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Biodiversity Mapping Survey/Study in

Kaziranga National Park (KNP)

Insects Chapter

Final Report

Prepared by

Mr. Rahul Khot

Entomologist

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1. Introduction

In terrestrial ecosystems, insects play a vital function as herbivores, pollinators, predators and

parasites (Seimann and Weisser 2004). Insects are considered to pollinate nearly 70% of crop

plants worldwide and over 98% of trees (Klein et al. 2006).

Insects inhabit every terrestrial habitat on the planet and play a major role in the evolution and

maintenance of biotic communities. They are the primary pollinators of flowering plants; they

are important consumers and recyclers of decaying organic matter; and they are integral

components in the food-webs of vertebrates and other invertebrates. For these reasons, and many

others, the study of insects and their relatives is of increasing importance as society faces

increased challenges to preserve and enhance environmental quality, reduce pesticide usage,

increase crop productivity, control food costs, and increase trade in the global community.

The damage cause by pest species is far outweighed by the positive effects of beneficial species.

Pollinators ensure the production of fruit, parasitoids and predators help control pest species,

some species contain chemicals of pharmaceutical value, and a large number of species

contribute to the decomposition and recycling of dead and decaying matter.

The Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan for Northeast Ecoregion states that 3,624 species of

insects are recorded from the region (Tripathi and Barik 2003). Butterflies and moths are by far

the best-studied invertebrate organisms in Northeast India, and the region contributes the

maximum number of species for the group in the country.

Knowledge of the fauna of the Eastern Himalayas Region is poor. Most of the information

available is on the larger vertebrates that are easily observed and inventoried. The smaller

mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes have been neglected and the most abundant

taxonomic group, the insects, have been virtually ignored. With the exception of a few studies

that have documented the Himalayas lepidoptera (Haribal 1992, Mani 1986, Yonzon 1991), little

else is available on the insect fauna of the region.

The information on insect diversity of Kaziranga NP is meagre as only a few studies have been

conducted so far (Singh and Varatharajan, 2013; Gogoi, 2013 and Senthilkumar 2010).

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2. Objectives

The main objectives of the KNP biodiversity mapping survey/study include but are not limited to

the following:

1. Establish baseline data and survey protocols for future biodiversity monitoring;

2. Establish sound, repeatable field methods appropriate for local conditions;

3. Establish rigorous methods for collection and management of data and specimens, including

the production of high quality photographic documentation with use of camera traps, analysis

thereon and on-site field reconnaissance missions;

4. To bring out management planning by defining habitat preferences and distribution of a range

of fauna/flora/assemblages and threats to them;

5. Identify habitats with rare, endemic and ecologically/culturally important species, guilds and

assemblages;

6. Identify natural assemblages of plants/animals;

7. Provide natural history information on a range of species;

8. Capture broad season-specific behavioral pattern of species.

9. Documentation of management practices and identification of management zones, based on 5-

7 above;

10. Prepare information, data bank, especially on the importance of KNP, available for education

outreach.

11. Share detailed data and information of KNP and develop stronger coordination among the

Forestry Department, KNP, and FREMAA through organizing workshops.

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3. Methods

Study area:

Kaziranga is located between latitudes 26°30' N and 26°45' N, and longitudes 93°08' E to 93°36'

E within two districts in the Indian state of Assam—the Kaliabor subdivision of Nagaon district

and the Bokakhat subdivision of Golaghat district.

The park is approximately 40 km in length from east to west, and 13 km in breadth from north to

south. Kaziranga covers an area of 378 km2, with approximately 51.14 km

2 lost to erosion in

recent years. A total addition of 429 km2 along the present boundary of the park has been made

and designated with separate national park status to provide extended habitat for increasing the

population of wildlife or, as a corridor for safe movement of animals to Karbi Anglong Hills.

Elevation ranges from 40 m to 80 m. The park area is circumscribed by the Brahmaputra River,

which forms the northern and eastern boundaries, and the Mora Diphlu, which forms the

southern boundary. Other notable rivers within the park are the Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri.

Kaziranga has flat expanses of fertile, alluvial soil, formed by erosion and silt deposition by the

River Brahmaputra. The landscape consists of exposed sandbars, riverine flood-formed lakes

known as, beels, and elevated regions known as, chapories, which provide retreats and shelter for

animals during floods. Many artificial chapories have been built with the help of the Indian

Army to ensure the safety of the animals. Kaziranga is one of the largest tracts of protected land

in the sub-Himalayan belt. The park is located in the Indomalaya ecozone, and the dominant

biomes of the region are Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests of the tropical and

subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome and a frequently flooded variant of the Terai-Duar

savanna and grasslands of the tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

biome. Average temperature ranges from 5 to 370

C and average humidity ranges between 65%

and 95%. Rainy season is May to October, and the annual rainfall is about 2500 mm.

Study organisms:

Butterflies are suitable for biodiversity studies, as the taxonomy, geographic distribution and

status of many species are relatively well known. Further, butterflies are good biological

indicators of habitat quality as well as general environmental health (Larsen1988; Kocher and

Williams 2000; Sawchik et al. 2005), as many species are strictly seasonal and prefer only

particular set of habitats (Kunte 1997). Butterflies may react to disturbance and change in habitat

and act as an ecological indicator (MacNallyand Fleishman 2004). They may get severely

affected by the environmental variations and changes in the forest structure, as they are closely

dependent on plants (Pollard 1991; Blair 1999). Thus minor changes in their habitat may lead to

either migration or local extinction (Blair 1999; Kunte 1997; Mennechez et al 2003).

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Literature review:

Scientific study and documentation of Indian butterflies can be traced to the arrival of a Danish

medical doctor Johann Gerhard Koenig in southern India, as early as in 1767. W.H.Evans (1932)

provides an excellent scientific documentation of about 962 species/subspecies of butterflies

belonging to five taxonomic families from the Assam region alone. Doubleday (1845) seems to

be thefirst person to work on butterflies in the state when he worked in northern Assam covering

the areas of Sadia, Jorhat and Cachar followed by Moore (1857) who worked in Abor Hills and

Mishmi Hills, including Sadia.The celebrated work of Bingham 1905-1907) is also remarkable.

There is renewed interest in butterflies of the Indian Region due to increased awareness among

Indian citizens about butterflies, their biology and conservation issues. During recent years

following workers have studies butterflies in different areas of Assam state, Bhuyan et al., 2002

(Regional Research Laboratory Campus, Jorhat, Assam); Ali et al., 2000 (Zoo-Cum-

Botanicalgarden, Guwahati) Gogoi,2011 (Jeypore-Dehing forest, eastern Assam); Gogoi 2013

(Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper Assam, India); Gogoi 2015 (Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong, upper

Assam, India)

Survey methods:

During the initial plan we provided different methodologies for insect sampling as follows

AREA SELECTION

Study area will be divided in various strata based on natural vegetation and human disturbance.

Grids will be selected randomly and number of grids selected will depend on proportion of each

stratum (same as for vegetation survey). The entire grid will be sampled if it is small and

accessible or random points will be selected in a grid for sampling.

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DOCUMENTATION

During the field work insects will be photographed by using SLR camera and macro-lenses for

documentation and identification.

SAMPLING

Sampling is necessary for the qualitative and quantitative estimations of insects. It will be done

by using following methods.

