biology eoct review sheet

8/12/2019 Biology EOCT Review Sheet

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CELLS

Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

PROKARYOTES:Single-celled organisms that lack internal structures surrounded by membranes that lack anucleus.

Examples: BacteriaEUKARYOTES:

Single- & multi-cellular organisms - cells containing internal, membrane-bound structures andhave a truenucleus containing the cells DNA. Examples: Plants, Animals, fungi, & protists

Organelles and their functions:Nucleus: contains DNA, which controls cellular function

Chloroplasts: capture solar energy for photosynthesis

Golgi bodies: modify, sort, and ship proteins and lipids

Mitochondria: ATP formationRibosomes

: synthesis of polypeptide chainsCell membranes:flexible boundary, controls the movement of materials in and out of the cell and maintainsa chemical

balance within the cell.Cell wall

: inflexible boundary that is thicker than the cell membrane that protects the cell and gives the cellitsshape. Found only in Plants, fungi, most bacteria, and a few protists

The importance of homeostasis

Homeostasis is the cells balance between materials entering and exiting the cell using

cell membrane.

The cellcontrols proper internal concentrations of water, glucose, and other nutrients, whileeliminating cellular wastes.

Selective permeability

is the property of the cell membrane that allows certain materials to pass through the cell whilekeeping others out allowing one cell to perform multiple functions. Ex Nerve cellresponse tochemical in blood (doesnt affect other cells)

Passive transport

is the movement of materials across the cell membrane without the use of thecells energy.Different types of passive transport are shown in the box below.

Diffusion:

the movement of substances high to low concentration.Osmosis:

the diffusion of water molecules from high to low concentrationFacilitated transport (Facilitated diffusion):


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occurs when a carrier molecule embedded in the cellmembrane transports a substance across themembrane by means of diffusion

Active transport:

a process that drives large molecules across the cell membranefrom a region of lowerconcentration to a region of higher concentrationrequires Energy

Endocytosis: cell surrounds and takes in material from its environment

Exocytosis:

cell surrounds and removes materials from inside the cell

ENZYMES

3 characteristics of enzymes

1. Enzymes do not create processes that would not take place on their own. (Makes faster)

2. Enzymes are not permanently altered or used up in reactions.3. Each enzyme catalyzes only one specific type of reaction, but can do multiple times

Enzymes

are catalytic molecules -they speed up specific reactions without beingused up in the reaction.Enzymes are proteins.

Substrates

are molecules that a specific enzyme can chemically recognize and bindProducts

are Substrates undergo chemical changes to form new substancesActive site

area of the enzyme that each substrate fits intoActivation energy

is amount of energy used by substrate molecules to reach the transition state.Enzymes to know:

Carbonic anhydrasespeeds up the process by which CO2 leaves cells and enters the bloodstream so it can be removed fromthe body.

lipaseis produced by the pancreas and functions in the digestion of lipids.

RNA polymeraseis an enzyme that facilitates the process of transcription.

Some diseases, such as Tay-Sachs and phenylketonuria, occur when the body fails to make a criticalenzyme.

Understand the characteristics of the four major macromolecules


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Carbohydratesprovides useable energy for cell

simple sugar with the ratio of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms is 1:2:13 classes of carbohydrates:

monosaccharides, oligosaccharides,andpolysaccharides.Examples

Glucose, sucrose, starch, and cellulose (plants only to make cell walls)Lipidsorganic compounds that have more (C-H) bonds and fewer O atoms than carbohydrates.commonly calledfats and oils- They are insoluble in h2oused by cells for long-term energy storage (and cell membranes)

Proteinschains of amino acids made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.important in muscle contraction, transporting oxygen in the blood, and the immune system.

Examples :Collagen, enzymes, hemoglobin, insulin, and antibodies

Nucleic Acidscomplex macromolecules that store and transmit genetic information in cells in a code.made up of 4 nucleotides (a small organic compound that consists of a five-carbon sugar, a nitrogen-

containing base, and a phosphate group)Examples include ATP, NAD + , NADP + , DNA, and RNA

Comprehend the importance of osmosis and diffusion on life processes

Diffusion:

The movement of dissolved molecules in a fluid or gas from a region of high to lowconcentration.

