an effective

communication (MEGEP, 2011a).

Organizational communication is the most important factor for an organization’s

development and change. It is important to consider physical developments while creating

suitable ways of communication in the process of development and change. Modern

communication tools should be used in parallel with changes in the organization. In this

sense, besides inservice trainings for better communication, use of modern communication

tools should be provided in inter and intra-organizational communication practices (MEGEP,

2011a).

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2. MOTIVATION

The concept of motivation is derived from English and French word “motive” and

means encouraging and motivating. Motivation is a primarily important concept which directs

human relationships and behaviors in the are of social sciences. Motivation is one of the most

important factors for organizations to make staff work efficiently and productively (Gökçe,

Şahin & Bulduklu, 2010).

Individuals always have needs to fulfill and these needs starts the process of

motivation. These are physiological and psychological needs. Motivation process starts with

the arizing of these needs. Upon this arousal individuals starts the acting phase. At the last

phase satisfaction occurs. This satisfaction process which occurs due to the behaviors upon

needs and arousal can be defined as motivation process (Bayraktar, 2015).

What in the basis of motivation is to be able to get higher productivity according to the

skills and information of human resourcess. It is necessary to prepare suitable conditions and

settings in this phase. Starting point of motivation is the finding an answer to the question of

“What should be given or what should be done in order the staff to behave productive for the

organization” (Küçüközkan, 2015). Motivation is a triggering process. Staff fulfill the goals of

the organization by motivation. Knowing the staff well is a key factor for the administrators in

this process (Ünsar, İnan & Yürük, 2010). It is hard to encourage the staff to fulfill the long

term goals of the organization. Therefore, in the phase of solving the problems of the

employees, administrators should use right rewarding and creating best setting for them. A

motivating work setting is the most effective factor productivity of the employee (Öztürk &

Dündar, 2003).

In this section, motivation theories and motivation tools are given in detail.

2.1. Motivation Theories

2.1.1. Content Theories

Content theories tries to explain the factors directing individuals to behave. These

theorists believe that employees satisfy if their needs are met. In these theories it is claimed

that the motivators should be designed to meet the needs of the employees. It is asserted that

when needs such as physiological or security etc. are met job satisfaction arizes (Küçüközkan,

2015). Content theories includes Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two Factors

Theory, McClelland’s Theory of Need for Achievement and Alfreder’s ERG Theory (Şahin,

Tabak & Tabak, 2017).

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2.1.1.1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow, a psychologist, put forward his motivation theory based on his own clynical

experiences in 1943. He suggested that in the basis of the existence of individuals there are

“hierarchy of needs” representing reaching the “goals”. For reaching these goals

environmental factors should be designed for achievement of the individual. Maslow,

suggested that these goals are related to eachother and there is a pre-missionary hierarchy to

be fulfilled as much as the necessary conditions of the primary goals or needs. After satisfying

a need, an individual tries to satisfy the next goal in the hierarchical order. These basic needs

are sorted as physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem needs and self-actualization

(Güzel & Barakazı, 2018; Toker, 2007).

For Maslow, all human needs can be analyzed under five steps from bottom to top

(Eren, 2004 cited in Küçüközkan, 2015):

Physiological needs (food, shelter, sleep, reproduction)

Safety needs (personal security, employment, health, property)

Love and belonging needs (friendship, intimacy, family, sense of connection)

Esteem needs (respect, self-esteem, status, recugnition)

Self-actualization needs (desire to become the most that one can be)

Below in figure 3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs can be seen:

Figure 2: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Walsh, 2011 cited in Güzel & Barakazı, 2018)

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2.1.1.2. Herzberg’s Two Factors Theory

The most known theory after Maslow’s is “Herzberg’s Two Factors Theory”. His

theory is thought as the most important theory for job satisfaction. Herzberg calls the job-

related and employee satisfying factors as “motivating factors” and factors of work conditions

and other related factors as “hygene factors” (Gökçe, Şahin & Dulduklu, 2010; Toker, 2007;

Herzberg, 1968).

Hygene factors can be define as situation protective factors and these are not directly

job-related factors, they are work-setting factors such as organizational policies, payment,

work conditions and interpersonal factors etc.

Motivating factors are for eliminating the dissatisfactory factors. Situtational

protective factors eliminates dissatisfaction. Herzberg suggests that an employee can continue

doing her/his work without satisfaction. He suggests that satisfying is not the opposite of

dissatisfaction (Toker, 2007).

Below these two factors can be seen (Gökçe, Şahin & Bulduklu, 2010):

Motivating factors

Achievement

Recognition

Responsibility

Development,

Promotion

Feedback

Hygene factors

Supervision quality

Organizational policy

Payment

Work conditions

Job security

Personal life

Statue

Interpersonal relationships

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2.1.1.3. McClelland’s Theory of Need for Achievement

In McClelland’s theory of need for achievement there are three needs. One is need for

achievement, second is need for power and the third is need for affiliation. What is the

distinctive feature of this theory is the belief that individuals learn the needs; they do not

come from birth. It is suggested that individuals are under the effect of these needs and all

their behaviors are based on these needs. For example, directing people lies under the need for

power, value for achievement lies under the need for achievement (Küçüközkan, 2015; Yıldız,

2010).

It is suggested that individuals having achievement needs ate motivated in higher

levels at work. In worklife motivation is not just the result of achievement needs; employee

need to relate eachother and to get power, too and these needs are the other factors affecting

motivation. In this context, employees can be appointed according to their characteristics in

terms of these three types of needs and they can be productive. In another words, work

settings can be designed according to employees needs (Küçüközkan, 2015; Yıldız, 2010).

2.1.1.4. Alfreder’s ERG Theory

The name of Alfreder’s theory comes from the words Existence, Relatedness and

Growth. It can also know as simplified version of Maslow’s theory of hierarchy of needs. In

this theory the five stages of the needs decreased into three. As different from Maslows’ there

is no need to accomplish the lower needs to reach the upper ones. In this theory need for

existence includes the first two stage of Maslow’s (physiological and safety needs). Need for

relatedness means the relationships with others which is love and belonging and esteem needs

in Maslows’. Need for growth is equal to the need for self-actualization in Maslow’s theory

(Yıldız, 2010; Küçüközkan, 2015).

2.1.2. Process Theories

Process theories are about why and how individuals are motivated. It is suggested that

needs are just some of the factors motivation of individuals. There are extrinsic factors for

motivating individuals, too (Erdem, 1998). Process theories are about extrinsic factors

motivating individuals and why and how individuals are motivated (Ulukuş, 2016). These

theories are Reinforcement Theories, Expectancy Theories, Adam’s Equity Theory and Goal-

Setting Theory.

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2.1.2.1. Reinforcement Theories

The philosophical basis of the reinforcement theories are based on the reinforcement

of the behaviors according to the results. In this theory, the result obtained is important for an

individual and whether an individual will do or not do the behavior againg is being studied.

Skinner is generally accepted as the founder of reinforcement theory. But there is also a need

for taking into consideration of Pavlov’s behavioral reinforcement, too (Selen, 2016; Yıldız,

2010). So, in this section both behavioral and operant reinforcement theories will be given.

Pavlov’s Theory of Behavioral Reinforcement: It is the process of behaviors’ being

reinforcement by giving conditional and unconditional stimulus at the same time. The major

principle of this theory based on that human behavior can be analyzed in observable stimulus-

response interaction (Demirezen, 1988). When it is assumed that individuals show some

behaviors under their controls, these type of basic reinforcement theory may be limited in

explanation of motivation process.

Skinner’s Operant Reinforcement: As different from Pavlov’s theory, the results of a

behavior and its repetition are focused in here. In this theory, the result of a behavior is

important rather than why it is done. It is suggested that individual’s behaviors can change

according to the reactions from others. Therefore, it is assumed that a behavior is result of the

rewarding or punishment process rather than intrinsic needs (Yıldız, 2010).

2.1.2.2. Expectancy Theories

Expectancy theories are based on Vroom’s and Lawler and Potter’s theories (Erdem,

1998).

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: This theory, are based on the concepts of expectancy and

instrumentality. The concept of expectancy can be defined as the value employee give to a

result. The concept of ,nstrumentality is about whether an individual get the expected profit or

not. It is believed in this theory that if employees believe the instrumentality of goal

achievement in an organization, their performance will rise. For example if an employee

believes that when the organization reaches its goals s/he will get promotion; then s/he works

with higher motivation. The concepts of expectation and instrumentality are different. In

instrumentality it is possible to mention about a relationship between organizational goals and

individual goals. In the concept of expectancy, on the other side, it is about the relationship

between organizational goals and employee’s effort. In short, if an employee makes effort for

the goals and believes for accomplishing them, this situation can be defined as expectancy. If

an employee sets a relationship between her/his own goals and organizational ones in terms of

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instrumentality and believes that is worthy, her/his motivation will be higher (Küçüközkan,

2015).

Lawler – Porter’s Expectancy Theory: Lawler and Porter suggest that higher

performance is not always be possible as a result of higher efforts. Employees are required to

have necessary information and skills of the job. Good performance may not be provided due

to higher efforts because of the lack of skills and information. Moreover, the perceived roles

are efficient on the performance of an employee (Selen, 2009). Lawler and Porter developed

Vroom’s theory and pointed out the relationship between performance and satisfaction. If

employees believes that their performances will rise due to higher efforts and this will satisfy

them, their level of motivation will increase. On the other hand, to Lawler and Porter, effort

does not effect the performance directly. There are other factors such as character, skills,

perceived roles etc. effecting performance. Even if employees makes higher efforts, lack of

these factors will effect performance negatively (Küçüközkan, 2015).

2.1.2.3. Adam’s Equity Theory

Adam’s Theory of Equity is similar to Lawler and Porter’s. It is about the comparison

of the employees themselves with the other equals in terms of effort. It is about the balance as

a result of employees efforts and obtained results (Erdem, 1998; Yıldız, 2010). In this theory,

the basis of the motivation is situated on equality. If an employee thinks that her/his obtained

rewards upon a task is equal to another one who is at the same position with her/him, then

her/his motivation will be high (Keser, 2006 cited in Yıldız, 2010). If they feel inequality,

then their motivation levels will be lower.