DIRECT SEARCHING

(For all insects)

The insects will be searched in all suitable habitats like vegetation, leaf litter, under logs, stones,

grasses as each insect needs a specific microhabitat for survival. The active search will be carried

out in those microhabitats.

INSECT NET

(For winged insects)

More active insects require more active search; particularly butterflies, moths, dragonflies and

damselflies. To capture flying insect nets will be used on field. Insects are easy to catch in the

early morning or cloudy conditions because their activity decreases during such conditions.

SWEEP NETS

(for insects present in low vegetation)

Many insects like beetles, flies, grasshoppers and ants can be found on grasses. To collect these

insects sweep net method is followed. This method involves passing a sweep net through the

vegetation using alternative backhand and forehand strokes. After completing a series of the

sweeps, insects caught in the net can be encouraged to move to the closed top of the net by

holding this end towards the light. The collected insets will be removed and identified.

PITFALL TRAPS

(For active, surface living insects in low vegetation and bare ground)

Insects like beetles, ants, cockroaches, earwigs, termites, and bugs generally spend much of their

time on ground for foraging. These insects can be trapped by using pitfall trap method. Pitfall

trap consist of a straight sided container sunk level with the surface of the ground into which

insects inadvertently fall. Pitfall traps are set in a line with two meter distance in each pitfall trap.

Pitfall traps will be left for overnight and in the next day all insects will be collected for further

identification.

LIGHT TRAPS:

(for night flying insects)

Many night-flying insects are attracted towards light. Standard light traps of different

wavelengths will be used according to the purpose of the study. Insects trapped in the traps will

be collected for further identification.

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QUANTIFICATION METHOD

Stripe transects of 10 m width and 500 m lengths will laid in randomly in each habitat to study

butterflies. Each transect will be intensively searched for direct sightings. All individuals seen

with in the transect limit will be recorded. Transects will be walked in two phases, morning

phase from 7 a.m. to 11 a.m. and evening phase from 4.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. when butterflies are

most active. Pace will be slow but constant covering the transect in about an hour.

Analysis of density, species richness and diversity:

The communities were analysed on the basis of density, species richness and diversity indices.

Density is expressed as the number of individuals of a species per unit area and is calculated as

follows:

Density (number of

plants per sample unit)

The analysis of biodiversity was carried out by calculating Shannon Diversity Index (H′),

Simpson Dominance Index (D) and Pielou Evenness Index (E). These indices were adopted

for their low sensitivity to the sample size (Magurran 1988).

Shannon Diversity Index (H’) = ‐ Σ pi ln pi

i.e. = ‐ Σ ni/N [ln (ni/N)]

Where, ni = importance value of the ith species

N = Importance value of all the species

Simpson’s Dominance Index (D) = Σ pi2

i.e. = Σ (ni/N)2

Where, ni = importance value of the ith species

N = Importance value of all the species

Pielou Evenness Index (E) = H’/ ln S

Where, H’ = Shannon Diversity Index

S = Total number of species

Species richness (D) was calculated according to Whittaker (1960)

D = S/ log N

Where, S = Total number of species in the sample

Total number of individuals of a species in all the sample units

= Total number of sample units studied

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N= Total number of individuals in the sample

After conducting the pilot visit we found that it is not possible to perform all above methods and

it virtually impossible to study insects other than butterflies do to following reasons

1. We found that do to presence of large herbivours in great number it is not possible to lay

the trassects for butterflies on foot.

2. Night sampling was not allowes and advisable.

3. To confirm the identification of many insect spacies require collection and examination

undr microscope, it was not done as we were not allowed to collected any insects from

the Kaziranga NP

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4. Results and discussions:

Literature based

Only three studies on insects have been carried out so far within the boundary of KNP

1. Butterflies (Gogoi 2009)

A total of 493 butterfly species have been recorded from hilly area of Kaziranga, Assam,

India based on field work carried during 2007-2009. These include 186 species of

Hesperiidae family, 144 species of Lycaenidae,119 species of Nymphalidae, 19 species

of Papilionidae,23 species of Pieridae and 2 species of Riodinidae. Please refer

Annexure 1 for checklist.

2. Orthopteroids (Short horned grasshoppers, ckickets, longhorn grasshoppers, praying

mantis) (Senthilkumar 2010)

Thirty-six species of orthopteroids belonging to 30 genera, and four families were

recorded in different habitats viz., forestlands, savannahs and grasslands of the Kaziranga

National Park (KNP) at Assam. The observations were recorded during the period of

three years from January 2007 to December 2009, by periodical monthly visits to Kohora

range (central range), Baguri range (western range) and Agoratoli range (eastern range)

based on the habitat types selected. The family Acrididae had the largest species

representation (19 species) followed by Tettigoniidae (nine species) and Mantidae (five

species) while Gryllidae was represented by three species only. None of the species found

in the study area are known to be threatened under any category of IUCN. Please refer

Annexure 2for checklist.

3. Trips (Singh and Varatharajan 2013)

The survey undertaken at KNP revealedthe occurrence of 96 species of thripsin 55 genera

under two major families, viz. Thripidae and Phlaeothripidae of thetwo respective

suborders, namely Terebrantiaand Tubulifera. Of the 53 speciesof phlaeothripids of the

latter suborder, the subfamily Phlaeothripinae had a representationof 44 species in 21

generaand the fungal spore feeding Idolothripinaewith 9 species in 4 genera. On theother

hand, among the 43 species ofterebrantians, 33 were represented bymembers of the

subfamily Thripinae in21 genera and the rest 10 species under 9genera by

Panchaetothripines. It is significantto note that of the 96 thrips collectedin the present

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study, 32 areendemic. Further, the collection recordhas also indicated the occurrence of

22species of free-living foliage feeders, 19anthophilous forms, 17 gall makers,

14mycophagous thrips, 8 pests, 7 each ofweed and grass inhabitors, besides 2 predatory

thrips (Table 1). Thus the fieldsurvey has not only reflected the diversefeeding habits and

habitats of thysanopterans but also signifies the faunal similarityto some extent with that

of theWestern Ghats of South India (60%), theGreat Himalayan ranges of North India

(35%) and also with Southeast Asia(20%) at varying levels, besides havingfauna of its

own along with a few cosmopolitanspecies. with SE Asia owing to proximity. Therefore,

thrips of KNP can be consideredas a mixed composition of diverse speciesfrom different

geographic regions.Please refer Annexure 3 for checklist.

Survey Based:

During this study we found 105 numbers of butterflies in the Kaziranga NP belonging to

six families (17 Hesperiidae; 21 Lycaenidae; 50 Nymphalidae; 2 Riodinidae; 8

Papilionidae and 7 Pieridae). Please refer Annexure 4 for the checklist.

16%

20%

48%

2% 7%

7%

Familywise butterfly species richness

Hesperiidae Lycaenidae Nymphalidae Riodinidae Papilionidae Pieridae

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Maximum number of butterfly species were observed in Karbi Anglong area of

Kaziranga NP. This could be due to availability of hostplants and nectorplants as this area

is reach in plant species.

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5. Future research recommemdations:

1. It is necessary to do long term monitoring of insects especially butterflies of

Kaziranga NP.

2. Care should be taken to device methods based on field situations. As during this

study, we observed that it is not possible to do execute all necessary field methods

due to various resons including presence of large herbiours and local climatic

conditions.

