biology eoc highlight review
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Biology EOC Highlight Review. Organic Compounds Organic = Carbon. All living things are made of organic compounds. Contain the element CARBON Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids THESE ARE THE FOUR MAJOR MARCRO MOLECULES. Carbohydrates. Monomer-(SUBUNIT) monosaccharide - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Biology EOC Highlight Review
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Organic CompoundsOrganic = Carbon
• All living things are made of organic compounds.
• Contain the element CARBON• Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
Acids
THESE ARE THE FOUR MAJOR MARCRO MOLECULES
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Carbohydrates
• Monomer-(SUBUNIT)• monosaccharide • Function- energy source
and structure• Tests: glucose-Benedicts
starch- Iodine- Turns bluish black
• Ex. Cellulose, glycogen, starch
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CARBOHYDRATESInportant Facts
• STARCH IS STORED IN PLANTS• GLYCOGEN IS STORED IN ANIMALS• CELLULOSE IS THE MAJOR COMPONENT OF
THE CELL WALL• STARCH IS MORE COMPLEX THAN
GLUCOSE• Sugars end in : ose--glucose• Enzymes end in : ase--lactase
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Lipids
• Made of fatty acids and glycerol• Function- energy storage and insulation• Tests: brown paper test , potato chips on
a napkin will leave a greasey residue• Examples: fats and steroidsExample: Bears store fat to hibernate
Lipid vs. water
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Nucleic Acids
• Monomer- nucleotide consist of a Sugar, Phosphate
and a Base• Function- carry genetic
information• Ex. DNA and RNA
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Proteins• Monomer- amino acids• Function- building and repairing cells,
communication, transport, and regulation REPAIR AND GROWTH• Tests- Biurets• Examples: enzymes, hemoglobin
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Enzymes• Catalysts in living things- CONTROLS RATE • SPECIFIC• Specific to a particular substrate• Reusable• Affected by temperature and Ph• “LOCK AND KEY”
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CellsProkaryotes• Simple, no membrane
bound organelles• NO TRUE NUCLEUS• Bacteria only• One circular
chromosome• Includes:
chromosome, ribosomes, and plasma membrane
Eukaryotes• Membrane bound
organelles • Plants and Animals• True nucleus
containing chromosomes
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Nucleus• “Control Center”—GENETIC INJORMATION• Contains chromosomes• If you studied Biotechnology this is the structure you would
be most interested in• Protein Synthesis begins here (DNA)
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MitochondriaSingular: Mitochondrion
• “Powerhouse” of the cell• Produces energy in the
form of ATP• Site of Aerobic respiration• ENERGY• This organelle has its own
DNA• Contains membraneous
folds that increase SURFACE AREA
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Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis
• Plant cells ONLY• Contains the
pigment chlorophyll
• Contains Thyakoids and Stroma
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Vacuole
• Storage of excess materials
• Plant cells usually contain one large vacuole
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Ribosomes
• Proteins are synthesized• Found in both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes
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Plasma Membraneaka: Cell Membrane
• Surrounds the cell• Regulates what
enters/leaves the cell
• Helps maintain homeostasis
• Made of phospholipids with embedded proteins
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Cell Wall
• Plant cells ONLY• Surrounds cell and provides support
and protection.• Made of cellulose
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Eukaryotes
Plant• Cell wall • Chloroplast• Large central vacuole
Animal
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Cell OrganizationCell
Tissue
Organ
Organ System
Individual organism
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Cell Specialization• cells develop to perform different functions• Regulated by genes
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Cell to Cell Communication
• Chemical Signals (hormones) can be sent from one cell to another
• Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane receive the signal
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Diffusion
• Form of passive transport (NO ENERGY NEEDED) across a membrane
• Solutes move from high concentration to low concentration
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Osmosis• Diffusion of water (also passive transport)• Concentration of water determines the
movement of the water from high to low
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Active Transport
• Particles moving against the concentration gradient which REQUIRES ENERGY (ATP)
• Low concentration to high concentration
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ATP
• Energy storing molecule
• Can be used for quick energy by the cell
• Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds
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Photosynthesis
• Water and Carbon Dioxide used to produce Glucose and Oxygen
• H2O+CO2C6H12O6+O2
• Occurs in the chloroplast
• Reactants are water and carbon dioxide
• Products are glucose and oxygen
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Aerobic RespirationWITH OXYGEN
• Used to release energy (ATP) for cellular use
• C6H12O6+O2H2O+CO2
• Occurs in the mitochondria
• Yields the most energy in Cellular Respiration
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Anaerobic Respirationaka Fermentation
• Does not require Oxygen• also used to release energy, but not as
efficient as aerobic respiration (less ATP)• Products include CO2 and lactic acid or alcohol • Two Types: Alcoholic Fermentation and Lactic
Acid Fermentation
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Autotroph vs. Heterotroph
• Obtain energy from the environment
• Photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
• “Producers”• Example: Plants
• Obtain energy from other living things
• “Consumers”• Example: Humans
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DNA / RNA
• Carry genetic information• Made of a chain of nucleotides• Nucleotides contain a sugar,
phosphate, and a nitrogen base
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DNA / RNADNA• Double stranded• “Double Helix”• Four base pairs: ATGC• Sugar is Deoxyribose• Found in nucleus
RNA• Single stranded• Four base pairs:
AUCG• Sugar is Ribose
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Base Pair Rule
• In DNA, Adenine always pairs with Thymine, and
Guanine always pairs with Cytosine
*Remember: Uracil is only in RNA and Thymine is only in DNA
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Replication
• Making of an identical strand of DNA
• The DNA must replicated before the cell divides
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Central Dogma
DNA RNA protein trait
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Transcription
• DNAmRNA• Occurs in
nucleus• Complementary
mRNA strand is produced from a segment of DNA
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Translation• Connects amino acids in the correct
order to make a protein• Occurs in the cytoplasm within the
ribosomes
A- amino acidB- tRNAC- anticodonD- codonE- mRNAF- RibosomeG-polypeptide
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Codon• Sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
that code for an amino acid
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Mutations• Change in DNA code • May cause a change in protein production • NOT always harmful• Mutagen is the cause changed
Sickle Cell Mutation
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Mitosis
• Cell division• Produces two
identical diploid daughter cells
• Occurs in body cells to grow and repair
• Remember Mitosis made my “TOES”
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Cancer
• Error in cell growth with causes uncontrolled cell growth
• Has environment and genetic variables
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Meiosis
• Cell division• Produces four
different haploid daughter cells (gametes)
• Occurs in sex cells to form gametes
• Remember meiosis made “”ME”
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Crossing Over
• Homologous chromosomes exchange parts of their DNA
• Creates variation in gametes
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Nondisjunction
• Homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis
• Can lead to Down Syndrome
• Three Chromosomes in the 21st pair
• “XXX”
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Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction
Asexual• One parent• Identical offspring• Variation only thru
mutations, less likely to survive chances
• Examples: budding, fragmentation, fission
Sexual• Two parents• Offspring different
from parents• More variation• Fertilization (fusion
of gametes)• Better chance of
survial in a changing environment
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Inheritance
• Traits are specific characteristics inherited from parents
• Genes are the factors that determine traits
• The different forms of a gene are called alleles
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Dominant/Recessive Alleles
• Dominant alleles are expressed, if present, and recessive are hidden
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Genotypeactual alleles an individual has for a trait
Homozygous• Both alleles are the
same• Ex. BB or bb
Heterozygous• Both alleles
are different• Ex. Bb
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Phenotype• The actual characteristic displayed by the
individual (ex. brown eyes, Hemophiliac)• THE WAY IT “LOOKS”
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Incomplete Dominance
• Heterozygote shows a blending of the dominant and recessive phenotypes
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Codominance
• Heterozygote expresses BOTH dominant and recessive traits
• Ex. Roan animals, Checkered Chicken
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Polygenic Traits
• Traits are influenced by more than one gene
• Ex. skin color