Osmosis:

The diffusion of water molecules across a semipermeable membranefrom higher water to lowerwater concentration. 2 methodsdirect or water channels in the cell membrane calledaquaporins.

ORGANISMS

Explain the flow of energy needed by all organisms to carry out life processes

Cells Use Energy:make new molecules (enzymes too), build cell organelles/ membranes & maintain homeostasis.

Understanding ATP /ADP (nucleotides) ATP,adenosine triphosphate

: special molecule that stores and releases the energyADP,

adenosine diphosphate: inorganic phosphate created when ATP releases stored energy

Phosphorylation:process where the terminal phosphate group of an ATP molecule can be transferred to a varietyof othercompounds using an enzyme.

bioluminescence:. The light produced by lightening bugs that is a result of a chemical reaction that is powered bythe

breakdown of ATP.-------


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Autotrophs: organisms that can manufacture their own energy-providing food molecules.

Chlorophyll, which is the molecule in the chloroplasts of plants that absorbs energy from sunlight.

chloroplaststhat contain the chlorophyll and where light reaction occurs.

stromaa gel-like matrix inside chloroplast containing ribosomes, DNA, and material for carbohydrate synthesis

granastacks of flattened sacs containing interconnected

thylakoidsPhotosynthesis:autotrophic organisms trap energy from the Sun and use this energy to build carbohydrates. Thistrapped

energy converts the inorganic raw materials CO2 and H2O to carbohydrates and O2Equation is:

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy from sunlight = C6H12O6 + 6O2

1stphase of photosynthesisThe Light Reaction (ENERGY)reactions split water molecules, providing hydrogen and an energy source for the Calvin cycle. Oxygen is

given off.The energy from sunlight causes electrons in chlorophyll to gain energy and pass the energy toother moleculeswhich are used to make ATP.

Electrons, along with hydrogen ions from water,are added to NADP + to produce NADPH.

NADP+ is the oxidized form (the form that lacks electrons)

NADPHis the reduced form (the form that has electrons) of the same molecule and carries energy to theCalvincycle.

2nd

phase of Photosynthesis - The Calvin Cycleform simple sugars using CO2 and H from water and occurs inside chlororplasts

stromaCarbon dioxide from the air combines with hydrogen from the light reaction to form simple sugars.Used to make complex sugars, starches, and cellulose.enzyme adds the carbon atom of carbon dioxide to a 5-carbon molecule.

carbon fixation(carbon is now fixed)

Creates a 6-carbon molecule and immediately splits into two 3-carbon molecules.

two 3-carbon moleculesformed are called PGA molecules (phosphoglyceric acid). These molecules areconverted into two 3-carbon sugars, PGAL (phosphoglyceraldehyde), using the hydrogens of NADPH +H+ and energy fromATP.

----------

Cellular respirationprocess of breaking down carbohydrates for ATP into simple sugars (glucose). Equation is

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy


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organisms are subdivided again based on evolutionary traits.Class

based upon shared physical characteristics.Order

based on a more specific and limited set of characteristicsFamily

GenusSpecies:the same kind of animal and can reproduce with other members of the same species---------------

Viruses

infectious particles made of a protein shell called a capsid, which contains either DNA or RNA.some viruses have an outer membranous envelope (from host cell membrane ) covering the capsid

andcontain both viral and host cell lipids and proteins.not living organisms - they are not cells and they cannot reproduce outside of a host cell.

must infect a living cell, a host, in order to reproduce their viral genetic material and to make new viralproteins.

Like living organisms, viruses contain genetic material (either DNA or RNA), can reproduce,

respond to theirenvironment, and evolve. Unlike living organisms, viruses are not cells, do not

contain organelles, and areunable to reproduce without a host cell.

GENETICSbranch of biology that studies heredity, the passing on of characteristics, or traits , from parents tooffspring.

DNANucleic acid

DNA forms a complex biological polymer used for storing and transmitting information

Are made up of smaller subunits

Nucleotidesare composed of deoxyribose, a phosphate group,& nitrogen.

Four nitrogen basesadenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). (A-T), (G-C).