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6. References

Ali, I, and Basistha, S. K. (2000) Butterfly diversity of Assam State Zoo-Cum-Botanical Garden.

Zoo’s Print.15, 264-265.

Evans, W.H. (1932) The identification of Indian Butterflies. The Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay, India, 455

Haribal, M. (1992) Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their natural history. Nature

Conservation Foundation, Gangtok, Sikkim. 217 pp.

Klein A. M., Steffan-Dewenter I. & Tscharntke T. (2004) Foraging trip duration and density of

megachilid bees, eumenid wasps and pompilid wasps in tropical agroforestry systems.

Journal of Animal Ecology. 73: 517-525

Mani, M.S. (1986) Butterflies of the Himalaya. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. New Delhi. Pp.

181.

Larsen, T. B. (1988) The butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains of the Southern India Lepidoptera:

Rhopalocera). Journal of the Bombay Natural HistorySociety. 84: 26-43.

Tripathi, R. S. & Barik, S. K. (2003) Shifting Cultivation in North East India, In: Proc.

Approaches for increasing agricultural productivity in hill und mountain ecosystem.

ICAR research complex for North East Hill region, Umiam, Meghalaya, India.

Weisser, W. W. and Siemann, E. (2004) The various effects of insects on ecosystem functioning.

In: Weisser WW, Siemann E, editors. Insects and Ecosystem Function. Springer,Berlin,

Heidelberg. 3–24

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7. Natural History of selected butterflies

Family Papilionidae

1) Common Mormon (Papilio polytes)

Jet black butterfly with row of white spots along the middle part of hindwing. 90–100 mm.

Range

Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, southern and western China

(including Hainan (Guangdong province), Taiwan, Hong Kong, Japan (Ryukyu Islands),

Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Andamans, Nicobars, Eastern and Peninsular Malaysia, Brunei,

Indonesia (except Moluccas and Irian Jaya), Philippines, and Northern Marianas (Saipan)

Status

Very common. Not threatened. (Collins, N.M. & Morris, M.G. (1985). Threatened Swallowtail

Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)

Male

The male has one morph only. It is a dark-coloured swallow-tailed butterfly. The upper forewing

has a series of white spots decreasing in size towards the apex. The upper hindwing has a

complete discal band of elongated white spots. It may or may not have marginal red crescents.

The males are generally smaller in size than the females but not always. Both male and all forms

of the female of P. polytes can vary considerably in size depending on climatic region.

Female

The female of the Common Mormon is polymorphic. In South Asia, it has three forms or

morphs. These are as follows:

Form Cyrus

This form is similar to the male, differing in that it always has strongly marked red crescents. It

is the least common of the three forms. It is normally abundant where the common rose or

crimson rose do not occur, such as in Himachal Pradesh around Shimla; although a few

specimens of form romulus have also been caught alongside.

Form Stichius

This female form of the Common Mormon mimics the common rose very closely. This is the

commonest form wherever the common rose flies.

Form Romulus

This female form mimics the crimson rose and is common over its range. It is not such a close

mimic as the previous form being duller than its model. It is easy to differentiate the mimics

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from models by the colour of their body—the models are red-bodied and the mimics are black-

bodied.

Gynandromorphs

This species has considerable genetic variability and is known to produce gynandromorphs,

genetic aberrations which are part male and part female.

Mimicry

In India, this butterfly is considered as the classic example of Batesian mimicry in which edible

species resemble unpalatable butterflies in order to escape being eaten by predators.

The populations of the mimicking morphs of the Common Mormon are much smaller than that

of their models - the common or crimson rose. This is in order to allow first time predators a

much greater chance of preying upon the unpalatable model in the first instance and thus

learning of their inedibility.

Larger populations of mimics could result in the edible Common Mormon mimics being sampled

the first time by predators. If this should happen, the predator may not realise that butterflies of

that colour and pattern are protected by the poisons they ingest; thus dramatically reducing the

effectiveness of this scheme of protection.

In Sulawesi, although the common rose is abundant, the Common Mormon female morph which

is found there, mimics a completely different butterfly, Atrophaneura polyphontes.

Habitat

The Common Mormon prefers lightly wooded country, but is present everywhere and high up

into the hills. It is a regular visitor to gardens, being especially abundant in orchards of its

foodplants—oranges and limes. It is most common in the monsoon and post-monsoon months.

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Habits

Female form romulus seen laying an egg on Murraya paniculata

The Common Mormon is fond of visiting flowers and its long proboscis permits it to feed from

flowers having long corollar tubes. It is particularly fond of Lantana, Jatropha, Ixora, and

Mussaenda in city gardens. In the forests, the Common Mormon remains low keeping within ten

feet off the floor and its prefer to visit Asystasia, Peristrophe, and Jasminum for nectar.

The male Common Mormon is a very common visitor to gardens where he will be seen hovering

over flowers when the sun is shining. It is a restless insect, zig-zagging fast and straight close to

the ground, settling down only when it halts to feed.

The mimic female Mormons, stichius and romulus are very convincing mimics due to their

habits, especially the flight patterns, being very similar to those of the rose models. However,

lacking the protection of inedibility, they tend to be more easily disturbed than the roses and fly

off erratically.

Only the males take part in mud puddling, usually in cool shaded spots rather than in open areas.

They have been known to collect on saline soils to extract minerals.

Both sexes bask in the sun on shrubs close to the ground. They hold their wings flat against the

substratum. The forewing is lowered to cover part of the hindwing and is a typical stance of the

Common Mormon.

Common Mormons spend the night settled on vegetation with their wings held open, usually

quite close to the ground.

Lifecycle

The females perch on an exposed branch with wings open or closed. They are courted by the

males who approach from behind and slowly and elegantly settle into position.

Eggs

The eggs are laid singly on top of the leaves. They are round and yellow to light-orange in

colour.

Caterpillar

The first few instars of the caterpillar closely resemble those of the lime butterfly.

The later instars become dark green in colour. There is a transverse black band with an eye-spot

on each side on the 4th and 5th segments. This band, being darker and brighter than that of the

Lime Butterfly caterpillar, is the key distinction between the two.

The Common Mormon caterpillar also has a black and white oblique band on the 8th and 9th

segments, making it resemble that of the blue Mormon. The deep red osmeterium and yellowish-

brown head help distinguish it from the blue Mormon caterpillar which has a greenish head.

Common Mormon caterpillars are heavily parasitised by chalcid wasps, with over a hundred tiny

wasps eventually emerging from each Mormon pupa.

Pupa

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The pupa is located on underside of leaves and twigs. The pupa is light green and unmarked. It

has two projections to the front on its head and also one on its thorax. It closely resembles the

Lime Butterfly caterpillar but can be distinguished by:

- the projections on the head which have a deeper indentation between them.

- the abdomen which protrudes to a small point on each side.

2) Lime Butterfly (Papilio demoleus)

Description

The butterfly is tailless and has a wingspan 80–100 mm. Above, the background colour is black.

A broad, irregular yellow band is found on the wings above, which is broken in the case of the

forewing. Besides this the butterfly has a large number of irregular spots on the wing. The upper

hindwing has a red tornal spot with blue edging around it.

As the butterfly caterpillar ages, its hunger for leaf tissue continues to grow.