2.1.2.4. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

According to Locke’s theory, the goals that individuals set for themselves defines their

levels of motivation. The level of motivation of an employee, who defines harder goals, is

suggested to be higher motivated than another one, who defines easier goals. The employee

who defines harder goals are expected to show better motivation than the other. Hardship of

the goal, commitment to the goal, and effort toward the goal are other factors effecting the

level of motivation (Erdem, 1998). For Locke, the most important factor raising the

performance and job satisfaction of the employees is goal setting (Ulukuş, 2016).

There are five important principles of goal-setting: Clarity, Challange, Commitment,

Feedback and Task complexity.

Five stages of goal-setting are (Can, 1997 cited in Selen, 2016):

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First stage: being ready to goal-setting

Second stage: communication, action plans, being ready to set training goals

Third stage: Setting the features of the goals by employees and administrators

Fourth stage: Revision of the goals

Fifth stage: Last evaluation of accomplishment of the goals

2.2. Tools for Motivation

The basic aim of the practices of motivation is the adaptation of the employees to the

goals of the organization and their showing better performance both for themselves and the

organization due to this adaptation. With this aim, organizations need motivation rising tools.

As each motivation tools shows different results for any organization; each motivation tools

shows different results for any employees, too (Örücü & Kanbur, 2008).

Motivation tools, motivators in another words, can be analyzed as socio-economic

tools, psycho-social tools and organizational and administrative tools.

2.2.1. Socio-Economic Tools

Payment: Payment is a basic tool for motivation as it is the main reason why

employees wprk for an organization and it serves as a tool providing their permanent

commitment to the organization. Higher payments raises the demand for working for an

organization, moreover, it provides a wider employee candidate pool for the organization.

Also, higher payments shows that an organization gives higher values to the employees

(Selen, 2009). For Taylor, payment is the primary motivation tool for employees work harder.

While suggestion this idea Taylor indicates that money can purchase many things needed and

the results of professional proficiency and personal achievement brings higher payments

(Bennett, 1997 cited in Selen, 2009).

Social Security: The concept of social security is based on the idea of feeling secure

in the negative situations to be faced by the employees in their work life. Social security,

includes the concepts of work accidents, retirement, health problems, unemployment

insurance and lifelong payment guarantee. In other words, it means protection in case of these

circumstances (Selen, 2016). The term of social security effects the employee positively

against their jobs. Dismissal can cause oppression among the employees (Şenol, 2010).

The concept of social security not only a guarantee in terms of economic conditions,

but also means of a trust in terms of work life and job achievement. It is not permanent like

82

physiological needs and it ends when it is met. However, it is crucial that if the employees’

rights are too much concerned and exaggerated, it can also decrease the motivation of the

employees as they probabaly think they can get payment even if they do not work (Ergül,

2005).

Monetary Rewards: One of the most important tools in positively administered and

successfull organizations is the rewarding of the employees both personally and by group.

There are two basic aims for rewarding one is rewarding the effort of the employee and the

other is motivating them (Selen, 2016). Monetary rewards are given both to raise the

commitment of successfull employeees and to encourage them to work harder. Monetary

rewards are primarily the most frequently used motivation tools. There may not be a fair

monetary rewarding policy in every organization. However, there are other ways to reward

the employees (Alsat, 2016).

Social Conveniences: These conveniences are monetary profits that provides better

life conditions out of the organization. Providing transportation facilites, better nutrition,

coffee breaks, clothing aids and special healt insurances are examples of social conveniences.

In addition to these, oppotunities of babycare, chances of accomocation, tickets for food are

other important motivators for better performance and commitment to the organization (Çakır,

2009).

2.2.2. Psycho-Social Tools

Independent Work: Feeling of independent decision making and working is valid not

only the real life but also in work setting. Pressure from the upper boards is always disturbing.

Every employee feels uncomfortable under pressure of administrative bodies. Under a strict

hierarchical structure and administrative style, the employees cannot be successfull and they

will most probably seek for a new job (Selen, 2016). Many people sees it is important to make

desicions independently, to satisfy the need of self-esteem and to raise the skills of

communication. Employees thinking of themselves as worthy and as a part of the organization

depends upon working independently. It can be said that making the employees feel

themselves independent, raises the organizational trust. Under these conditions their

organizational commitment rises and their performances rises, too (Alsat, 2016). Employees

expect to gaing the respect of the administrators and it can be said that employees who are

seen valuable and promoted socially, have higher levels of motivation (Ergül, 2005).

83

Opportunities of Inservice Training and Carreer Development: Development of

the employees professionally and training them are among very frequently used motivation

tools. Trainings are one of the most important needs of the employees; therefore, organizing

training programs raising the information and experiences of the employees and motivating

programes besides them are important motivating tools (Selen, 2016). When the employees

think of themselves as weak in terms of the profession, their self-confidence decreases;

therefore, they need inservice trainings to develop their abilities in technical and scientific

issues related to their job. The more their skills and knowledge rises, the more their level of

motiation will rise (Çakır, 2009).

Social Inclusion: The concept of social inclusion goes back to the Hawthorne Studies.

As a result of these studies, if an employee is a part of social group or an employee creates

intergroup relations, her/his productivity will rise (Alsat, 2016).

Free time acitivities provided by the organizations are (Sabuncuoğlu & Tüz, 1998

cited in Alsat, 2016):

Sportive acitivities: Setting up sport centres and organizing tournaments

Tours: Organizing tour related to the employees’ profession

Library: Keeping developmental sourcess related to the job for employees

Special occasions: Organizing parties, cocktails or ceremonies in special days

for the employees

Appreciation and Constructive Criticism: Being appreciated by friends or

colleagues will affect their cosial statues positively. Being appreciated or rewarded by the

administrators about accomplishing the goals or making high efforts will raise their level of

organizational commitment (Selen, 2016). If they are not appreciated by the administrators,

then they will look for alternative ways to be noticed. If they feel neglected, their level of

motivation will decrease, too (Şenol, 2010).

Value and Statue: For spritually strong employees, being valued and statue are

important motivators. These kind of employees become happy and satisfied if they are

appreciated by the administrators or others (Selen, 2016). Statue is a value given by the

society to an individual. Whatever an employee does, being appreciated and being seen as an

expert will rise the motivation of her/him. These employers feel they are respected and they

84

rise their statues and they keep working harder. Institutionalizing of such motivating methods

lige values and statues will provide this method to work more efficiently (Alsat, 2016).

Respect to Private Life: There are many different areas that employees are interested

in their private lives. Social activities, personal interests, hobbies, health and family relations

are included in employees’ private lives. It is important for the employees that they should

eliminate the problems in their private lives in order to show better performance. Then,

administrators should respect to the private lives of the employees and they should give

maximum support for maintaining their private lives (Selen, 2016).

2.2.3. Organizational and Administrative Tools

Unity of Purpose: If the goals of the employees and the organization are parallel,

employees motive in higher levels. There should be an equilibrium between employees’ and

organization’s goals. In this sense, gathering all the employees under the same goals maket he

organization successfull. In this gathering process, what employees want and their goals

should be focused (Alsat, 2016). Instead of exploiting the employee, an ogranization should

be hümanist in terms of the needs of the employee. The best way to be humanist is to know

their needs and to know the employees better. Hence, the main philosophy of the organization

shoul be gaining the trust of the employees (Sabuncuoğlu & Tüz, 2003 cited in Alsat, 2016).

Participation in Decision-Making Processes: If decisions will effect the employees,

they want to participate decision-making processes. Administrators should consider their

ideas and wishes for the decisions about them. This method will support the development of

the feeling of us instead of me and that will be a motivation tool for the organization (Alsat,

2016). Good administrators are the ones who can make employees participate in decision-

making processes. In this process not only administrators gain trusts of the employees but also

they can learn many things about the organization (Selen, 2016). Participation process is

composed of three stages: In the first stage administrators try to get approval of the decisions

discussed. In the second stage, while the administrator is still dominant, s/he asks fort he

employees’ suggestions. In the last stage, employees become dominant and all the decision-

making process gets belong to them (Alsat, 2016).

Delegation of Authority: Another importan tool for motivation is the delegation of

some authorities to the employees. By this the employees will have some of the power in an

organization. Power is generally picked up by the administrators. But by this way,

85

administrators share their power. An administrator not only gives the authority but also s/he

gives responsibility to the employees. Thus, this will be helpful for motivating the employees.

Communication: Organizational communication plays a critical role in every

administrative processes in an organization. It is important ifor transmission of orders and

news, for relationship with the employees, for sharing emotions and ideas (Alsat, 2016). A

good communication process motivates both the employees and the administrator. To be

aware of what is going on in the organization is only possible with a positive communication.

This healty communication will raise the commitment of the employees and it will be an

effective motivation tool (Çakır, 2009).

Performance Evaluation: Clearly defined performance criterias are needed for

employees’ understanding what is expected from them and for identifying whether the

organization reaches its goals. Once performance evaluation is made based on the

characteristics of the employee, now, it is generally made based on the existing situation and

future goals. Employees should participate in the process of setting performance criteria and

goals (Selen, 2009).

Better Work Conditions: Employees spend much of their time at work, after home.

So, work environment should be relaxing and restful. Noise, lighting and air-copnditioning

effect the performance of the employees. The best conditions should be organized at work.

When all the condisions are organized for employees, they will have no other things to worry

except for the work (Selen, 2016). Making arrangements for hygene factors, which is one

dimension of Herzberg’s theory, will rise the motivation levels of the employees. Thus human

resources will be used more effectively (Herzberg, 1968).