Structure of DNA

DNA carries informationin a triplet code and signal beginning or end.

double helixnucleotides combine to form two ladder chains twisted with hydrogen bonds holds two strands of

nucleotides together and the sides of the ladder are phosphate groups alternating with five-carbon sugars(deoxyribose)

DNA replicationability to make an exact copy of itself.Mitosis or meiosis.It uses an enzyme to break thehydrogenbonds and unzips the two strands, which rebond as 2 copies


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Eukaryotic cells, DNA is found inside the nucleus

vs

Prokaryotes cellswhose DNA is attached to cellmembrane or free floating in the cytoplasm.

RNA

Singlestrand of

nucleotides, the sugar in RNA is

riboseand the nitrogen-

containing base

uracilreplacesthe thymine found in DNA. (U-A), (G-C).

TranscriptionRNA transfers the genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes in the cytoplasmwherethe

process of translation uses the genetic code on the RNA to form proteins from amino acids (one strand).

messenger RNA (mRNA):carries the genetic information from DNA to ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Translationconverts the information in the mRNA into a sequence of amino acids that make proteins.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)brings the amino acids to the mRNA at the r

ibosomes

so protein synthesis can take placem.RNA

codonsmust join with the correct

anticodonof the tRNA. A

codonis a group of three nitrogenous bases on an

mRNAmolecule that carries the code for a specific amino acid. An

anticodon

is a set of threenitrogenous bases on atRNAmolecule that matches a codon on an mRNA molecule.----------

Using Mendels laws, explain the role of meiosis in reproductive variability

dominanttrait that appeared in the first generation

recessive


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the trait that seemed to disappear. Today, scientists call these factors

genes.

Allelesalternate forms of Genes are located on the chromosomes 1 from female & 1 from male

genotype

is a list of the alleles for a particular trait in an organism.phenotypeis the physical appearance of an organism, or how the alleles influencethe function of that particular genein the organism.

homozygousIf the two alleles in a pair are identical

heterozygousIf the two alleles are different

monohybridcrosses involve 1 trait,

dihybridcrosses involve two traits.

Punnett squarewill give the possible results of genetic crosses.

Mitosis- asexualMitosis- asexualreproduction by simple cell division and DNA is divided equally between two daughter cells.

In mitosis in eukaryotes, the DNA is sorted into 2 new nuclei. A separate process divides the cytoplasm in twokeeping thenumber of chromosomes constant from one cell generation to the next.

In mitosis in multi-cellular organisms, cell division allows them to grow. It develops from a single cell into amulti-cellular organism, and make

other cells to repair and replace worn-out cells.

Mendelpredicted how traits are carried from one generation to the next using pea plants. When hemanuallyfertilized parent plants tall T

plants with short plants, the first generation of offspring (F

1) were all tall T. When helet the F1

plants self-pollinate, 3/4 of their offspring (F2

) were tall and 1/4 of the F2

plants were short (recessive

Mendels work can be summarized in three laws:

Law of Dominancedominant allele will prevent the recessive allele from being expressed. The recessive allelewill appear

when it is paired with another recessive allele in the offspring.

Law of Segregation(separation) gene pairs separate when gametes are formed, so each gamete (sex cell) has onlyone allele ofeach pair.


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Law of Independent Assortmentstates that different pairs of genes separate independently of each other whengametes are formed.

Meiosis (2 phases)Sexualhow gametes (sex cells- sperm/eggs) are produced-Reduces the number of chromosomes in the gamete to1/2 the number of parents chromosomes. When fertilizationoccurs and restores original chromosome

number, the union of two gametes form azygote.This process consists of two celldivisions but only one chromosome replication.

Meoisis 1produces two cells containing half the number of double stranded chromosomes(

diploid(2

n) cells)

Meoisis 2

produces four cells, containing half the number of single-stranded chromosomes(haploid(1

n) cells)

Describe the relationships between changes in DNA and appearance of new traits

Sources of Variation during MeiosisThe way that the chromosome pairs line up at the equator influence how they are distributed to thegametes. pea plant =7 pairs of chromosomes- each lines up during meiosis producing 128 (2

7

) different trait combinations.Humans= 23 pairs of chromosomes/ 8 million different trait /fertilizationmakes 70 trillion combinations!

crossing overtwo chromosomes physically overlap and exchange chromosome material changes the DNAsequencewithin each chromosome.

genetic recombinationreassortment of chromosomes and the genetic information they carry

DNA gene mutationsChanges in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule

andcause a change in the protein.

Mutagensharm DNA such as tobacco - ultraviolet light, ionizing radiation, free radicals..