The underside has the ground-colour similar, the cream-coloured markings paler and

conspicuously larger. The markings differ from those on the upperside in that the forewing has

the basal half of cell and base of wing below it with cream-coloured streaks that coalesce at base;

irregular ochraceous spots in interspaces 5 to 8 and the discal series of spots complete not

interrupted in interspace 5. On the underside of the hind wing, the black at base of wing and

along the dorsal margin centred largely with pale cream-colour; the ocellus in interspace 7, the

apex of the cell and the black groundcolour between the medial band and postdiscal markings in

interspaces 2-6 centred with ochraceous, margined with blue.

Antennae dark reddish brown, touched with ochraceous on the innerside towards the club; head,

thorax and abdomen dusky black, the head and thorax anteriorly streaked with cream-vellow:

beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen cream-yellow with lateral longitudinal black lines on the

last.

Status, range and habitat

Papilio demoleus is an aggressive and very common butterfly. It is perhaps the most widely

distributed swallowtail in the world. The butterfly can be found in Oman, UAE, Saudi Arabia,

Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Iran, western and possibly eastern Afghanistan, and western Pakistan,

Sri Lanka, India (including the Andamans), Nepal, Burma, Thailand, the Philippines,

Kampuchea, southern China (including Hainan, Guangdong province), Taiwan, Japan (rare

strays), Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sula, Talaud, Flores, Alor and

Sumba), Papua New Guinea, Australia (including Lord Howe's island), apparently Hawaii and

possibly other Pacific Ocean islands.

Formerly absent from Borneo it is now one of the commonest papilionids in Sabah and Sarawak

in Malaysian Borneo, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) and in Brunei.

In recent years the butterfly has spread to Hispaniola island (Dominican Republic) in the

Western Hemisphere and subsequently to Jamaica and Puerto Rico. The Dominican population

originated from Southeast Asia but how the butterfly reached there is not known.

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The widespread range of Papilio demoleus indicates the butterfly's tolerance and adaptation to

diverse habitats. It is to be found in savannahs, fallow lands, gardens, evergreen and semi-

evergreen forests and shows a preference for stream and riverbeds. In India it is mostly found in

the plains but can be found on the hills of peninsular India and up to 7000 feet in the Himalayas.

It is common in urban gardens and may also be encountered in wooded country. The butterfly is

also a very successful invader, its spread appearing to be due to its strong flight, increase in

urbanization and agricultural land use that opens up new areas for dispersal, and greater

availability of food plants.

Behavior

This butterfly is an avid mud-puddler and visitor of flowers. It basks with its wings held wide

open on tufts of grass, herbs and generally keeps within a meter above the ground, even on

cloudy days. It relies on its quick flight for escape. It is an interesting butterfly in that it has a

number of modes of flight. In the cool of the morning, the flight is slow considering that it is an

edible and unprotected swallowtail. As the day progresses, it flies fast, straight and low. In the

hotter part of the day, it may be found settling on damp patches where it will remain motionless,

except for an occasional flutter of wings, if not disturbed.

It is also a frequent visitor of flowers in gardens, where it shows a preference for flowers of

smaller herbs rather than larger plants such as the ubiquitous Lantana with its plentiful blooms. It

can be found swarming in the groves of its food plants.

Research on freshly emerged imagines of Papilio demoleus showed that they have an inborn or

spontaneous preference while feeding for blue and purple colours while the yellow, yellowish-

green, green and blue-green colours are completely neglected.

Lifecycle

The number of generations of Papilio demoleus is dependent upon temperature – near the

equator, nine generations have been recorded, while in warm temperate China, five generations

have been recorded. In the ideal conditions of a laboratory, a generation has been recorded to

take place in just over 30 days. The average time for one generation of Papilio demoleus to

mature in the field ranges from 26 to 59 days. In cold climates, the lime butterfly is known to

pass the winter as pupae. Typically, the butterfly undergoes five instars as a caterpillar.

The female butterfly goes from plant to plant, laying a single egg at a time on top of a leaf which

it holds onto with its legs, and flies off as soon as the egg is laid. The egg is round, light

yellowish in colour, flattened at the base, smooth-surfaced and about 1.5 mm in height. Fertile

eggs develop a small red mark at the apex.

The newly hatched caterpillar stays in the middle of the upper side of the leaf. The first instar of

the caterpillar is black, with a black heads and two rows of sub-dorsal fleshy spines. The second,

third and fourth instars are dark, with glossy, dark-brown head, and white markings on the 8th

and 9th segments of the caterpillar which resemble a white patch of uric acid deposited in a bird's

droppings, helping them escape predation while remaining in moderately open places.

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As the instars progress, this resemblance is lost. From the fifth instar onwards, the caterpillars

now turn cylindrical in shape, tapered towards the rear, and uniformly pale green in colour with a

white sub-spiracular band. An additional black band is developed on the 4th and 5th segments

with two black and two bluish spots on them. The 8th and 9th segments, which earlier provided

the camouflage markings now develop a brown and white band. At this stage, the caterpillars are

forced to inhabit secluded places.

The pupa, which is rugose, stout and 30 mm in length, has two projections to the front on its

head and also one on its thorax and resembles that of the common Mormon Papilio polytes, the

difference being that the common Mormon pupa has a deeper cut between the projections and its

abdomen is more protruded on the sides, having a small point.

The pupa is dimorphic with regards to colour, with the colour developing according to the

prevalent colour and texture in the background. The green morph, which is found amongst green

vegetation and smoother textures, is light green and unmarked or with yellow dorsal markings.

When situated among brown or dry objects, the pupa tends to turn light grey-brown to pink-

brown and develop cryptic dark brown and black striation.

The adults fly in every month but are particularly abundant during and after the monsoons.

Parasitism and predation

Cocoons of a parasitoid wasp (Apanteles sp. Braconidae), next to a perforated Papilio demoleus

caterpillar.

Despite their two stage camouflage scheme, some caterpillars of Papilio demoleus are found by

parasitic wasps which lay dozens of eggs in them. The parasitic wasp larva eats the caterpillar

from the inside. Initially the vital organs are avoided, but by the time the caterpillar is ready to

pupate even the vital organs are consumed. Shortly before, or soon after the caterpillar pupates,

the parasitoids emerge from their host thus killing it.

In Saudi Arabia, the highest mortality rate was found to be in larvae and pupae in cultivated

populations due to a bacterium of the genus Bacillus. In addition, eggs and larvae were heavily

predated upon by two unidentified species of spiders which were abundant on citrus trees.

In China, species of fungi in the genus "Ophiocordyceps are known to parasitize many kinds of

caterpillars including Papilio demoleus. The spores were spread out of the parents’ fungi, and

infect the young caterpillar, then when the caterpillar becomes pupa, they will fail to develop

into an adult butterfly, instead the fungi killed, and eat the caterpillar flesh from within, and grow

a spore bud out of the dead caterpilaar corpse. The fungi were known as "Dōng chóng xià cǎo"

that have medicinal property in China, and are known in English as caterpillar fungus.

In India, the following braconid wasp parasitoids are known to parasitize Papilio demoleus

larvae-Apanteles spp. including Apanteles papilionis.Bracon hebetor.

In Thailand, a number of organisms have been recorded attacking immature stages of Papilio

demoleus.

Egg parasites

20

Ooencyrtus malayensis Ferriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

Tetrastichus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae).

Larval stage

Erycia nymphalidophaga Baronoff (Diptera: Tachinidae) (parasite).