Fair and Permanent Discipline System: Meeting the needs of the employees rises

the level of motivation; however, evaluation of complaints is an important motivation tool,

too. For an effective rewarding and punishment process a fair system is required. It is

necessary to set a fair and permanent discipline system. A fair structure in the organization

will rise motivation, too (Çakır, 2009).



i. Getting attention by giving daily examples about communication and motivation

ii. Discussion of existing situation about communication and motivation in their

organizations and evaluation of their readiness

86


i. Telling about theoretical basis for communication

ii. Comprehending the issue through information and examples about the

importance of communication in daily life

iii. Making attendants comprehend the key points in organizational communication

and identification of glass ceiling barriers and make attendants aware of these

barriers

iv. Presenting the strategies and methods of inner and outer organizational

communication processes in order to overcome glass ceiling barriers

v. Brainstorming activity: Asking their real life situations to the attendants to

develop strategies about the problems of communication

vi. Making attendants comprehend theoretical points about motivation by

introducing socio-economic, psycho-social and administrative strategies to

motivate human resources in the organizations

vii. Identifying of the methods and techniques that are to be used to motivate the

human resources intrinsically and extrinsically and by this way revealing pro-

active struggle strategies against glass ceiling barriers women administrators

face

viii. Development of administrative skills of women administrators by practicing

communication and motivation skills together and by explaining the strategies to

rise their abilities of struggling against glass ceiling barriers they face in their

organizations


i. Discussions with women administrators about their real life experiences in the

frame of how can they put into practice the theoretical knowledge about

communication and motivation in organizational setting to overcome glass

ceiling barriers

4. ASSESSMENT

a. What are the basic communication and motivation strategies for subordinates in the

organizational setting?

b. How can communication and motivation strategies be used in order to overcome glass

ceiling barriers that women administrators face in organizational life?

87

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MODULE 4

GENDER AND AWARENESS

I. PART: MODDULE GENERAL INFORMATION

Name of the study: Module of “Gender and awareness” of the project “Breaking the glass

ceiling for women administrators”

Place of the study:

Date of the study:


II. PART: SCHEDULE

Month December

Week 1 2 3 4

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ta

sks

Planning

Needs

Analysis

Program

Preparation

Training

Evaluation

Reporting



Administrators”, data for needs analysis, which will be used in order to develop “Gender and

awareness” training towards overcoming glass ceiling barriers women administrators face,

were collected by “Glass Ceiling Syndrome Scale” as quantitatively and by “Semi-Structured

Needs Analysis Form” as qualitatively.






91










1. GOALS

Goal 1: Knowledge of social, historical and cultural background of gender

Attainments:

1. Apprehends the social background of gender

2. Explains historical backgrounds of gender

3. Comprehends cultural dynamics of gender

4. Assess the interaction between social, historical and cultural elements in the

emergence of gender

Goal 2: Knowledge of gender inequalities in work life

Attainments:

1. Identifies the concept of sexism

2. Realizes the inequalities based on sexism

3. Discuss the relationship between inequalities based on sexism and glass ceiling

syndrome

Goal 3: Gaining the consciousness about struggle against gender based glass ceiling

syndrome

Attainments:

1. Considers glass ceiling syndrome in the frame of gender

2. Discuss main coping strategies with glass ceiling syndrome

3. Gets in the action towards overcoming gender based glass ceiling barriers in the work

life

2. MODULE CONTENT

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1. WORK AND SEXISM1

1.1. What is work and profession?

The interest in the concept of work has increased in the West with the Industrial Revolution

and the phenomenon of work has gained importance both in Western societies and in many countries.

Prior to industrialization, especially in ancient times, the work that meant the efforts people made to

protect and maintain their existence and to make the nature beneficial to themselves and to their

environment is still one of the main foundations of our social and individual life (Kocacık, 2000).

We usually tend to think of working as having a paid job, but this is a very simple view.

Unpaid labor (such as household chores or repairing one's own car) has an important place in the lives

of many people. Many types of work do not fit into the certain categories that are paid for. Whether

paid or not, work can be defined as the fulfillment of the tasks that involve the production of goods

and services meeting the needs of people and that require mental and physical effort (Giddens, 2008).

One of the issues that determine the place of people in society is the profession. According to

the Dictionary of the Turkish Language Association, the profession is defined as the work that is

gained through a certain education, based on systematic knowledge and skills, and that is done to

produce useful goods, serve people and earn money in return (TLA, 2019).

Economically, the profession is defined as the field of work or idea that a person always works

on to earn a living and make a living while, in the sociological sense, it is a set of concentrated and

structured human relationships around specific areas of activity (Seçer, 2013).

1.2. The competences of the field of study or the competences shaped within the framework of

the understanding of sexism in society?

With the development of industry, a growing division of labor was established at home and in

the workplace. The idea of separate areas settled on the attitudes of the public and private people. With

the advantage of being employed outside the home, men started to take more part in the public

administration, local issues, politics and the market. Women became known with their “domestic

values” and took responsibility for childcare, ordering the house and food for the family. The idea that

a woman's place is home had different inclusions for women at different levels in society. Wealthy

women benefited from the service of care workers, nurses, maid and servants. The burden of poor

women who were both doing household chores and working as an industrial worker to contribute to

their husband’s income was much heavier. Women's out-of-home employment rates, for all classes,

were quite low until the twentieth century. However, during the twenty-first century, women's

participation in the wage-paid workforce has steadily increased (Giddens, 2013).

Although they have formal equality with men, women have been experiencing a series of

inequalities in the labor market as they had in the past. Basically, women experience three types of

93

inequality in their work life. These are: professional discrimination, density in part-time jobs and wage

gap. Professional social gender discrimination is the density of men and women in different types of

work based on common understanding of which work is “masculine” and which work is “feminine”

(such as secretarial, nursing, social work and childcare). Another type of inequality is the intensive

work of women in part-time jobs. This is because part-time jobs give employees more flexibility than

full-time jobs. Therefore, they are preferred by the women trying to balance between work and family

responsibilities. The other inequality is the wage gap to the detriment of women. Women work in

extreme intensity in lower paid jobs. Although women with good qualifications have a greater chance

of getting well-paid jobs, the situation is still against women (Giddens, 2013).

2. WORK AND SPECIALIZATION

2.1. Change of work life with Industrial Revolution

It is seen that before the Industrial Revolution, women were involved in work life with

different status such as slaves, serfs, apprentices and journeymen. While men were hunting in

primitive societies, women were engaged in the cultivation and harvest of some seed plants, that is,

agriculture. In addition to agriculture, women began to make pottery by shaping and cooking easily

kneadable clay and to undertake the task of weaving by using small looms. With the increase in the

dominance of patriarchal social order, the areas of responsibility of women who played an important

role in the formation of human history were restricted to domestic tasks in society. For this reason,

they could not take part in work life as much as they should. In the new social order that emerged in

the later years of industrialization, men became inadequate quantitatively in the workforce and in the

production. With the inadequacy of men in the production, it was started to get help from women.

With the assumption that female workforce can be used instead of male workforce in work life,

women started to take more part in work life. Women began to be supported by family members

because they took part in work life and transferred their income to family budgets. The fact that

women's participation in work life was supported by her family was extremely effective in changing

the perspective of the socio-cultural structure concerning the women’s participation in work life (Şenol

& Mazman, 2013).

With the Industrial Revolution, important changes emerged in society. The house and

workplace were completely separated, and the peasants, who cultivated their land or the land of feudal

lords, began to flock to the cities with the collapse of feudality, and craftsmen, who were senior

producers of the guild system until then, turned into unskilled or semi-skilled factory workers. What

was essential in production was to fulfill the requirements of the new system, but not to produce in

small numbers, on order, in a long time or produce quality products without hurry. Solidarity began to

be replaced by competition, traditions by rationalism, slowness by pace, ordering by stocking, and

94

product variety by uniform mass production. In this period, the emergence of a large-scale

unemployed population in cities caused the value of labor to fall, and this is how Marx's proletariat

came into being, in which the surplus-value that people produced by working long hours was

confiscated by the investor (Köten, 2012).

One of the main features of post-industrial society can be said to be the transformation in the

distribution of professions. It has become very important in post-industrial societies where people

work as well as what kind of work they do. The profession has become the most powerful determinant

of social classes and stratification. The structure, which is unique to industrial societies and where

ownership is effective in determining social classes, differs in post-industrial societies. Professions of

individuals are effective in determining their classes. Undoubtedly, ownership still has an impact in

the context of social classes. However, it has been asserted that mobility between social classes can be

achieved through the works that arose or were transformed after the increasing importance of

knowledge (Dereli, 2015).

2.2. Specialization and development of specialization conditions

Professions, which have an important place in the social division of labor, have been an issue

on which various discussions have been made over the years, theories have been developed, and their

effects on individual and social dimensions have been examined and put forward. One of the most

important institutions of society is profession. It can be said that the existence of all other institutions

depends on the continuous success of this institution. It is the profession of individuals that nurtures

and supports various institutions in society financially. Profession can be defined as a set of activities,

whose rules are determined by the society, based on systematic knowledge and skills gained through a

certain education, and done to produce useful goods or services to people and to earn money in return.

Therefore, the profession has important functions both in the life of the individual and in social life.

The functions that the profession undertakes for the society are to provide the individuals with the

opportunity to earn money to support their life, to make the individuals gain an important place in the

society, and to provide services to the society in the provision of various goods and services. For this

reason, professions are the cases that need to be handled and evaluated both in terms of the individual

and the society (Seçer, 2013).

The prerequisites for a work to be considered as a profession can be listed as follows (Özdayı

Demirel, 2017)

To complete a certain education and to have a systematic knowledge about it

Specialized practice

To have certain standards for the admission to the profession and the practice of

profession

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To obey the ethical rules

Social responsibility and self-control

Today almost all professions are called professionals. However, professionalism actually means highly

respected, white-collar professions that require a high level of education. In order to be considered as a

professional, a profession must have the following four characteristics (Macionis, 2015):

Theoretical knowledge: Professionals have theoretical knowledge rather than technical

experience in their area of expertise.

Self-regulating practice: Professionals manage their own work in accordance with the

ethical rules of the profession.

Authority on clients: Due to their expertise, professionals are seen as a valuable

authority by their clients to the extent that their advice and guidance is followed.

Community-oriented rather than self-interested: Professionalism requires the

willingness to serve people without waiting for income.