Spontaneous mutations-result of replication errors. (alterations that can occur during meiosis)-

Base pair substitutions


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one nucleotide base is replaced by another. sickle-cell anemia-

base insertionmutation an extra nucleotide base causing creation of abnormal protein.

base deletion

mutation is the removal of a nucleotide base causing creation of abnormal protein.

NondisjunctionAdvantages of Sexual and Asexual ReproductionAsexual reproduction

does not require another partner

quicker than sexual reproduction - many identical offspring in a short period of time.

resulting organism is identical genetically to the parent organism.

advantageous in stable environment where parent genotype is well-suited (colonizers of newenvironments)

Sexual reproductionGenetic variability that results from the process of meiosis (greater diversity).

Increases chance offspring will have more advantageous traits than parents.

Advantageous in a rapidly changing environment - diversity of the population increases chance some willboth survive and reproduce.

Disadvantage more time than asexual (mating, meiosis, offspring growing)

Advances in DNA Technology and Genetic EngineeringMedicine:reinserting a corrected gene replace damaged gene

Forensics:labs id people from crime scenes through DNA fingerprinting. (blood, hair samples)

Agriculture:biologists produce plants with desirable traits.(disease and herbicide resistance, more nutritious.

Genetic Engineering:researchers cut, splice together, and insert modified DNA molecules from different speciesinto bacteria oranimal cells that rapidly replicate and divide. EX (mass produced insulin) Genetically modifiedcotton

resist worms which results in increased cotton and is ecologically safer than pesticides.Scientistsdeveloped genetically altered bacteria to eat up oil spills, manufacture alcohol and process minerals but

risk introduced into the environment.

ECOLOGY

Relationships among organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes

Ecologyis the scientific study of the interactions between living things and their environment.

ecologistis a scientist who studies ecology.

biosphere


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includes all organisms and the environments in which they live

biotic factorsthe living organisms in an ecosystemPlants Climate, Animals Light, Bacteria Soil Water

abiotic factorsnonliving factors in an ecosystem

Niche:the role that a species plays in its community and includes not only what an organism eats, but also whereitfeeds and how it affects the energy flow in an ecosystem.

Habitat: the place where the organism lives

Populations

A population includes all the organisms in the same species in a given area at one time whocompete forfood, water, mates, and other resources.

Ecologists study the relationships between populations and theenvironment, focusing on population size,density, and rate of growth.

Population density

is the number of organisms living in a given area.Many insects have juvenile stages that require very different resources from their adult counterparts.

Thisminimizes competition within a population.

Communities

A community is a collection of populations that interact with each other in agiven area (does not live

independently of other species) where balance is important. Ecologists study theinteractions between thedifferent populations in a community and the impact of additions to or losses of specieswithin

communities.

growth rateThis change in population size is known as. A growth rate can be positive, negative,

or zero. If a population is provided with ideal conditions, it willincrease in number

exponential growth (J curve)As long as these ideal conditions continue, as the population grows larger therate of growth increases.

logistic growth(S curve)as the population increases,t

he resources that are available become limited, andthe growth of the population slows and begins to

stabilize.

carrying capacity: the point at which the population becomes stable. 2 factors help stabilize it at that size.

o

density-dependent(competition, predation, parasitism, and crowding/stress)

ando


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density-independent limiting factors(Weather, fires, droughts/floods, human activities):

Ecosystems

An ecosystem includes all biotic and abiotic factors within a given area. Factors that affectthat maydisrupt an ecosystem. is the interactions among the populations in a community and the

physicalsurroundings of the community.

Terrestrialecosystemsare those found on land.

Aquaticecosystemsare in either fresh or salt water

.

Salt waterecosystems

are also calledmarineecosystems.