Cantheconidea furcellata (Wolff) (Pentatomidae predator.

Other natural enemies of larvae included reduviid bugs; birds; spiders; sphecid wasps; and

chameleons.

Pupal parasites

Brachymeria sp. (Hymenoptera: Chalcididae)

Pteromalus puparum Linnaeus (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae).

Ophiocordyceps was a genus of fungi that it's spore got into the caterpillar, and start to eat the

pups from within growing a spore stalk out the cocoon, which is commonly known as Caterpillar

Fungus.In Jamaica, an encyrtid egg parasitoid and a chalcidoid parasitoid have been reported.

3) Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon)

The Common Bluebottle (Graphium sarpedon), or Blue Triangle in Australia, is a species of

swallowtail butterfly, that is found in South and Southeast Asia, as well as eastern Australia.

There are approximately sixteen subspecies with differing geographical distributions.

Description

Upperside opaque black. Fore and hind wings crossed from above the tornal area on tho hind to

near the apex of the fore wing by a semi-hyaline broad pale blue medial band which is broadest

in the middle, more or less greenish and macular anteriorly; the portion of the band that crosses

interspaces 6, 7 and 8 on the hind wing white; beyond the band on the hind wing there is a sub-

terminal line of blue slender lunules. Underside similar, ground-colour dark brown. Hind wing: a

short comparatively broad sub-basal band from costa to sub-costal vein, and the postdiscal area

between the medial blue band and the sub-terminal lunules velvety black traversed by the pale

veins and transversely, except in interspaces 6 and 7, by narrow crimson lines; lastly, a crimson

spot near the tornal angle with an admarginal yellowish-white spot below it. Antenna, head,

thorax and abdomen brown, the head and thorax suffused with greenish grey; beneath: the palpi,

thorax and abdomen touched with dingy white, the abdomen with two whitish lateral lines.

Male has abdominal fold within grey, furnished with a tuft of long, somewhat stiff white hairs.

Race teredon, Felder. (South India and Sri Lanka) is distinguishable in both sexes by the

narrower medial band that crosses both fore and hind wing. Colour brighter, the contrast between

the green of the upper and the blue of the lower portion of the medial band more vivid. Hind

wing more produced posteriorly at apex of vein 3, where it forms an elongate tooth or short tail.

Variously reported with wingspans between 55 and 75 mm, the Common Bluebottle has black

upper wings and brown lower wings. Both fore and hind wings are marked by a central spot in

the form of a blue or blue-green triangle, with apex pointing toward the body.

21

Habitat

Graphium sarpedon is primarily an inhabitant of moist, low-level rain forests (below 1600

m/5000 feet). In these elevations it is usually seen flying just above the tree canopy. The larvae

of the Common Bluebottle feed on trees of the laurel family, which includes the cinnamon tree,

and have expanded their range to include cinnamon tree plantations. In eastern Australia, they

have adapted to a drier subtropical environment, and are commonly seen in suburban gardens in

Queensland and New South Wales.

Behavior

The males are known for their habit of feeding by the edges of puddles, often at the roadside.

Occasionally, as many as eight will be seen at the same puddle. They have also been known to be

attracted to animal droppings, carcasses and rotting insects.

It has been recorded as a migrant in South India and is known to mud-puddle during migration.

The butterfly has been seen as comprising as much as 5% of the population of migrating

butterflies during a 72-hour period in the Nilgiri hills.

The Common Bluebottle is known for quick flight and rapid reactions. Consequently, it is

difficult to catch.

22

Diet

The adult Common Bluebottle feeds on nectar from a variety of flowering herbs. The larvae feed

primarily on the leaves of trees in the families Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Sapotaceae, and Rutaceae.

In particular, G.s. sarpedon and G.s. teredon often feed on leaves of the cinnamon bark tree,

Cinnamomum zeylanicum, or of the Indian laurel, Litsea sebifera.

The list of larval food plants also includeAlseodaphne semecarpifolia, Cinnamomum camphora,

Cinnamomum macrocarpum, Cinnamomum malabathrum, Litsea chinensis, Polyalthia

longifolia, Miliusa tomentosa, Persea macrantha and Michelia doltospa.

The larvae of G. s. choredon, native to Australia, feed on many native Australian species of

genera Cryptocarya and Litsea; and virtually all subspecies feed on leaves of the camphor tree,

Cinnamomum camphora, which is native to China but has been naturalized throughout southeast

Asia.

Life cycle

Egg

The egg is yellowish, laid singly on the leaves of a host plant.

Larva

When young, is black or dark green, with numerous spines; when full grown, it is green with a

short spine on each thoracic segment and anal segment. There is a transverse yellow band on the

4th segment and a lateral band on the body. The caterpillar usually lies on the centre of a leaf on

an upper surface. It is very sluggish and pupates near its feeding spot. " Smooth, thickened from

the second to the 5th segment and thence decreasing to the end; with two short subdorsal fleshy

spines on the 4th segment, between which is a transverse pale yellow line, two shorter spines

also on the 2nd and 3rd and two on the anal segment; colour green, with a longitudinal posterior

lateral and lower pale yellowish line." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)

Pupa

The pupa is green with a slender and pointed thoractic projection, yellowish wingcases and

lateral bands. "Conical, truncated in front; thorax produced into a lengthened obtusely-pointed

frontal process." (Frederic Moore quoted in Bingham, 1907)

23

4) Common Birdwing (Troides helena)

The Common Birdwing (Troides helena) is a butterfly belonging to the family Papilionidae. It is

often found in the wildlife trade due to its popularity with butterfly collectors. The butterfly has

seventeen subspecies.

Description

The description of the commonest subspecies of the butterfly in India, T. h. cerberus Felder, is

given below

Male

Upperside of forewings are rich velvety black with adnervular pale streaks on either side of the

veins beyond the cell. The cilia is short, black, alternated with pale buffy white in the middle of

the interspaces.

Hindwing: the abdominal fold, the apical half obliquely of interspace 1, the termen broadly, the

base of the cell and the costal area up to and including the basal half of interspace 7 velvety

black, the rest of the wing rich silky yellow; the veins prominently but narrowly black; the inner

margin of the terminal black border produced inwards into prominent cone-shaped markings in

the interspaces.

All specimens have one or more postdiscal black spots in the interspaces, but never a complete

series; in interspace 2 and sometimes also in interspace 3 these spots coalesce with the cone-

shaped projections of the terminal black border. Underneath the abdominal fold is a dense mass

of buffy-white scented cottony pubescence. Underside similar, the adnervular pale streaks on the

fore wing broader and more prominent.

Hindwing: dorsal margin broadly black, with an edging of long soft black hairs; interspace 1

with a large oval postdiscal and a terminal black spot; interspace 2 with the postdiscal black spot

generally separate from the cone-shaped projection of the black terminal border; the apical and

lateral margins of interspaces 2-6 pale yellow irrorated with black scales.

Antenna, head and thorax black, the collar narrowly crimson; abdomen yellow, shaded above

with black; beneath: the thorax with a large lateral patch of crimson, the anal segment

prominently buff-coloured.

24

Female

Upper and under sides of the female is similar to those in the male, but with the following

differences:

Forewing: the adnervular pale streaks broader and more prominent.