3. SOCIAL DIVISON OF LABOR AND WOMEN

3.1. Origins of social division of labor

The concept of social gender refers to the socially defined roles, activities and responsibilities

of men and women rather than its physical and biological meaning (Robbins & Barnwell, 2002). In

traditional societies, the roles expected from men and women differ. Therefore, the concept of social

gender includes what women and men can or cannot do more (Demirbilek, 2007), the roles expected

from women and men and their attitudes, role behaviors and responsibilities.

In traditional societies, while the roles assigned to women are often shaped in the triangle of

household chores, caring for children and shopping for the home, the roles of men are based on

meeting the needs of the home, spouse and children by working and earning money. While such

attitudes and behaviors shape the social expectations of women to concentrate more on their domestic

affairs, the main task attributed to men is to manage the relations with the outside environment

(Durmuş, 2001).

However, in non-traditional modern societies, compared to traditional societies, women are

relatively more flexible in regulating their relations with the outside environment on their own

initiative, responsibilities are shared more, rights are equal and it is more common to find a common

ground in decisions about the future of the family (Durmuş, 2001).

It can be said that one of the reasons why women are seen more in work life in modern

societies is that gender based discrimination is very limited or not at all. In such societies, while

women make endeavor to meet the basic needs of their families, at the same time, they try to

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contribute as much as their spouses by working. The characteristics of traditional social gender roles

of women and men are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Some Feminine and Masculine Characteristics Creating Traditional Social Gender

Roles

Feminine Characteristics Creating Woman's

Traditional Social Gender Role

Masculine Characteristics Creating Man’s

Traditional Social Gender Role

Passivity

Dependency

Compassion

Mercy

Empathy

Sensuality

Fostering

Sensitivity

Helpfulness

Activity

Independency

Rationality

Supervision

Superiority

Aggression

Ambition

Individuality

Competition

Source: Varoğlu, 2001

With the feminine and masculine characteristics of women and men, which create their

traditional social gender roles, their roles in family and work life also differ. While the man takes on

the role of working mainly in out-of-home settings to maintain his family, the woman takes the role of

concentrating primarily on her family and home. Naturally, such a discrimination can cause women to

give priority to their homes and move away from work life. Therefore, women are not active enough

in the work life (Karaca, 2007).

In the concept of social gender, the limits of attitudes, behaviors and roles of women and men

have been drawn in a way that is not seen but felt. If these attitudes, behaviors and roles are not

performed or not fulfilled, various sanctions may be imposed. In traditional societies, sanctions can

often be severe. In particular, it is possible to state that women are mostly affected by these sanctions.

For example, a woman who cannot meet the basic needs of her family may face with severe sanctions.

Violence by her husband, deprivation of basic needs, intimidation by the threat of divorce are among

the examples of sanctions that are common in traditional societies.

On the other hand, it can be said that the dynamics of social change have gradually made it

requisite for traditional societies to adapt to such a change. The boundaries defined by the bold lines in

traditional societies seem to have become more flexible over time and to have redefined women's roles

and responsibilities in society.

Undoubtedly, this change has paved the way for women to become more involved in work

life. According to Varoğlu (2001), crowded family structures, which are frequently seen in traditional

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societies, have gradually started to be replaced by family structures with fewer children or even with

childless families, life expectancy has increased, the burden of mothers in the family has decreased

relatively with the improvement of educational opportunities, and there has been a change in the status

of women in traditional societies thanks to the relative increase in the number of women getting a start

in work life. This positive situation may pave the way for some changes in the roles and behaviors of

women in the family. For instance, men have begun to share their spouses' responsibilities by

contributing more to household chores, childcare and shopping. Thus, it was found in a study that the

men with higher education level were more helpful to their spouses in household chores (TİSK:

Turkish Confederation of Employer Associations, 2004).

It is also possible to see the reflections of social gender in organizations. In a sense, the

meaning and characteristics of the concept of social gender can generally have similar meaning in the

organizational levels. Rodriguez-Caceres (2011) pointed out that the fact that men took more part in

affairs of state was related to social norms, and emphasized that such norms led to women's gender-

based occupational discrimination. In this sense, researchers emphasized that the underlying reason for

gender-based discrimination in some professions was the indirect intervention of social gender in work

life, and this situation, also known as stereotype, could sometimes replace each other independently of

traditions or education level (Temel & Yakın & Misci, 2006; Gürses, 2005). In addition, although

women's entering into work life was first after the Industrial Revolution and the First and Second

World Wars (Kocacık & Gökkaya, 2005) and education levels have increased today, women's entering

into work life may be less than that of men or may be limited to certain areas of work (Toksöz &

Özkazanç & Poyraz, 2006).

According to Eyüboğlu (1999), women are the last beneficiaries of employment practices in

the country. In parallel with the developments in the economy, although the demand for female

workforce is initially high, this positive situation has started to decline from a certain point because,

especially in times of crisis, women's workforce is seen as a threat that narrows the employment

potential of men. There is also a perception that women compete with men during the periods of

limited employment. Therefore, the roles and responsibilities of women in traditional societies can

also be seen in their work life.

Jain and Mukherji (2010) described the concept of stereotype as a picture that allowed to

define it when a particular social group was considered. Wilson (2014) stated that making wrong or

incomplete generalizations about a group of individuals could lead to the formation of stereotypes.

Sources of information such as TV, books, music, social circle and family lead to the learning and

spread of stereotypes. According to Wilson, there is no case where all stereotypes are welcomed well

in an organization. Minor jokes that reflect ethnic characteristics can be ignored relatively, but the

heavier ones may not be easily welcomed by those exposed to jokes. This issue should be included in

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the area of the responsibility of organizational management in order to emphasize that there is zero

tolerance for stereotypes (Wilson, 2014).

Barutçugil (2002) listed some examples of stereotypes about female employees in

organizations as follows:

Women have a lot of family responsibilities.

Women can become pregnant and have children.

Most women cannot adequately commit themselves to the company to be able to promote

to the senior management.

Women are not effective leaders.

Women cannot really understand organizational culture and policies.

Women do not have enough experience in operational areas.

Women feel uncomfortable working for other women.

Similarly, Ataay (1998) stated the examples of male administrators' prejudices about women

as follows:

Women do not want to work.

Women are not as committed to their careers as men.

Women are not tough and strong enough.

Women cannot or do not want to work for long hours or outside working hours.

Women cannot or do not want to change the city or country in which they work.

Women cannot decide or have no capacity to decide.

Women are very emotional.

Jain and Mukherji (2010) emphasized that gender-based stereotypes could have an impact on

judgments and values and lead to a different approach to women and men. In particular, it is seen that

some professional groups are mostly associated with women (Karaca, 2007). Therefore, professional

groups such as nursing and teaching, which are mostly attributed to women, are influenced by

stereotypes and prevent women from turning to different professional groups such as civil engineering

and urology specialist. Such judgments may pave the way for the formation of invisible barriers in

terms of administrative skills. There are also invisible walls that may prevent women from working in

a managerial position in organizational settings and reaching these levels (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Guo,

2013). In this sense, there are prejudices and stereotypes about that women do not have enough

competences (decision-making, rationality, leadership, etc.) accepted among basic administration

skills, and while struggling with these difficulties, women have to balance between family and work

life. Consequently, traditional social gender can sometimes cause obstacles to women's struggles and

their performance to decline, and it may lead to women to lose their competitive advantages over men

or to decrease their competitive advantage.

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3.2. Women's efforts to enter into professional life by developing their own competencies

It is possible to state that it is more important to apply the strategy of self-development for

women with career goals, especially in professional groups that are attributed to men (officers, police,

engineers, etc.). In this sense, it should be considered as an important strategic move that female

employees ensure that perceptions in favor of their male rivals return to them positively when they

work harder than men, increase their qualifications for continuous improvement, and become more

adaptable to achieve their career goals faster (Lockwood, 2004). In other words, in order for female

employees to perform above expectations and to give the message “Count me in!” in their career

goals, it will be more possible for them to overcome the invisible barriers that are likely for them to

face with through high performance strategy.

Ragins, Townsend and Mattis (1998), on the other hand, pointed out that through the

implementation of this strategy, it would be beneficial for the female administrator candidates trying

to turn existing barriers into opportunities for themselves to take three different choices into account.

The first of these choices is the necessity of working harder than expected for female employees. It

was stated that it might be advantageous to apply this choice especially when the performance

expectations from women were relatively low in professional groups attributed to men or in male

dominant organizations. Another choice is to work harder than other candidates do. With this choice, it

will be possible for the women administrator candidates who have achieved a performance above their

rival candidates' performance, especially in organizations with a backbreaking competitive

environment, to turn the competition to their advantage. Therefore, it can create an important

opportunity for women to conduct a competition analysis, to take into account the weakest points of

their rivals, and to try to increase their personal development in this direction. For example, in an

organization where the number of people who speak a foreign language is very few or there is no

foreign language speaker, when a woman administrator candidate increases her quality of foreign

language, it may provide an important advantage for her. In the context of a high performance

strategy, the final choice proposed by the researchers is to focus solely on the acquisition of self-

efficacy and new skills for personal development. The main difference of this choice from the second

choice is that the female administrator candidate obtains all kinds of knowledge and skills that will

provide a competitive advantage independently of the others through education.

The fact that female employees can increase their education levels in order to achieve their

goals in their career plans and that they participate in specific training programs specifically for the

sector they are involved in was suggested as one of the strategies that might be useful to reduce the

effects of glass ceiling syndrome (Lockwood, 2004).

Kurlowicz (2014) stated that many companies offered in-service training and that female

employees should always benefit from these opportunities. In addition, it was pointed out that there

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was a relationship between education level and income. Accordingly, university graduates over 25

years of age could earn approximately twice as much as high school graduates.

Lockwood (2004) pointed out that it might be beneficial for female employees to apply the vocational

training that they received in human resources training programs in the projects abroad as much as

possible. In this way, it will be possible for the female administrator candidates to complete their

deficiencies by seeing the results of the trainings that they received in a tangible way and it will be

easier to increase their self-confidence by actively participating in important projects.