BiomesA group of ecosystems in same region with similar types of vegetation governed by similar climates

Terrestial Biomes-Tundra

Abiotic Factors:

40C to 10C,annual precipitation is less than 25 cm, windy, permafrost

Biotic Factors:

vegetation: treeless, grasses, sedges, lichens animals: arctic hare, lemming, fox, snowy owl-Tropical Rain ForestAbiotic Factors:20C to 30C,

annual precipitation is greater than 200 cmBiotic Factors: veg: broad-leafed evergreen trees, ferns animals: monkey, flying squirrel, birds/parrots,

jaguar

-Desert

Abiotic Factors:

temp from

20C-49C; annual precipitation less than 25 cm

Biotic Factors:vegetation: brush, cacti, small plants animals: camels, antelope, rabbits, reptiles, arachnids

-Grassland

Abiotic Factors:10C to 25C,


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annual precipitation 25 to 75 cm

Biotic Factors:veg: grasses, mosses, animals: grazing herbivores: bison, antelope, predatorswolves, lions

-Taiga

Abiotic Factors:30C to 20C,annual precipitation 30 to 50 cm, soil thaws

Biotic Factors:

veg: conifers, ferns, mosses, mushrooms animals: wolf, weasel, black bear, woodpecker

-Temperate Deciduous Forest

Abiotic Factors:

10C to 25C,

annual precipitation 75 to 125 cm

Biotic Factors:

vegetation: sugar maple, birch, pine animals: deer, rabbit, squirrel, raccoon

Aquatic BiomesOpen Ocean (salt water)

Abiotic Factors:h2o depth decreases sunlight & changes temperature, salt content change h20 density

Biotic Factors:phytoplankton, fish, dolphins, whales, seals, sea birds, etc.

Rocky Intertidal (salt water)

Abiotic Factors:alternating exposure to direct sunlight and submergence, salinity changes, rocky

Biotic Factors: algae, sea urchins, clams, mussels, starfish, etc.

Estuaries (salt water)

Abiotic Factors:large fluctuations in salinity, extreme temperature changes, etc.

Biotic Factors:

algae, mosses, aquatic plants, insects, shrimp, crabs, amphibians, birds, etc.

Freshwater

Abiotic Factors:seasonal fluctuations of depth and temperature

Biotic Factors:freshwater plants, algae, insects, fish, wading birds, phytoplankton, zooplankton-----------


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The ecosystems Energy flow (one direction)

Sun:primary source of this energy is the

producers (plants and bacteria):harness the Suns energy to make energy-rich molecules

photosynthesisuses the Suns energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.

Glucoseis the molecule that provides all organisms with a source of energy.

autotrophs, Producers are also called - meaning self-feeding because they do not need other organisms.

consumersanimals need to eat other organisms to obtain energy and matter

heterotrophs, (consumers) meaning they need to feed on other organisms.

Decomposersare organisms that feed on dead bodies of animals and plants or on their waste products.

food chaina way for energy to move through an ecosystem. As sunlight hits the Earth, the energy flows first to

primary producers, then to consumers, and finally to decomposers.

food webmore complex interconnected system of food chains

A FOOD CHAINSun

grass

mice

hawkA FOOD WEBConsumer Energy Source ExampleHerbivores eat plants deer Carnivores eat other animals lionsOmnivores eat both plants and animals

raccoonDecomposers break down dead organisms bacteria

Energy pyramidsshow how energy decreases at each succeeding level and the total

energy transfer is only about 10%.Not all the food consumed at each level is actually used for growth.and explains why population sizes

decrease through the trophic levels.

Secondary consumers 60 kcal/m

2/yrPrimary Consumers 600 kcal/m

2/yrProducers 6,000 kcal/m2


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/yr

Recycling of Matter (flows both directions)Matter cannot be replenished in an ecosystem, unlike the energy from the Sun.Ex CO2

Relate environmental conditions to successional changes in

ecosystems

Successionis the natural change that takes place within a community of an ecosystem.

Primary successionis the gradual development of a new community where noorganisms have lived before. An example is the

changes that take place after a volcaniceruption and the lava flow cools, hardens, and weather

Climax communityEventually, primary succession slows down and the community becomes stable.

Secondary successionoccurs when a natural disaster or human activity partially destroysa community where soil is already

present and the different species replacing the pioneer species havingless time to become a climaxcommunity.---------------

Pollution is contamination of soil, water and air as a result of Human activities

renewable resource: natural resource that is replaced or replenished by natural processes

Nonrenewable resourcesare available only in limited amounts. Ex. Metals, minerals, topsoil, fossil fuels.