Hindwing: the black at base and along the costal margin broader, occupying fully one-third of

the cell, the area above it and above vein 7, interrupted however, in interspace 7 near the apex of

wing, by a transverse yellow mark which is sometimes subobsolete ; a postdiscal series of large

oval black spots, those in interspaces 2 and 3 often joined on the upperside to the cone-shaped

terminal black marks; dorsal margin also more broadly black, without the fringe of black hairs

and or course of the abdominal fold. Antenna, head and thorax as in the male; abdomen dark

brownish black above.

Distribution and Status

T. helena is widely distributed and locally common in forest areas. Globally it is found in Nepal,

India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, peninsular and eastern Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Laos,

Kampuchea, Thailand, Vietnam, southern China including Hainan, and Hong Kong. In the

Indonesian archipelago, T. helena is found in Sumatra, Nias, Enggano, Java, Bawean, Kangean

Islands, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Great Natuna (Bunguran), Sulawesi, Butung, Tukangbesi,

Kalimantan, and Brunei.

In Hong Kong, T. helena is at the northern limit of its range. It is not common in Hong Kong but

it is observed that there are stable populations in three sites (the surrounding area of Po Lo Che

(Sai Kung), Shan Liu Road (Tai Po) and Kadoorie Farm & Botanic Garden in the New

Territories. It is also found on Lantau Island and Hong Kong Island.

In India the T. helena is found in the North-East of the country including Sikkim, West Bengal,

and Orissa. It is also found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The subspecies found in India

are-

T. h. cerberus (C. & R. Felder, 1865) – Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland,

Manipur, Orissa, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura, W. Bengal.

T. h. heliconoides (Moore, 1877) – Andaman Is.

T. h. ferrari Tytler, 1926 – South Nicobar Is.

The Common Birdwing, though widespread and common in many of the localities in which it

occurs, is classified as Vulnerable. (Collins, N. M. & M. G. Morris. (1985) Threatened

Swallowtail Butterflies of the World. IUCN. ISBN 2-88032-603-6)

5) Paris Peacock (Papilio paris)

The Paris Peacock (Papilio paris) is a species of swallowtail butterfly found in the Indian

Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

Description

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/2880326036

25

Male

Upperwings are black and irrorated with dark green scales, which on the outer portion of the

forewing coalesce and form an incomplete postdiscal narrow band which is straighter than the

similar subterminal band on the forewing of Papilio polyctor.

On the hindwing, the irroration of dark green scales does not extend to the costal margin and is

interrupted posteriorly by a broad postdiscal area, on both sides of which the green scales

coalesce to form narrow diffuse bands; a conspicuous upper discal shining blue patch occupies

the base of interspace 4 and outer portions of interspaces 5 and 6; this patch is variable in size,

and in many specimens extends narrowly below and above the interspaces 3 and 7, respectively,

its outer margin is uneven, its inner margin evenly arched; a prominent claret-red largely black-

centred ocellus at the tornal angle, its inner margin with a transverse short violet-blue superposed

line; in many specimens an obscure claret-red subterminal lunule in interspace 7.

Underside opaque black; bases of both fore and hind wings, up to basal half of cell in fore and up

to apex of cell in hind wing, with an irroration of yellowish scales; also present more obscurely

on the subterminal area in both wings. Fore wing with a very broad elongate triangular pale area

that does not extend to the termen, formed of inter-nervular broad very pale ochraceous-white

streaks, short near the tornus, gradually longer up to the costa. Hind wing: a prominent

subterminal series of ochraceous-red lunules traversed by short violet-blue lines; in interspaces

1,2 and sometimes in 3, these lunules are formed into more or less complete largely black

centred ocelli by the addition of an admarginal portion of the red ring. Cilia conspicuously white

in the interspaces. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black, the latter three sprinkled with

green scales above.

Female

Similar to the male but somewhat paler and duller. Upperside of the forewing has the green

postdiscal band shorter and more incomplete than in the male. Hindwing with the upper discal

patch smaller, often green and not blue, the red subterminal lunule in interspace 7 is always

present and more prominent than in the male.

Underside of wings similar to that in the male, but the tornal and subtornal markings generally

formed into more or less complete ocelli.

Wingspan: 106–132 mm

Distribution

The Himalayas from Kumaon to Sikkim, Nepal and Bhutan; the hills of Assam, Burma and

Tenasserim, extending to Thailand and the Malay Peninsula. A common insect in Sikkim, where

it is found from the Terai up to 5,000 feet. It is rare in Burma and Tenasserim. It also occurs in

some parts of the Western Ghats, such as the Chikmaglure b.b.hill ranges.

6) Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon)

The Tailed Jay (Graphium agamemnon) is a predominantly green and black tropical butterfly

that belongs to the swallowtail family. The butterfly is also called green-spotted triangle, tailed

26

green jay, or the green triangle. It is a common, nonthreatened species native to India, Sri Lanka

through Southeast Asia and Australia. Several geographic races are recognized.

Range

Southern India to Saurashtra, Northern India (Kumaon to Assam), Nepal, Sri Lanka, Andamans,

Nicobars, Bangladesh, Brunei, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, southern China (including

Hainan), Taiwan, South East Asia to New Guinea, Bougainville, Solomon Islands, and Australia

(northern Queensland).

Description

Male upperside black. Forewing with the following green markings: a spot at the extreme base

of the costal margin, a transverse short bar near base of cell and seven spots beyond, two and two

except the apical spot which is single ; two spots beyond apex of cell; a spot at base of

interspaces 1a and 1, followed by two oblique short macular bands; a discal series of spots

decreasing in size towards the costa, and a postdiscal series of smaller spots that begins with two

in interspace 1; the spots in interspace 7 in both series are out of line, placed outwards. Hind

wing: three series of similarly-coloured markings that ran transversely across the wing more or

less parallel to the dorsal margin, the upper markings (those in interspace 7) white; a short

greenish stripe at the extreme base of the wing.

Ventral view

Underside: fuliginous brown or brownish-black, more or less suffused with pink along the costal

margin, on apical area and along the outer margin of the discal markings on the fore wing,

broadly along the dorsal and terminal margins and at base on interspaces 6 and 7 on the hind

wing; markings similar to those on the upperside but less clearly defined and somewhat more

grey in tint. Hind wing black, inwardly red-margined spots superposed on the pink area in

interspaces 6 and 7. cilia very narrow, pale pink. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen black,

thorax above and the abdomen on the sides streaked with greenish grey; beneath: ochreous grey

touched on the thorax with pink.

Female similar, but with a streak of greenish white along the dorsal margin on both upper and

under sides.

Race decoratus is found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is very similar to the typical

form, from which it can be distinguished as follows : Upperside green spots smaller, especially

the discal series on the fore wing. Underside hind wing : the red postcostal spot is relatively

small but the red part has much increased against the black part; besides the large red anal mark

and the mark before the first disco-cellular veinlet, there is a large red spot in the lower median

cellule, a smaller red spot in each of the three preceding cellules and a streak-like spot at the base

of the lower median cellule.

Status

27

Graphium agamemnon is common and not threatened.

Habitat

Once found primarily close to wooded country where there is a fairly heavy rainfall, the Tailed

Jay is now very common at low elevations and regularly seen in gardens and urban areas due to

its foodplant, Polyalthia longifolia (False Ashoka or Mast Tree), being widely used as an

ornamental tree.