Today, considering the dynamics of the global business world, taking part in international

projects is an important source of reputation for both organization and employees. Therefore, the

attempts of the female employees being an administrator candidate who need to prove themselves to

turn these project opportunities into their favor will bring many advantages for them in terms of their

organization and personal career development. Thus, it is necessary for the female administrator

candidates to follow up all kinds of international job opportunities that may be related to their sectors

by taking initiative and to prepare the project proposals by establishing the necessary communication.

In recent years, particularly in Turkey, many national and international project opportunities have

emerged. However, it is important for female administrators or candidates to participate, in the event

that they feel incompetent, in project preparation trainings for their personal development.

On the other hand, although there are benefits of implementing the university and vocational

training development strategy only for female employees within the organization, the training of

women and men in the form of joint participation and the help of mentors should also be considered in

this process (Lewis & Fagenson, 1995). Therefore, the participation of female administrator

candidates in such trainings with other employees will contribute to their inter-organizational

communication and help to eliminate prejudices, and also it will help turn negative perceptions and

attitudes into more positive ones and help women to prove themselves more in the organization. It is

important that the female administrator candidates participate in the necessary in-service trainings and

external training programs in order to achieve their career goals. This is also important for female

administrator candidates to obtain administrative knowledge and skills that they will need (Erçen,

2008).

4. SEXISM IN THE WORK ENVIRONMENT

4.1. Sexism and its effects in the work life

There are various approaches that differentiate women from men in work life. Marxist

approach, feminist approach, dual role approach, labor market division and human capital approach

are among them (KSGM: Directorate General on the Status of Women, 2000). These approaches are

important for a better understanding of women's positions in the male-dominated business world.

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The Marxist approach opposes the control of the labor market by treating women in the

capitalist system as a substitute labor for men. The dismissal of women, especially in times of

economic crisis, is often considered as a strategy since it does not cause much reaction in traditional

societies. Therefore, the capitalist system can use women more easily as a substitute labor. The

feminist approach does not accept the exclusion of women by patriarchal and capitalist systems by

opposing the roles and behaviors imposed on women in traditional societies. This approach advocates

that women should have equal rights and authority as men in work life as in all other fields. The dual

role approach seeks solutions to how women can better keep balance between family and work. On the

other hand, the division of labor market approach highlights a classification as primary and secondary

markets. The primary market represents a notion with more hard-working and qualified employees,

relatively higher wages, and higher opportunities for promotion. Secondary markets refer to the work

life where there is no need for very high working performances, lower wages are paid, rate of

employee turnover is high and promotion opportunities are limited. The approach emphasizes that

women and young people are obliged to work in secondary market conditions and points out that

employers should transfer qualified women employees in secondary markets to the primary markets

(KSGM, 2000).

Dreher (2003) emphasized that perceiving gender as an important obstacle especially for

women in low levels to reach higher positions decreased women’s motivation to compete. In this

sense, the concept of gender-based discrimination was evaluated by Acar, Ayata and Varoğlu (1999)

under two groups. These are direct and indirect discrimination. Direct discrimination is a type of

discrimination that occurs when an individual's behavior towards a woman is more negative or less

positive than that of a man. In other words, direct discrimination explains that women are directly

exposed to discrimination. The individual exhibits more negative attitudes and behaviors to women

than men. Men are accepted as superior to women in this type of discrimination. It can often be said

that such discrimination is more common in closed, oppressive and conservative societies. In such

societies, women try to survive with a understanding that is excluded from society, confined to the

house, oppressed and accepted as second class. The role attributed to them in the social gender context

is to be behind the man and to obey him in absolute terms. Even though we are in the 21st century, the

existence of such societies is undoubtedly one of the dilemmas faced by human beings. Indirect gender

discrimination, on the other hand, means that the behaviors that initially appear to be equal or that are

accepted as expected pave the way for gender-based discrimination later, and this leads to negative

behavior towards women (Acar, Ayata & Varoğlu, 1999). Although it is accepted that there is a belief

that women have equal rights with men in this type of discrimination, discrimination can be made by

putting invisible barriers to women. Invisible barriers can be faced in every decision process (career

choices, spouse choices, etc.) that prevent women from making independent decisions as in social

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gender roles. Therefore, instead of acting on their own, women are obliged to follow the norms and

sanctions imposed on them by the society.

Gender-based discrimination was handled in two categories as horizontal and vertical in

another classification (Çoban, 2005). While professional and sectoral preferences appropriate to social

gender roles are covered by horizontal gender discrimination, the exclusion or marginalization of

female employees within the organization is covered by vertical gender discrimination. Considering

this classification, it is possible to evaluate the glass ceiling barriers in vertical discrimination.

It is possible to state that there is a widespread belief that men are the first to come to mind in

terms of administration. Even, this situation has a common feature in western and eastern cultures

(Balgiu, 2013). On the other hand, according to the results of a study carried out by Babaoğlan and

Litchka (2010), aiming to evaluate the educational institutions in the United States and in Turkey, the

gender factor has a very limited role in the perception of leadership roles of administrators of

educational institutions. In general, there is a perception that men have more appropriate

administrative characteristics than women. In fact, women are helped and supported less than men in

terms of promotion and support in the work environment (Ayrancı & Gürbüz, 2012). Therefore, in

general, gender discrimination in society can also be encountered in women's work life. In a sense, the

place of women in work life or organization is in line with the place of women in the society in

question. Moreover, it was stated that the most discriminating points in organizations were

authorization, delegation of authority, wage and promotion opportunities (Irmak, 2007). In this sense,

the fact that women are exposed to gender-based discrimination that is not visible but perceived also

highlights the existence of glass ceiling syndrome in organizations and it is possible to define such

discrimination as indirect gender discrimination.

On the one hand, women are exposed to direct or indirect gender discrimination in the

organization, on the other hand, they have to maintain their roles and responsibilities in the family.

This negative situation may affect the performance of women in work life (Aldemir, Ataol & Budak,

2001). Although it is not possible to accept this as a justification for poor performance, women have to

comply with the role behaviors in the gender context, so it is not always possible for them to maintain

their performance at both levels continuously. However, it is often not necessary for men to seek such

a balance since men can sometimes relinquish most of the responsibilities to their spouses by keeping

themselves away from the responsibilities of home and children. In this sense, it is possible to state

that men discriminate indirectly against women through such behaviors. This situation can

undoubtedly reduce the competitive chances of women in work life. Palmer and Hyman (1993), on the

other hand, asserted that women had to accept this unfavorable situation. This means that women have

to make more efforts to fulfill their roles and responsibilities at both social levels in the best way.

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When an evaluation is carried out in terms of application examples of gender discrimination

within the organization, it is also worth considering that women often have to interrupt their career

processes because of the roles and responsibilities attributed to them in the social gender context. For

example, the fact that a female employee who has given birth has to take maternity leave or

breastfeeding leave means a loss of advantage over male employees in terms of opportunities such as

work experience and in-service training (Lordoğlu & Özkaplan, 2007). Therefore, while female

employees, especially mother ones, are obliged to maintain their maternal roles, this role attributed to

them may lead to the loss of their competitive advantages. Moreover, if there is indirect or vertical

gender discrimination within the organization, female employees may face obstacles that are not seen

but whose effects are felt more in the promotion processes to higher job positions.

According to Aldemir et al. (2001), another negative situation to be dealt with in terms of

examples of gender discrimination within the organization is that the service recipients (clients)

getting service from the organization tend to prefer male employees rather than female employees

from time to time. In particular, the perception that certain occupational areas can only be carried out

by men (bus driver, urology specialist, etc.) can put pressure on these choices and pave the way for

female employees to be exposed to invisible discrimination. Parlaktuna (2010) emphasized that

although women had sufficient knowledge, educational level and experience required by their

profession, it was unacceptable that gender-based discrimination still persisted within the organization,

and pointed out that more supportive studies should be conducted in this field. In this sense, breaking

glass ceilings in organizations will make significant contributions to the achievement of goals for

gender equality (Acker, 2009).

Gender-based wage gap in work life is also considered to be an important factor in the

development of glass ceiling syndrome (Matano & Naticchioni, 2013) and this problem is seen as one

of the important fields of politicians and researchers. Thus, according to politicians, reducing wage

injustice is among the most important priorities (Carrillo, Gandelman & Robano, 2014). For instance,

Biagetti and Scicchitano (2011) found in their study conducted in Italy by using economic modeling

that gender-based wage inequality was experienced in both lower and upper income groups.

On the other hand, Frazier (2005) pointed out that the fact that women took less part in high-

level positions stemmed from the lack of adequate education, experience and maturity. Frazier pointed

out that women's choices brought them closer to the glass ceiling and stated that they could not

concentrate on the work life, but they were more interested in their family or private life and that this

could lead to failure. Similarly, Wilson (2014) remarked on the existence of discussions about whether

the concept of glass ceiling was a myth or reality. Those who argued that the concept of glass ceiling

was a myth had an opinion that women or minorities did not have sufficient education, maturity and

work experience, and that it was a preference to reach high-level positions, and that women

(minorities) used their preferences in favor of their families rather than giving themselves to their jobs.

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Although Weinberger (2011) emphasized that as a result of the gender-based discrimination,

women earned less than men with similar conditions, he asserted that according to 1990's wage

distribution statistics, the inequality in earnings of women and men employees was very limited, and

accordingly, he pointed out that the possible causes of the limited injustice were due to certain factors

in women's career processes. According to Weinberger, the characteristics of two different groups of

female employees can have an influence on women's earning less than men. The first of these is the

group of young mothers. Female employees in this group do not have enough work experience and

have difficulty in balancing the work-family life. However, as young mothers gain experience over the

years and place the work-family balance on a better level, their careers can develop positively. The

other group is female employees with very high earnings. Female employees in this group have better

promotion opportunities than men of the same age group. However, when they reach the top of their

careers, they may encounter glass ceiling barriers and these barriers may bring inequality in wages

compared to men in equivalent positions.

Carrillo, Gandelman, and Robano (2014) found in their study conducted in twelve Latin

countries that even if female employees received the same or even higher level of education as male

employees, they received less wage than men.