Air Pollution

caused primarily by the burning of fossil fuels to produce electricity. Examples dust, smoke, ash,

carbonmonoxide, and sulfur oxides. Smoke contains gases and particles. (Black Lung from coal dust)

Smog:A combination of smoke, gases, and fog and contains sulfur oxides reacts with water vapor in

theatmosphere to produce sulfuric acid.o

acid rain:sulfuric acid falls to the groundo

damages crops,o

kills organisms in aquatic ecosystems, and

oerodes buildings and monuments.oleaches calcium and potassium from the soil, making the soil less fertile.

oDecreases PH in lake ecosystems causing excess acidity

carbon dioxide. Released when burning fossil fuels such as oil, coal, and natural gas


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greenhouse effect. Gases in the atmosphere trap suns radiant energy and heats up Earth surface, radiating back into theatmosphere where heat cannot escape.

ozone layer

surrounds Earth and prevents lethal doses of suns UV radiation from reaching organisms.thinningbecause of the release of CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) into the atmosphere. CFCs are manufacturedforrefrigerator and air conditioner coolants and process of making Styrofoam.

Water Pollutioncaused by contaminants from sewers, industries, farms, and homes,

Sewage, chemical wastes, fertilizer, and dirty wash water can enter water

Pollutants trickle down through the soil into underlying groundwater

Conservationconserve energy

limiting the use of energy resourcesincreased use of public transportation and carpooling.

making homes and buildings more energy efficient.

Using alternative forms of energy (Solar energy and wind energy)

three Rsreduce, reuse, and recycle. Reducedecreasing need of new materials

reuseor recycle

materials instead of throwing them away.-------------------

Plant Adaptations to the ability to survive stressful environmental conditions

Seeds of many plants will go dormant in unfavorable conditions.Plants also have adaptations for reproduction (multiple pollinators)Trophoisms plants shift

positions of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers in response to:

Tropism

a plants response to its environment

Geotropism

a plants response to gravity and causes the roots to grow downward and the stems to growupward

Phototropism

a plants response tolight (grow towards sun)

Thigmotropism

a plants response to touch (ivy grows up wall for support)

Hormones

chemicals used to control growth in response to environment


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.

Auxinsregulates plant phototropism by stimulating the elongation of cells. High auxin concentrations promotefruit growth. In fall, auxin decreases and fruit falls.

Gibberellinsgrowth hormones that cause plants to grow taller and increase therate of seed germination and buddevelopment. One signals that it is time to sprout.

Abscisic acidinhibits plant growth during times of stress, such as coldtemperatures or drought.

Animal Adaptations to the ability

to survive stressful environmental conditions

1 Inherited BehaviorAn animals genetic composition determines how it responds to stimuli

Instinctstake longer and may be a combination of behaviors.

innate behavior. Includes automatic andinstinctive behaviors w/o thought. (reflex)

Territorial Behaviorphysical space that contains the breeding grounds, feeding area, shelter, or potentialmates of an animal

reduces competition and increases survival.

Aggressionis another behavior exhibited by animals to fend off predators and competitors . same specieswill not

usually fight to the death with weaker animal submitting

Migrationis the instinctive, seasonal movement of a species triggered by a hormone (some use Earthsmagnetic

field.)

Hibernationis a condition in which the animals body temperature drops, oxygen consumptiondecreases, and

breathing rates decrease to just a few breaths per minute.

Estivationanimals reduce the rate of their metabolism due to extreme heat, lack of food, or drought.

2 Learned behavioris a result of previous experiences that modifies animalscurrent behavior.

habituation.It occurs when an animal is repeatedly given a stimulus that is not harmful and does not have anegativeimpact on the animal.

Imprinting


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when an animal returns to the place of its birth to lay its eggs

Animal Adaptations for Defense

Mechanical defenseis incorporated into the physical structure of the organism.

physical structures

such as claws, sharp ivory tusks, stingers, and shells.Camouflageinvolves colors and patterns that enable the organism to blend into its environment

Cryptic colorationorganism has the same color or pattern as its background. Ex. tree frogs

Disruptive colorationan organisms silhouette is broken up by color patterns.

Countershadingis when an organism is two-toned reducing visual cues to predators.

Chemical defenseoccurs when the animal produces stinging sensations, paralysis, poisoning, or just a bad taste.

neurotoxinsin their tissues that attack the nervous system of their attackers

poisons and venomsused by snakes, toads and stinging bees and wasps.