Behavior

Strong and restless fliers, they are very active butterflies and flutter their wings constantly even

when at flowers. They are seldom seen drinking from damp patches. The males are particularly

fond of nectaring from flowers such as Lantana, Ixora, Mussaenda, and Poinsettia. The females

are more likely caught when looking for foodplants or laying eggs.

Tailed Jays are active throughout the year but their abundance depends upon the local monsoon

and availability of the larval host plants. The butterflies generally fly among the tree-tops but

descend to ground level in search of flowers or host plants. Because of their relatively fast life

cycle (just over one month from egg to adult), Tailed Jays are multivoltine and may produce up

to 7–8 broods per year.

It has been noted in one instance to be attracted to lights at night.

Life cycle

This species can take from 33–36 days from egg to adult. The species is multivoltine with at least

7–8 broods in a year.

Eggs

The eggs are pale yellow and are laid singly on the underside of young leaves, and hatch after 3–

4 days.

Larva

Young larvae are dark yellowish green with a pale yellow band in the middle of the abdomen.

From the head, which is moderately large, the body increases in thickness rapidly to the 4th or

5th segment and then tapers gradually down to the tail. It has four pairs of spines. The colour is

at first smoky-black, but at the last moult becomes a light clear green faintly marked with lines of

a darker shade. The fully grown larva is green, fusiform and having small black spots. It has a

pair of osmeterium and black spines on each thoracic segment, the third pair being orange-

yellow. A fourth pair is situated on the last segment. The caterpillars undergo five instars over a

period of 15–16 days, during which many are attacked by parasitoid wasps.

Pupa

The pupae are green or brownish. They are found attached on the underside of leaves; sometimes

on the upperside, and are held in place with a body girdle. The pupal stage lasts for 13–14 days.

The horns are tipped with rusty brown.

28

Family Pieridae

1) Common Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona)

The Common Emigrant or Lemon Emigrant (Catopsilia pomona) is a medium-sized pierid

butterfly found in Asia and parts of Australia. The species gets its name from its habit of

migration. Some early authors considered them as two distinct species Catopsilia crocale and

Catopsilia pomona.

Description

The species has pale and dark morphs in Australia. The form crocale has the antennae black and

the form pomona has the antennae pinkish or red. The development of these forms has been

linked to photoperiod and temperature during growth.

Male

Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2.

"The upperside of the male is chalky-white, sometimes with a more or less broad and clearly

defined basal sulphur-yellow area on both fore and hind wings; this sulphur-yellow colour is at

times diffused over the whole surface of the wings, though generally it becomes paler towards

the terminal margins. For the fore wing, the whole, or sometimes only the apical half, of the

costa narrowly black, this color widened out irregularly at the apex; termen widely black at the

apex, the colour narrowed posteriorly. This border in some specimens almost reaches the tornus,

in others terminates above vein 4; occasionally it is continued posteriorly by a series of block

dots at the apices of the veins. Hind wing: generally uniform, unmarked, some specimens bear

minute black dots at the apices of the veins.

"On the underside the groundcolour is very variable, with white with a slight to strong

ochraceous tinge, greenish white or sulphur-yellow. The fore wing is typically without markings,

in some specimens with a patch of sulphur-yellow on either side of base of median nervure, in

the very yellow examples the tornal area is often widely greenish white, in others (Catopsilia

catilla, Cramer) it bears a spot variable in size on the discocellulars. This spot has a pearly centre

and an outer reddish line. Many specimens have an irregular angulated narrow discal reddish line

(the colour varies in intensity) that runs from the costa obliquely outwards to vein 7, and then

obliquely inwards to vein 2, though this line is often absent in specimens that bear the

discocellular spot; apex and termen sometimes very narrowly reddish. The hind wing is typically

uniform, without markings; in var. catilla there is a single small spot at the end of the cell similar

to that on the fore wing, sometimes this spot is much larger with a narrow outer reddish ring,

sometimes it is accompanied by a similar spot at base of interspace 5; when two spots are present

they may be entirely separate, or their outer rings may coalesce; again, some specimens have a

highly irregular discal reddish line (often reduced to a series of minute spots) that extends from

the costa to vein 1; finally, the majority of specimens have a series of minute red terminal dots at

the apices of the veins."

Female

29

Quoted from Bingham, C. T. (1907) Fauna of British India. Butterflies. Volume 2.

"On the female upperside the ground-color varies as in the male, but sometimes it is chalky white

at the bases of the wings, with the terminal margins more or less broadly sulphur-yellow. Fore

wings always with a round, occasionally quadrate, black discocellular spot variable in size; in

some specimens the costa is black only towards the apex of the wing, in others broadly black

throughout and opposite the apex of cell so widened out as to touch the discocellular spot. In

lightly marked specimens in addition to the discocellular spot, there is only an irregular terminal

black band dentate inwardly and widest at the apex of the wing; in others there is in addition a

more or less diffuse highly curved macular postdiscal band that extends from the costa obliquely

outwards down to vein 7, where it often touches the terminal black band, and thence is continued

downward and slightly inclined inwards to interspace 1, getting gradually paler and fainter

posteriorly. Hind wing: a series of terminal inter-spacial black spots that vary in size, and in the

dark forms coalesce into a terminal black band."

"The underside varies from white with a light yellowish sometimes ochraeeous tinge to deep

chrome-yellow; markings as in the male but still more variable; in var. catilla the spot at the apex

of the cell in both fore and hind wings is enlarged into a large reddish blotch, the similar spot on

tho hind wing is sometimes so enlarged as to occupy the apex of the cell, the basal two-thirds of

interspaces 4, 5, and 6, and the middle third of interspace 7; in some specimens it is continued

posteriorly in a series of obscure lunules to interspace 1a. Antennae red, obscurely dotted with

black, palpi and head above red, thorax clothed with long yellow, sometimes greenish hairs,

abdomen pale yellow; beneath: palpi and thorax pale to dark yellow, abdomen white."

Lifecycle

Egg

The eggs of the butterfly are laid on various species of plants including several Cassias. Other

host plants include Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula, Bauhinia spp., Pterocarpus indicus, Senna

alata and Sesbania species. The eggs are usually laid singly on the underside, at the margin of the

leaves. Each egg is white, bottle shaped, and ribbed vertically. The eggs hatch in 3–4 days.

Caterpillar (larva)

The newly hatched caterpillar is about 0.5 cm long and is of a yellowish green color. In later

instars the color changes to a leafy green. The head is green and spotted with tiny black

tubercules. The spiracules are covered with a continuous white line. Each segment of the body

bears tiny shiny black tubercules. The tubercules immediately above the spiracular line being

larger and more distinct giving the effect of a black line over the white spiracular line. The paired

lines are found on both sides of the body and run from head to anus. The similar Catopsilia

pyranthe caterpillar has a much broader black line leaving only a narrow green line on the back

of the body.

The larva is described by Bell as "The head is round, green, the clypeus edged with brown,

covered with small shiny black tubercles which... do not hide the colour of the head; the anal flap

30

is rounded, but looks square at the extremity, and is covered with rows of small black tubercles...

of which only the row along the spiracular line is conspicuous. The spiracles are oval, shiny and

white. The colour is green with a spiracular white band touched with bright yellow on segments

2-5, and these segments, especially 3 and 4, are distinctly flanged on the spiracular line. Length

51 mm.