In a study conducted by Russo and Hassink (2012) in the Netherlands, it was found that there

was a wage inequality between male and female employees. However, Russo and Hassink, like other

researchers (Carilllo, Gandelman & Robano, 2014; Christofides, Polycarpou & Vrachimis, 2013),

pointed out that it was extremely difficult to determine the root causes of this inequality according to

statistical analyzes produced from purely numerical databases. However, the researchers argued that

this difference might be more common in vertical and horizontal hierarchical (job descriptions, job

requirements and hierarchical position) organizations (institutions without flexible organizational

structure). It is possible to state that these results are consistent with the content of glass ceiling types

described by Jain and Mukherji (2010) as vertical and horizontal glass ceilings.

According to the International Labor Organization's (ILO) “Global Wage Report” which

examined gender-based global wage differentials in 2018-2019, gender-based wage inequality at

global level was 18.8%. This rate is 12% in Turkey. Gender-based wage inequality was 2.7% in

Belgium, 11.7% in Norway, 13.3% in France and 16.6% in the UK. The fight against gender-based

wage differentials remains an issue to be faced by all countries at the global level (ILO, 2019).

Christofides, Polycarpou and Vrachimis (2013) attempted to determine gender-based wage

differentials by using the 2007 data of 26 European countries' European Union Income and Living

Conditions statistics. As a result of the research, it was determined that the size of the gender-based

wage differentials varied according to the countries.

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Nicodemo (2009) examined gender-based wage differentials using data from France, Greece,

Italy, Portugal and Spain between 2001 and 2006. As a result of the research, it was found that there

was a wage differential in all the countries examined and this differential was higher among the lower

level employees and less in the top administration. However, it was found in a study conducted by

Arulampalam, Booth and Bryan (2007) that wage differential increased as top administration level

increased in most of the European countries examined whereas in very few countries, this difference

was more felt at lower levels.

The World Economic Forum, on the other hand, listed the countries according to four main

indicators in the report “World Gender Inequality” (2018), in which the current conditions of women

living in 149 countries around the world was discussed, as “participation in the economy and equal

opportunity”, “access to educational opportunities”, “health and lifespan” and “the place of women in

politics”. In "World Gender Inequality" report, when the position of Turkey is examined more

detailed, it is understood that a result against women generally occurs. In fact, in terms of participation

in the workforce, Turkey is on the 130th rank. When the distribution of wage justice among the people

with similar jobs is examined, it is seen that the difference between men and women is 0.46 and

Turkey is on the 131st rank in the evaluation. There is also a big difference between men and women

in the sub-indicator of law-making and senior administration (WEF, 2019).

4.2. Career barriers of women

Career comes from the Latin words “Carrus” (carriage) and “Carrera (road) and from English

word “Career” (profession). In the past centuries, it meant the way the carriage left behind. Today, it

means continuous progress of a person in any field of work (Aytaç, 2005).

When we look at the historical development process in which the concept of career rise to

prominence, with the discovery of “organizational man” in the neo-classical approach of the 1950s, it

is seen that success is defined on a fixed model. In contrast, the system approach proposed alternative

models for the career success of employees in the 1980-1990s. As a result, organizations stated that it

was difficult to manage the employee, but that people could be easily motivated if they were given the

opportunity to prove themselves in line with their desires, values, interests and abilities. It is

understood that such a formation, in addition to increasing the work performance of the individual,

will make an important contribution to the development of the personality of the individual, to the

increase in self-confidence and self-esteem, to finding his / her self and, in short, to the formation of

his / her identity (Aytaç, 2005).

In recent years, the increase in the level of women's education has increased the active

participation of women in work life both in the world and in our country. Previously, while women

were only involved in work life due to insufficient family income, today they want to have a certain

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place in work life and have a career by fulfilling the requirements of education they received (Karaca,

2007).

Today, women have started to take more part in the paid work life, but earning their own

money has brought new problems for women although it has provided advantages and happiness in

many ways. The first problem that comes to mind is the problems encountered in the career path and

the stress these problems created on women (Aytaç, 2005). In this context, it is possible to list the

barriers faced by female employees and administrators as follows (Gül & Oktay, 2009):

Being in a disadvantageous position in organizational policies and practices

Having less chance in terms of education, personal and career development opportunities

Less opportunities for female employees and administrators in promotions and

appointments

Preference of male administrators in organizations

Rarely selection of women for managerial positions and senior administration levels of

the organization

Presence of various prejudices against female administrators and employees

Different treatment towards women in the dimensions of communication and behavior

The problems experienced by women were generally examined in two groups as problems

encountered in work life and family life (TİSK, 2002) (TCEA, 2002). The problems encountered in

work life are inequality in education, discrimination in employment and promotion, the fact that

women receive less wage than men and imbalance in the enjoyment of social rights. The problems

encountered in family life are that conflicts arise from the inability of women to balance the family

and work life, women have to take the burden of household chores and women take more

responsibility in the care of children. In this context, it is very difficult to explain the glass ceiling

syndrome depending on only one factor or cause. Syndrome occurs when different factors come

together (Anafarta & Sarvan & Yapıcı, 2008). Moreover, the type and severity of the syndrome may

vary from organization to organization.

4.3. Fighting with glass ceiling syndrome

The fact that women are in the administration position at every level provides benefit for both

organizations and society and this creates an impact that strengthens organizations internally and

externally (Fraizer, 2005). In this sense, the researchers proposed various strategies in order to

overcome the glass ceiling barriers or to lessen the effects or even to take advantage of this negative

situation. In general, working hard, being smart, paving the way for female employees, learning

continuously and supporting the family are some of these strategies (Akpinar & Sposito, 2003).

107

On the other hand, Wilson (2014) pointed out that breaking the glass ceilings was not the

responsibility of the minorities (women) solely, but also that the administrations of the organization

should support them, and he also pointed out that the top administration should take responsibility in

this process and it was very important to share the responsibility towards the lower levels. Wilson also

stressed that not only organizations, but also government bodies, educational institutions and society

should act together to ensure equality and diversity in work life.

Roldan and Stern (2006) highlighted the importance of preparing a strategic roadmap for

women's career plans. The first thing that must be done according to this map is to identify the

strengths and weaknesses. While doing this, an objective assessment is required regardless of the

characteristics of the ethnic group (for minorities). In the next step, the career process should be

planned step by step. In the process of strategic planning, it is important that the person refrains from

setting limits and does not see himself / herself as a minority. Thus, their recognition within the

organization will be further developed. In this process, personal skills and interpersonal

communication should be developed at least as much as technical (work-related) skills. The third step

involves selecting a mentor and the fourth step is to learn how to join the interpersonal communication

network and to achieve the right connections. Roldan and Stern emphasized notably the proposals

mentioned in the third and fourth steps in terms of achieving positive relationships within the

organization. The fifth step involves making intensive efforts to serve organizational policies. The last

step is to see the ethnic culture of the person as an added value and to use it appropriately within the

organization.

Li (2014) proposed strategies such as increasing education levels, achieving economic

success, adapting to American culture faster, working harder and investing more in intellectuals on

condition that Asian American female employees experienced bamboo ceiling syndrome.

Lipshits-Braziler and Tatar (2012) determined in their studies aiming to identify the career

barriers perceived by young people in Israel and the strategies to fight with these barriers that the

participants attached more importance to group (organizational barriers) barriers than individual

barriers, and therefore, they thought the strategies to be applied should aim to overcome organizational

barriers.

The strategies that could be applied by female employees against invisible barriers in or out of

the organization were explained by Erçen (2008) as high performance strategy, personal development

strategy through education, strategy of getting help from mentor, strategy of developing social

relations, strategy of developing relations with male employees, strategy of gaining experiences that

can contribute positively to their careers and the abandonment of special interest activities in private

life. These strategies are briefly described below:

108

High performance strategy: The basis for this strategy is that women employees need to

prove that they can be as good as or better than men in their career goals which often

result in favor of men.

Personal development strategy through education: Increasing the level of education

that women employees have in order to achieve their goals in their career plans and

participation in specific training programs specifically for the sector in which they are

involved have been proposed as one of the strategies that may be useful to reduce the

effects of glass ceiling syndrome.

Getting help from mentor: Sufficient use of mentoring support is an important strategy

that can be applied by the female employees or female administrators when they need.

Mentors can help to find and implement the solutions for the problems women

encountered or are likely to encounter, and help to evaluate the results after the

implementation.

Strategy for developing social relations: One of the important strategies that women

employees can use to overcome the glass ceiling barriers within the organization is the

strategy of developing social relations as much as possible.

Strategy for developing relations with male employees: The ability of female

administrator candidates to develop a compatible association with other employees in the

organization and to be accepted and respected are in a way related to the style which they

have. On the one hand, this style should be tailored to their personalities, and should be

carried out in a balance that does not attract the reactions of male employees.

Strategy for gaining experiences that can contribute positively to their careers: One

of the important strategies that female employees can use to overcome the glass ceiling

barriers is the strategy of increasing their professional experience as much as possible by

demanding critical tasks within the organization.

The abandonment of special interest activities in private life: The fact that female

employees make significant efforts to overcome the difficulties posed by work life and at

the same time, they keep balance in order to provide the necessary conditions and

standards for their family life may lead to some difficulties that eventually result in a

disadvantage for women. In this sense, the efforts of women employees to pursue their

careers by giving up some of the necessities in their personal lives in order to achieve an

optimum balance can be considered as a strategy that can be utilized to overcome the

glass ceiling barriers.

109

A report by the International Labor Organization (ILO, 2012) includes policies to reduce

gender-based barriers in the decisions of women and gender-based discrimination in the labor market.

These policies are described below:

To reduce the household burden on women by providing better infrastructure and to

increase basic infrastructure such as electricity, water, sanitation, road and transportation

facilities depending on the level of development

To develop practices to reduce care responsibilities of women, especially for the care of

children and the elderly

To re-organize the right for paid and unpaid leave by gender

To encourage women's admission to the labor market by handling family members

together and not separately in taxing household income

To re-organize gender-based benefit and cost calculations and to make this practice a

feature that facilitates bureaucratic practices such as taxation, especially in cases where

the spouses earn together in the family.