Use other species chemical defensesEx. monarch butterfly eats milkweed (poisonous to vertebrates)

chemical compoundsin plants that taste bad, or sap that is an irritant/poison.

nutrient exclusion.arent worth eating because they are lacking a sufficient amount of nutrients.

EVOLUTION

Trace the history of the theory

1809 Jean Baptiste de Lamarck presented theory that all life forms evolved and that the driving force of

evolutionwas the inheritance of acquired characteristics. changing due to the demands of environment.(giraffe neck)

Influenced Darwin /information he gathered

Charles Lyells

Pri nciples of Geology(1830)

.

proposed that plant and animal species had arisen, developedvariations, and then became extinct overtime while Earths physical landscape changed over a long periods

Thomas Malthus

An Essay on the Principle of Populati on (1789).Malthus proposed that populationsoutgrew their food supplies, causing competition between organismsand a struggle for survival

40,000-mile trip on the


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Beagle. Fossils in Patagonia- plants & animals varied due to geographical location.

Galapagos Islands, Darwin found many species specific to the various islands.

Darwins theory of evolution concepts (reproductive success)1 Variations within a species weredependent on the environment

Adaptationsgenetically coded traits that occur in organisms and enable them to be more successful in theirenvironment, helping organisms survive and reproduce passed on advantageous traits to future

generations.

Natural selectionchanges in a population that occur when organisms with favorable variations for that particular

environment survive, reproduce, and pass these variations on to the next generation.

2 geographically separated from one another resulting in reproductive isolation

.no interbreeding between organisms of the same species that are located on different islands (finches)

Darwin knew nothing about genesor principles of heredity. Scientists put together the concepts of naturalselection with genetics afterrediscovering Mendels work decades after it was

published in 1866 allowing scientiststo account for phenotypic variations in populations.

population genetics.researchers use mathematical descriptions of genetic phenomena to trace evolutionarytrends within

populations.Russel Wallace created another evolution theory based on the idea of competition for

resources as the main force innatural selectionusing Darwins data that supported his idea, becoming thedominant evolutionary theory.-----

Modes of Evolutions

Adaptive radiationspecies diversity occurs in a relatively short time. It occurs when a population colonizesa new area (manyspecies finches in Galapagos evolving from 1 species)

Convergent evolution.

unrelated species may independently evolve superficial similarities because of their adaptations to similar

environments. Data collected show that segments of DNA, and even entire sequencesof the amino acidsin some proteins, seem to be identical in many organisms.

Myosinis a protein found in

muscle cells of humans and multi-cellular organisms

cause movement. It is also found in yeast cells toallow organelles to move within the cell.

Biodiversity


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variety of organisms, their genetic information, and the communities they live in

Ecosystem diversity- variety of habitats, living communities, & ecological processes in the living world.

Species diversity

includes the vast number of different organisms on Earth.

Genetic diversityall the different forms of genetic information carried by all living organisms on Earth.Giving rise to

inheritable variation, scientists believe provides the raw material for evolution.

Molecular clocksare proteins that have changed very slowly & are shared by many species.

Speciationis the evolution of a new species that occurs due to changes in gene flow in populations of the ancestral

species.

geographic isolation

occurs when physical barriers cause populations to divide and prevent mating of individuals ( Volcanoes,sea-level changes, and earthquakes)

Gradualismis evolution that occurs over a long period of time when adaptive changesaccumulate slowly and steadilyover time in a population. Darwin believed in gradualism.

Punctuated equilibriumspeciation occurs quickly in rapid bursts, with long periods of stability.

Evaluating the scientific evidence that supports the theory of evolution (more info?)fossil record

biochemistry

embryologic developmenthomologous structures

Explain how fossil and biochemical evidence support the theory

incomplete picture of the evolution of plants,animals. Most fossils are remains of hard parts of organism.

2/3 of all organisms were soft-bodied, so no fossils

problem =few fossil remains of any intermediate or transition forms.Fossilation depended on where/how an organism died

Fossils could have been destroyed by erosion or pressure from overlaying rocks.

radioisotope datingdetermine relative ages of fossils within a time period using Carbon 14. Must knowthe half-life of the isotope being measured


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how much of the isotope was originally present in the fossil or in the rock containing the fossil

how much of the isotope is left

Determining the age of fossils.

relative datinggroups of fossils in specific rock layers so geologists can determine the age of the rocks, anduse todetermine the age of the fossils and interrelationships between organisms

phylogenyis a description of the lines of descent of plants and animals. (horse evolution)

phylogenetic treeshows the interrelationship of several species allowing biologists to infer likely phylogenies by comparing

morphological features, DNA sequences, and chromosomal characteristics.