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Multiple Alleles
• More than two alleles for a trait (an individual still only inherits two)
• Ex. Blood Type (IA,IB, i)type A = IAIA or IAitype B = IBIB or IBitype AB= IAIB
type O = ii
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Sex Linked Traits
• Sex Chromosomes– Female = XX– Male = XY
• Sex linked traits are carried on the X chromosome
• Ex. Hemophilia, red-green colorblindness
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Test Cross• used to determine the phenotype of
an unknown dominant individual• uses a homozygous recessive
individual as the “test”
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Pedigree
• similar to a family tree• Shows pattern of inheritance of a
specific trait through a family
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Karyotype• Picture of someone's
chromosomes• Can detect
chromosomal disorder
Ex. Down Syndrome, Klinefelter’s Syndrome, and Turners Syndrome
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Human Genome Project
• Sequencing of human DNA
• Being used to develop gene therapies
• Known as “HGP”
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Gel Electrophoresis
• Technique used to separate molecules (DNA or proteins) based on their size
• Sometimes called a DNA fingerprint
• Used to analyze and compare DNA
• Known a “DNA FINGERPRINTING
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Recombinant DNA
• Cell with DNA from another source
• Bacteria used to produce human insulin
• Human gene inserted into bacterial plasmid
• Uses Restriction Enzyme to cut and insert
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Transgenic Organism
• An organism with a gene from another source
• used to improve food supply, research, and healthcare
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CloneEXACT COPY
• An organism made from one cell of another organism
• A genetically identical copy
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Origin of Life
• Abiotic earth LACKED Oxygen• Early organims anaerobic
prokaryotes
Miller and Urey Experiment recreating The abiotic atomospere
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Endosymbiotic Theory• Eukaryotic cells evolved from
prokaryotes • Early prokaryotes engulfed other
prokaryotes and developed symbiotic relationships
• Evidence includes mitochondria and chloroplast have prokaryotic type DNA
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Abiogenesis• Living from non-living or
spontaneous generation• Disproved by Redi and
Pasteur’s experiments
Biogenesis• Living from Living
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Natural Selection
• Theory of Evolution• Fit organisms
survive, reproduce, and pass on traits
Requirements:• Variation• Competition
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Adaptations
• Trait that increases survival
• For Example,– Beaks that make it
easier to eat insects– Bright flowers to
attract pollinators– Vascular tissue in
plants to adapt to life on land
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Evidence for Evolution• Fossil Record• Biochemical Similarities• Shared anatomical
structures Homologous
Structures Below
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Speciation
• Evolution of a new species
• must be isolation between populations
• Adapt or DIE
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Antibiotic and Pesticide Resistance
• Populations will eventually become resistant to pesticides and antibiotics with overuse
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Coevolution
• Two organisms evolve in response to each other
Ex. Flowering plants and their pollinators
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Binomial Nomenclature
• Two word naming system• Scientific name• Uses Genus and Species names• Ex. Dogs: Canis familiaris
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Dichotomous Keys
• Used to identify organisms• Paired set of questions with two choices
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Levels of Organization
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Phylogenic tree
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Protists• Unicellular Eukaryotes
• Can be autotrophic or heterotrophic• Reproduce mostly asexually• Paramecium use a Contractile Vacuole to maintain a
water balance
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Fungi
• Multicellular eukaryotes (yeast are the only unicellular fungi)
• Heterotrophs• Reproduce asexually
and sexually
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Plants
• Multicelluar eukaryotes
• Autotrophs• Reproduce sexually
and asexually
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Animals
• Multicellular eukaryotes
• Heterotrophs• Reproduce
sexually and asexually
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Non Vascular Plants• Also called
Bryophytes• No true roots or
vascular tissue causing them to be small in size
• Must live in moist environments
• Reproduce with spores
Ex. Mosses, liverworts
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VASCULAR PLANTS
• THEY HAVE CONDUCTING TUBES
1. XYLEM- CONDUCTS WATER AND MINERALS
2. PHOLEM- CONDUCTS SUGAR EXAMPLE: When they tap a maple