To develop encouraging practices such as paid leave for special situations such as taking

a break from their careers for a certain period of time, and allowing them to return to their

previous work

To organize campaigns to attract the attention of the public on gender-based stereotypes

and to contribute to legal arrangements to be made more diligently against discrimination.

On the other hand, ILO (2012) emphasized that gender differences should be seen as a

problem that should be taken into consideration in household income decisions. In this sense, it is

suggested that decision makers (legislators, politicians, etc.) should develop facilitating practices for

women who decide to enter the labor market to contribute to household income. It is also pointed out

that it is important to take household structures into consideration that are becoming increasingly

versatile (Heterosexual couples with or without children, single parents, families living alone without

children, same sex marriages, and expanding families).

Although male and female employees go through similar processes at the beginning of their

careers, women face more obstacles than male employees and they need to use different strategies to

overcome them (Lyness & Thompson, 2000). In this sense, there are different glass ceiling barriers

that female employees encounter during their careers in their work life. Female employees can

experience all of these hidden barriers that are invisible, unclear, but seriously felt, or they may face

only one of them during their careers. This situation is influenced by different factors such as the

cultural structure of organization, the sector in which the organization works, the attitudes of

organization management towards female employees and, if any, other employees who are in minority

110

position, and this situation paves the way for the female administrator candidates to face obstacles, and

in another aspect, this becomes a glass ceiling barrier due to the personal characteristics of female

employees.



i. What is social gender? Discuss

ii. What is the difference between gender and biological sex? Discuss

iii. How is gender perception engraved in our subconscious?


i. How did work life changed after industrial revolution?

ii. What is the difference between the concepts of profession and work?

iii. What are the inequalities faced in work life based on sexism?

iv. How can women overcome the inequalities at work based on sexism?

v. What are the strategies of struggling against gender based glass ceiling

syndrome?


i. How the glass ceiling syndrome is discussed in the articles about gender?

ii. What can be done to raise awareness towards gender inequalities?

4. ASSESSMENT

a. What are the main differences between work and profession?

b. Explain the concepts of gender and biological sex?

c. How can we struggle against glass ceiling syndrome?

111

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MODULE 5

MENTORSHIP TRAINING


Name of the study: Module of “Mentorship Training” of the project “Breaking the glass

ceiling for women administrators”

Place of the study:

Date of the study:


II. PART: SCHEDULE

Month December

Week 1 2 3 4

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Ta

sks

Planning

Needs

Analysis

Program

Preparation

Training

Evaluation

Reporting



Administrators”, data for needs analysis, which will be used in order to develop “Mentroship

Training” towards overcoming glass ceiling barriers women administrators face, were

collected by “Glass Ceiling Syndrome Scale” as quantitatively and by “Semi-Structured

Needs Analysis Form” as qualitatively,





117











1. GOALS

Goal 1: Knowledge of basic skills and characteristics of mentors

Attainments:

4. Defines the concept of mentorship

5. Comprehends the skills and characteristics a mentor should have

Goal 2: Knowledge of advantages of mentorship

Attainments:

6. Sorts the advantages of mentorship applications

7. Comprehends the advantages of mentorship for mentors, educational institutions and

mentees

Goal 3: Knowledge of skills and qualifications of mentors and mentorship process

Attainments:

5. Comprehends the qualifications of effective mentors

6. Comprehends types of mentorship relations

7. Explains the skills of Active Listening, Establishing Trust, Being Encouraging,

Identification of the Goals and Existing Situation

8. Comprehends the preparation, application and observation stages of mentorship

process

Goal 4: Knowledge of the relationship between mentorship and adult education

Attainments:

1. Defines adult education

2. Analyzes the relationship between adult education and mentorship

3. Comprehends adult education principles to be considered in mentorship process

2. MODULE CONTENT

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1. ORIGIN OF MENTORSHIP

The origin of the Word “mentoship” goes back to the old Greek myths. According to

the explanations of Hómēros in his work Odyssey, Ithaca King Ulysses commends his son

Telemachus to his best friend Mentor before going to the war. War lasted twenty years and

Mentor brought up the prince in the most ideal way in the absence of the king (Searby, 2012;

Kuzu & Odabaşı, 2012).

1.1. What Is Mentorship?

We face many different definitions of mentorship in the literature. However,

mentorship, in general meaning, is a development process in which a person (mentor) shares

his/her knowledge and experience with another person (mentee) in order to provide the

development of him/her. Basic aim here is to help someone to develop his/her knowledge and

skills in line with his/her own personal development goals.

Mentorship, is a semi-structured guidance system, in which a person shares his/her

knowledge, skills and experiences with others in order to help them advancing in their own

lives and professional carriers. Mentors need to be ready when they are asked for help under

acceptable borders. Mentorship can be a short cycle arrangement or can be last through years

till the accomplishment of the goals of cooperation (or till the end of cooperation).

Mentorship, is not just “giving advice” or just mention about your experience in a specific

area or situation. It is about motivating someone to identify his/her own problems or goals, to

empower him/her or to help him/her finding ways of solving problems and achieving his/her

goals (University of Cambridge, 2019).

Mentorship is not just a guidance or therapy. Mentor, can help mentee reaching

broader expertize helping areas if it is clearly seen that it is seen as clearly the best way.

Mentor, is a person who creates relationship towards the personal development of

others and who provides this relation to be dynamic and mutual (Brockbanck & McGill,

2006). Mentorship is the interaction between mentor and mentee. In other words, it is

interaction, share of experience and the process of reaching wisdom between an experienced

person (mentor) and less experienced one (mentee) (Jacobi, 1991; cited in Kuzu et al., 2012).

In this study, mentorship is defined as “the process of guidance and help in order to

help women teachers or administrators developing their leadership/administrative skills and

understanding when starting job or in-service.”

119

1.2. What Mentor Is Not?

Supervisor: Supervisor is someone who gives advices in specific issues in an

educational relationship. However, mentors are generally volunteers, bring new perspectives

to the administrators and help them develop and proceed.

Work Coach: Coaching is short-term and task oriented process. But, mentorship is a

long-term interaction process. Mentors aim to develop specific skills, knowledge and

behaviors and use coaching techniques time to time.

Stucking in the details: The role of a mentor, is to provide the mentee to see the

things to do in a broader, in other words, “birds’ eye” perspective. By so, an administrator can

evaluate choices better without stucking in the details.

Direct support: One mentor should not behave as a direct supportive. This can lead

dependency and can cause conflict of interests (Mentor effect, 2018).

1.3. When Mentorship Can Be Used?

Mentorship can be used for variable situations (Manchester Metropolitan University,

2019). For example, mentorship can be used for work lives of the staff:

as a motivator of a new start

as a coaching process for the individuals for promotion

For the staff who change their roles in the department or organization

After a new restruction (changes in work roles etc.)

Sustatinable Professional Development

In our study, mentorship can be used for solving the problems faced by women

who are potential administrator candidates, active women vice administrators or

active women administrators in their carrier plans.

1.4. Advantages of Mentorship

Mentorship has some advantages for schools, for mentor him/herself and for mentee

(Management Mentors, 2019; McKimm, J., Jollie, C., & Hatter, M. 2007). These advantages

can be listed as below:

120

Advantages for educational institutions:

It decreases the cost of personnel shifts

It raises organizational productivity

It raises knowledge transfer by sustaining practical experience and knowledge gained

by long-term staff

It raises professional development

It helps to create a mentorship culture which supports the staffs’ sustainable

development.

Advantages for mentors:

Job satisfaction due to seeing others’ development

Pleasure of sharing her/his own expertize with others

Being known more by peers

Being able to guide the mentee by determining the future potential of her/him.

Self-motivation due to personal development and responsibilities

Raising job satisfaction by giving a new energy in the carrier of mentors

Identification of mentorship skills by the administrative bodies and other teachers.

Advantages for mentees:

Raising self-confidence and motivation under the guidance of mentor

Better understanding of school’s formal and informal culture

The opportunity of development of her/his skills by observing others

A continuous opportunity to think about different perspectives

Development of being wishful and self-confident in risk taking

Accelerating professional development

Development of autonomy and independency

1.5. Personal Characteristics Of Mentors

Mentors should have some basic personal characteristics in order to be able to guide

more effectively to mentees (TEGEP, 2019). They should make effort to develop these

characteristics. These basic characteristics can be listed as below:

Being role models with their professional carriers and leadership skills

Being open-minded, flexible and aware of the areas needed to be supported

Being eager to develop her/himself and others

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Being successful in communication and relationship management

Being able to allocate time for mentee despite her/his workload and being reachable

1.6. What Mentors Should Do?

For an effective mentorship, things should be done can be listed as below (TEGEP

2019):

Providing career support

Being a role model

Listening actively

Helping mentees by transferring her/his own experiences

Being stick about privacy

Helping identifying learning goals

Being a knowledge source

Giving and getting feedbacks

Giving suggestions

Encouraging the mentee for trying and risk taking

Helping the mentee solving her/his problems and deciding on an issue by asking

suitable questions

Helping mentee learning on her/his own

2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MENTORSHIP

Principles below can be useful for you to feel more relaxed and professional in the

process of mentorship (CIPD, 2019):

There should be a common understanding and agreement about the goals of

mentorship plan

Everybody in the process should agree upon the mentoship process/project

Mentorship project is a constructive and supportive for mentees- it should be helpful

for attendants

Adequate training, preparation and support must be provided for mentees

The level of privacy in mentorship process must be clearly determined and understood

mutually

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Any produced written materials must be suitable for the needs of mentor and mentee

and must be reachable for both

Open communication and discussion must be realized in the application and

management processes of mentorship plan

Development process and all the activities in the mentorship plan must be reviewed

regularly

Attendants must be agree on the frequency of every meetings

2.1. Mentorship Relations

Mentorship relations can be a very positive experience. It provides better confidence

between mentors and mentees and develops them by raising the personal and professional

skills of both of them. There are some basic elements that must be considered in order to be

successful experience/relationship. Below are some factors that will contribute a successful

relationship between mentor and mentee (CIPD, 2019):