Five mass Extinctions

(permanent loss of a species)End of the Permian period, when 96% of marine invertebrates became extinct.

End of the Cretaceous period, when they believe 6075% of marine species died.

Relate natural selection to changes in organisms

increases the organisms survival rate and increases chances this willbe passed on to future

acts on an organisms phenotype (indirectly on its genotype) resulting in adaptations allowing survival

Fitnessreproductive efficiency of genotypes in an environmetal population organisms structure, physiology,

biochemistry, & behavior adapt. strongest, biggest, most aggressive not always have highest fitness

rating).

varietyin populations phenotypes & biological capabilities enable survival in wider ranges of environments.

Environmentplays an important role in determining which alleles ensure survival.

Types of changes in organisms (selections)Natural selection

does not increase the organisms structural or behavioral complexity and does not produce newgenotypesand phenotypes. It does eliminates the less fit who dont adapt.

Stabilizing Selection(normalizing selection) may maintain the status quo for a population in its genotype or in its phenotype in

an environment. common in environments that have remained stable over long periods. Ex.Animals indeep ocean.

Directional Selectioninvolves changes from one phenotypic property to a new one.


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When environmental conditions favor the survival of individuals carrying a geneticvariant, the outcome isan increase in the frequency of that variant in the population. Examplepesticideresistance -mosquitoes

in swamp mutate protein to be resistant so successive generations could succeed .

Disruptive Selectionresults in the disappearance of intermediate or average forms between extreme variants. Willsplit aspecies into two or more groups by strongly selecting against the intermediate phenotypes.

Recognize the role of evolution to biological resistance

biological resistance(type of directional selection) results in fraction of offspring carrying allele that is resistant to pathogenwho respond to the favorable environmental conditions and increases that population variant.

Virusesare constantly evolving in response to changes in their environment.

Slow change give biologists time to create vaccines against them = smallpox or measles. Fast change

mutatestoo rapidly for vaccine like the flu.

Another virus adaptation is ability to live in two or more different hosts. Ex. One virus may originally livein pigs and then move into humans

Viruses carry their genetic information on eight pieces of DNA. So if two strains of the virus infect thesamecell, some of those genes will get mixed up, resulting in a new strain of the virus.

Characteristics of Science (Ethics)Scientists should be curious, honest, open, and skeptical in the pursuit of knowledge. It will require you todesignand perform new experiments that will either support or weaken the opposing explanations.

Accuracyindicates how close your measurements approach the accepted value.

Precisionis the agreement between two or more measurements.

Significant figuresexpresses the correct number in your calculations.

Scientific notationshould be used to report very large or very small values.

Solve problemsby substituting values into simple algebraic formulas.

Laboratory Safety

Always use correct procedures

when working with scientific apparatus.

Always use proper lab techniques

Immediately identify and report safety problems and violations.

To ensure good data collection and organization you should:

Develop and use orderly procedures for recording and organizing information.

Use technology to produce tables and graphs.


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Use technology to develop, test, and revise your experimental model

To communicate data clearlywrite clear, logical laboratory reports.write clear, understandable critiques of current scientific issues,including possible alternative interpretations of scientific data.use data to support scientific arguments andclaims during a group discussion.

Investigating Like a Scientist

State the Problem:Ask a question.

Do Background Research:Gather information.

Form a hypothesis:Suggest an answer.

Design an Investigation:Perform an experiment to test the answer.

Collect Data:Record the Results of the experiment; make a data table if necessary.

Analyze Data:Interpret the results of the experiment.

Draw Conclusions: Explain your results.

Ask questions:Identify new questions raised by the Conclusions for further investigation.

Communicate Results:Share your results.

Universal Scientist assumption:assume that the universe is a vast single systemin which basic principles are the same everywhere.

important characteristics of the process of scientific inquiry:

conditions of the experiment should be controlled to obtain valuable data.

quality of data, including possible sources of bias in hypotheses, observations,data analyses, and

interpretations, should be critically examined and tested.

biology eoct review sheet

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