tree to get maple syrup
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Gymnosperms
• Non-flowering vascular plants
• Reproduce with cones that contain
seeds• Ex. Conifers (pine
trees)
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Angiosperms
• Flowering vascular plants
• Flower is main reproductive organ
• Seeds are enclosed within a fruit
• Ex. Deciduous plants
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Insects• Transport through open
circulatory system• Exchange gases
through spiracles and tracheal tubes
• Most reproduce sexually with internal fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Annelids(segmented worms)
• Transport through closed circulatory system
• Exchange gases through thin moist skin
• Reproduce asexually and sexually with internal fertilization
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Amphibians• Transport through a closed
circulatory system involving a three chambered heart
• Gas exchange in young with gills, adults lungs and moist skin
• Reproduce sexually with external fertilization
• Develop through metamorphosis
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Mammals
• Transport though closed circulatory system involving a four chambered heart
• Gas exchange through lungs• Reproduce sexually with internal
fertilization• Young develop in a uterus and
exchange nutrients and oxygen through the placenta (placental mammals)
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Viruses
• Not considered living things• Virus have DNA and RNA• Pathogens that can mutate to resist
vaccines• Ex. HIV, Influenza, Smallpox
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Genetic Disorders and the Environment
• Many diseases have both genetic and environmental factors
• Ex. Cancer, diabetes, PKU
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Immune ResponseB-cells
• Fight antigens in body fluids
• B-cells make antibodies
• Make memory cells after exposure to antigen
T-cells
• Fight pathogens inside living cells
• May help B-cells to make antibodies
• Make memory cells after exposure to pathogen
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Immunity
Passive Immunity• Antibodies are
introduced into the body
• Short term• Such as mother
transfers antibodies to infant through breast feeding
Active Immunity• Antibodies are
acquired when an immune response is activated in the body
• Long term• Ex. Vaccines are
weak/dead antigens that are introduced to the body
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Parasites
• Lives on or within a host
• Benefits while causing harm to the host
• Ex. Plasmodium causes malaria (genetic influence- carriers of sickle cell are resistant to malaria)
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Toxins
• Chemical that causes harm to the body
• Can be man-made or produced by microorganisms
• Ex. Mercury and Lead
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Ecosystems
• Collection of abiotic (nonlivng) and biotic (living) factors in an area
• Together they influence growth, survival, and productivity of an organism
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Symbiotic Relationships
• Relationship between two organisms in which one benefits
• Types:– Mutualism (+,+)– Parasitism (+,-)– Commensalism (+,
o)
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Predation
• Predator eats prey• Evolve in response
to one another
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Carrying Capacity
• Maximum number of individuals that an ecosystem can support
• Limiting factors:– Food availability– Competition– Disease– Predation– Natural Disasters
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Carbon Cycle
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Trophic Levels
• Steps in a food chain/web
• Energy passes from one organism to another
• About 10% of the energy at one level passes to the next
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Human Population
• Growth= birth rate-death rate
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Human ImpactsPositive
• Reforestation• Cover Cropping• Recycling• Sustainable practice
Negative
• Acid Rain• Deforestation• Habitat Destruction• Invasive Species• Ozone depletion from
the release of CFCs
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Global Warming
• Increase in the average temperature of the earth
• Caused by the release of too much CO2 into the atmosphere which amplifies the greenhouse effect
• Burning of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions
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Bioaccumulation
• An increase in environmental toxins at higher tropic levels
• Ex. DDT and birds of prey
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Innate Behavior• Behaviors an animal
is born with• Includes suckling,
migration, hibernation
• Ex. weaving of spider webs
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Learned Behavior
• Behavior an animal acquires during its lifetime
• Includes– Habituation– Conditioning– Trial and error
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Social Behavior
• Communication between individuals of the same species
• Can be courtship, territorial or chemical (pheromones)