Clear rules about roles and responsibilities of both sides

An agreed and shared understanding about the type and kind of support

Commitment to the principles and values of mentorship program

Skills of mentor and mentee

Clear communication between both sides

Open communication is the basic factor among all. Development of a positive

relationship, in which both sides can express their ideas, discuss and sustain their

developments, occurs by positive and empathetic dialogue. In such an environment, both sides

can improve their skills and views. It is necessary to know activities to used, tasks, strategies

and skills in order to let an open communication, too. In this context, an effective mentor

should have some critical characteristics (Chan, 2019):

Being inspirational

Being well-informed

Being friendly

Being able to empower self-learning of mentees

Being eager to teach

Being willing to provide help and support

Being willing to observe the mentoring activities

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2.2. Types of Mentorship Relations

In mentorship relations one or more mentorship types below can be used:

Table 1. Types of Mentorship Relations

Mentorship

Types

Content

Formal A written agreement, formal meeting hours, daily or weekly

attendance to the activities

Informal A relationship without any written or formal meeting

Online Involves e-mails, chats, phone calls and other online interaction

Face to face Organizing face to face meetings with both sides at somewhere

Peer based Colleagues in the same level shares experiences and knowledge

Colleagues or friends can be informal mentors for individual

development

Source: Tait, Carpenter, Davidson, Kendal et al., 2008

2.3. Skills and Qualifications of a Mentor

It is vitally important that the ones who accept being mentors to have right skills and

qualifications to maintain mentorship relations. Below, there is a list of skills and

qualifications of a mentor must have. It is important for you to look over them before

accepting to be a mentor and evaluate yourself in terms of these skills and qualifications

(MRC, 2019):

In you are interested in being a mentor, you must consider whether you really wish to

be or not

Suitable time: Mentorship requires commitment of time. Therefore, check your time

availability and evaluate if you are able to spare time for mentorship or not

Suitable skills and knowledge: You must be working on the same profession with the

mentees in order to understand the characteristics of the profession of them.

Listening skills: Can you listen actively the others? Can you reflect the real meanings

of the others and their context back?

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Being supportive: As the relationship is directed by the mentee, you must be ready to

help. You must help and let them reach their own goals and you must not impose your

own thoughts and suggestions to them.

Mentors should use basic skills listed below:

Consider the definitions and included behaviors of mentorship skills below and use

these skills in your relationships with your mentees (Philips, 2003):

1. Active Listening

Active listening is a common mentorship skill. Other skills whether develop or require

it. When you listen actively, you show that you hear your mentees worries and you understand

them. As a result, they need to be accepted by you and they need to trust you. Your skills of

active listening and the way you show these skills requires some observable behaviors. For

example, if you are an active listener, you:

should reflect some expressions like “Well…” or “sounds interesting…” etc. in order

to show that you understand the hidden messages or emotions to reflect some

comments back; should look at their eyes directly; shake your head (for confirmation),

slightly lean to them (without disturbing them physically), show other gestures and

mimes like scowling or smiling etc.;

should avoid disturbing them;

take care what they said in the past meetings with you and show your interest

(Remember their important meetings, days etc. by asking “How was your meeting

with the principal last week?” etc.) and summarize the basic points of the

communication between you and your mentee;

should suppress your impulse about directing every speech to your experiences and

thoughts and be patient to solve any problems, so stay calm. Listen carefully first,

solving comes later. If your mentee is used to solve any problems like the clappers,

warn them to think first then look for possible solutions.

2. Establishing Trust

The more your mentee trusts you, the more determined they be for your cooperation.

This helps you to be more active in mentorship process. If your mentees observe trustful and

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suitable behaviors from you, a trustworthy environment will occur in time. For being able to

be trustworthy you should:

protect the private information of your mentees

spend time with your mentees

realize what you promised to them

be respectful to their boundaries

accept the mistakes of mentors and take responsibility to compensate them

be clear about the issues that you are not agreed, not pleased to be fair to them,

in order that they understand you well

3. Being Encouraging

According to the studies, the most valuable mentorship skill is to encourage.

Encouraging includes knowing mentees, being sincere and giving oral feedbacks. However,

please be careful about encouraging. Even though, many accept recognition of success and

skills and positive feedbacks gives pleasure; encouraging should not be exaggerated. Show

original, positive feedbacks to your mentees regularly but not very often.

Although there are many ways to encourage, it is a very active way to know the

interests of your mentees and to use these ways for encouraging them and to organize

encouragement plan. You can use the strategies below in order to encourage your mentees:

Complimenting for successes or positive actions of them

Drawing attention to their positive sides (perseverance, being honest etc.) in

addition to their positive performances

Praising them privately

Expressing your appreciation in front of other people

Writing encouraging e-mails or oral posts

Being sure that your appreciation and encouragement are real

4. Identification of the Goals and Existing Situation

As an effective mentor, you should have a personal vision, special aims and you

should comprehend the existing situation. As a mentor, you should be clear about your vision,

dreams, career/life goals. In this case, mentees will interested in your existing reality (your

strong or weak sides, your views about existing reality) and they will ask for help for theirs.

126

As a mentor, you need to clarify the existin situation and goals. Before helping your

mentee, you should know temporal and long term goals, your weak and strong sides, which

developmental areas your mentee has and what kind of help your mentee needs. The more

you aware them and you adapt them to your potential mentees, the easier the mentorship

process will be. In order to show these behaviors effectively:

You should know what is important for you, what do you value and what you

will the most,

You should define the areas that you will show your best performance and the

examples of concrete behaviors that you can show at the best level,

You should determine your specific weaknesses or developmental areas known

by you and others,

You should set one and five year temporal goals in order to reach in your

personal and professional life,

You should define your skills and your existing situation clearly

3. STAGES OF MENTORSHIP PROCESS

Mentorship process can be conducted in several ways. Some application stages to

guide mentorship process can be suggested, too. These stages can be listed as below (Aydın,

2008):

Preparation Stage

o Appointment of mentee or mentees,

o Preparation of suitable environment for mentorship process

o Meeting with mentee/mentees and clarification of the goals

o Determination of training needs

o Planning of the needed training

Application Stage

o Giving the training based on the needs of the mentee/mentees

o Explanation of the related topics and giving examples

o If mentee/mentees need extra support in terms of theoretical or practical issues,

extra applications will be done. Theoretical discussions are clarified by

providing extra cases

o Observing the mentee/mentees and determination of new training needs based

on the discussions in the process

127

Observation Stage:

o Setting up meetings to determine how is the development process of the

mentored teacher/administrator

o Evaluation of the effectiveness of the mentorship program by mentor and

mentee/mentees

Did mentorship program work?

What are the accomplished or not accomplished goals? How can we

reach these goals?

What will be the next stage of mentorship program?

4. ADULT EDUCATION PRINCIPLES REQUIRED TO BE TAKEN IN THE

PROCESS OF MENTORSHIP

However it changes among cultures, World Health Organization defines adults as “…

the ones above 24 years or more”. In adult education, it is vitally important to use special

instruction methods and techniques in adult education to be more effective. Moreover, it is

necessary to consider their private lives about how they can learn better. Adult education and

child education looks alike in terms of some rules and principles. However, there are huge

differences, too. Approaches of learning and instruction towards adults are called Andragogy.

Andragogy can be defined as “A science and art of helping adult learning and an academic

discipline in which adult education theories, processes and technologies are considered”

(Duman, 2007).

It is important to know the similarities and differences between pedagogy and

andragogy for mentors. These similarities and differences can be seen in the table below

(Knowles, Holton & Swanson, 2005 cited in Kara & Karakoç, 2017):

128

Table 2. Process Elements of Andragogy, Similarities and Differences between

Andragogy and Pedagogy

Basic Process Elements Pedagogical Approach Andragogic Approach

Preparation of students Minimal Level

Informative, prepares for

participation, helps

development of exact

expectations, starts thinking

about the content

Learning Environment

Suitable for the authority

Formal

Competitive

Comfort, Trust, Mutual

respect, informal, open to

collaborate, supportive,

authentic, humanist

Planning Done by teacher

A mechanism designed

as a mutual planning with

teacher and learners

Needs Assessment Done by teacher Mutual assessment

Identification of Goals Done by teacher By meeting between

teacher and learner/s

Designing Learning Plans Done by teacher Considering also the

views of learners

Learning Activities Done by teacher Practical techniques

Assessment Done by teacher

Mutual needs assessment,

assessment of the program

together

Mentors should consider eight principles above in a planned training for adults. Adults

are open for alternative learning experiences. Moreover, adult education principles below

must be taken into consideration in mentorship process (Duman, 2007):

Adults’ learning characteristics must be considered while designing the learning

environment,

Learning needs must be defined mutually and mutual decision process must be carried

out.

Goals of the program must be designed mutually

129

Learning experiences must be designed with exact mutuality

Active participation must be encouraged in program evaluation process. Adults must

be given the chance to evaluate their development

In training activities problem solving activities and methods and techniques such as

group discussions, case study investigation, pole playing must be used instead of

theoretical and memorizing methods

Personal characteristics, learning styles and motivations of learning of learners

(mentees) must be known well.

Characteristics of adults below should be considered in adult education processes

(Uysal, 2019)

They wish to be behaved as mature people, to be respectful

They do not like learning experiences conducted as if they are children

They are somehow resentful, they are afraid of failure, feeling of ashamed

They do not like to be passive in the process of learning, they wish to be

active. They feel pleasure to plan and apply their self-learning experiences.

They need to participate the assessment of their self-learning

They do not like strict authority, they want to control their self-learning

process on their own

Opportunities should be given them to evaluate themselves

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Experts who will give this module can organize learning experience based on the

content of the module above. By using instruction activities according to her/his course plan.

4. ASSESSMENT

a. What is mentorship?

b. What are the differences between mentorship and work coaching?

c. What are the basic skills and qualifications mentors should have?

d. What are the mentorship stages?

e. What are the adult education principles to be considered in mentorship process?

131

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This project has been funded with support from the European Comission.

This publication reflects the views only of its authors, and the Comission cannot be held responsible

for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

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