Crysalis (Pupa)

Pupation takes place low to the ground. The pupa is suspended by a silken body band and

attached to the substrate by a black cremaster. Its entire body is bright leaf green. A continuous

yellow runs from the cremaster to the head, the head ending in a snout. In the similar Catopsilia

pyranthe the snout is short.

The pupa is described by Bell as "The pupa has the dorsal line of the thorax absolutely parallel to

the longitudinal axis of the pupa for two-thirds of its length, consequently the hinder part just

before the margin is perpendicular to this part, it is raised suddenly but very slightly above the

front margin of segment 4, and the front end of this parallel dorsal line is at an angle, and a

sharpish angle, with the front slope of the thorax. The cremaster is distinctly bifid at the

extremity, and has some shiny, very stout, black, suspensory hooks dorsally as well as at the

extremity. There is a dorsal rugose black tip to the snout terminating the head, which snout is

cylindrical in its apical half; there is no black line round the eye and there is a dark green-blue

dorsal line which is yellow on the thorax as well as the supra-spiracular yellow line. Length 34

mm; length of snout 3 mm; breadth at segment 7 is 9 mm; height at apex of curve of wing

(segment 6) 10 mm; height at apen of thorax 8 mm".

2) Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe)

The Mottled Emigrant (Catopsilia pyranthe) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae

found in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and parts of Australia.

Description

Male

The upperside is chalky-white, slightly tinted in some specimens with green. The fore wing is

with or without a discocellular black spot, that varies in size; costa and termen sometimes

without a black margin; occasionally the costa has its apical third narrowly black, broadened

slightly at the apex with black spots between the anterior veins; or again, the costa may be

narrowly black, the apex very broadly so, and this colour continued down the termen but

narrowed posteriorly. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, but generally with narrow

terminal black spots at the apices of the veins, these often reduced to mere dots, or again so

broadened as to coalesce into a narrow terminal black margin.

The underside's ground-colour is similar, suffused on the anterior half of the fore and over the

whole surface of the hind wing with a greenish tint that varies to an ochraceous yellow, and,

except in the very palest specimens, is evenly irrorated over the greenish or ochraceous-tinted

31

areas with transverse, short, reddish-brown strigae; both fore and hind wings with generally an

obscure discocellular reddish-brown spot or indication thereof.

Female

The upperside is as in the male, but sometimes with a suffusion of pale greenish yellow on the

terminal third or fourth only of both fore and hind wings, rarely of that tint throughout. The fore

wing is always with a discocellular black spot that varies very much in size; costa sometimes

narrowly black with the basal half pinkish, in other specimens narrowly black throughout, the

black broadened at the apex and continued along the anterior half of the termen in a series of

inwardly-pointed black spots; or again, the costa may be more broadly black, that colour

widened considerably at the apex and continued broadly down the termen to vein 3, then

suddenly narrowed to a slender line at the tornus. In most specimens there is an anterior

postdiscal short black macular baud; in the dark forms this coalesce with the black on apex and

termen. The hind wing is sometimes immaculate, sometimes with a series of terminal spots at the

apices of the veins, sometimes with a narrow dusky-black terminal band broadest near the apex,

narrowed posteriorly to a slender line at the tornus. In the very dark specimens there is in

addition an ill-defined, short anterior postdiscal macular black band.

The underside is as in the male, with similar variations, but in addition in most specimens the

discocellular spots are well-defined with an outer red ring that encircles a silvery spot; on the

hind wing one or two similar spots on each side of the discocellulars; generally, also both wings

are crossed by a transverse postdiscal line of minute red spots, which on the fore wing is

confined to the anterior portion, on the hind wing is nearly complete. In both sexes: antennae

reddish, head and thorax anteriorly brown, thorax clothed posteriorly with long white hairs,

abdomen white: beneath: the palpi, thorax, and abdomen white.

Life history

The host plants of the species include Cassia spp. (e.g., C. fistula, C. javanica or C. roxburghii,

C. bakeriana), Gnidia glauca, Senna spp. (e.g. S. alata; S. auriculata; S. garrettiana), Crotalaria

spp., Ormocarpum cochinchinense, Sesbania spp. and Colocasia sp.

Pupa

The development period from egg to adult is 22 to 29 days allowing up to 11-12 generations a

year.

Larva: "Long, somewhat depressed, rough, green, with a white lateral line and above it a black

line more or less conspicuous, formed by minute black shining tubercles. In short, this larva in

very like a big specimen of a Eurema hecabe"

Pupa: "Much stouter (i.e. than that of Eurema hecabe, and the keel formed by the wing-cases

much less pronounced. The normal colour is pale green with a yellow lateral line. We have never

32

found it on any plant except Senna occidentalis. It habitually rests on the upperside along the

midrib, like almost all Pierine larvae." Davidson and Aitken, quoted in Bingham.

3) Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe)

The Large Grass Yellow or Common Grass Yellow (Eurema hecabe) is a small pierid butterfly

species found in Asia or Africa. They are found flying close to the ground and are found in open

grass and scrub habitats. It is simply known as "the grass yellow" in parts of its range; the

general term otherwise refers to the entire genus Eurema.

33

Description

The Common Grass Yellow exhibits seasonal polyphenism. The lepidopteran has a darker

summer morph, triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration, while the shorter diurnal

period of 12 hours or less induces a fairer morph in the post-monsoon period.

Male

Upperside: yellow, variable in tint from sulphur to rich lemonz-yellow according to locality with

a light or heavy rainfall. Fore wing: apex and termen deep black, this colour continued narrowly

along the costal margin to base of wing, near which it often becomes diffuse; the inner margin of

the black area from costa to vein 4 very oblique and irregular, between veins 2 and 4 excavate on

the inner side, this excavation outwardly rounded between the veins and inwardly toothed on

vein 3; below vein 2 the black area is suddenly dilated into a square spot which occupies the

whole of the tornal angle; the inner margin of this dilatation is variable, in the typical form

slightly concave. Hind wing: terminal margin with a narrow black band which is attenuated

anteriorly and posteriorly; dorsal margin broadly paler than the ground-colour.

Underside: yellow, generally a slightly paler shade than that of the upperside, with the following

reddish-brown markings. Fore wing: two small spots or specks in basal half of cell and a

reniform spot or ring on the discocellulars. Hind wing: a slightly curved subbasal series of three

small spots, an irregular slender ring or spot on the discocellulars, followed by a highly irregular,

curved, transverse, discal series of spots or specks, some or all of which are often obsolescent.

On both fore and hind wings the veins that attain the costal and terminal margins end in minute

reddish-brown specks. Antenna greyish yellow, the club black; head, thorax and abdomen

yellow, shaded with fuscous scales; beneath: the palpi, thorax and abdomen yellowish white. The

sex-mark seen from above appears as a thickening of the basal half of the median vein on the

fore wing.

Female

Upper side: Very similar to that of the male but without the sex-mark; the black areas on both

fore and hind wings slightly broader, with the inner edge of the black terminal band on the hind

wing often diffuse.

Underside: ground-colour and markings as in the male. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen

similarly coloured.

Dry-season form

Upper side: ground-colour and markings much as in wet-season specimens, the margination on

the inner side of the black area and the tornal dilatation on the fore wing similar. On the hind

wing, in the great majority of individuals, the black terminal band is also similar, in a few it is

narrower and diffuse inwardly in both sexes.

Underside: ground-colour similar to that in wet-season specimens, but in very many with a

greater or less irroration of black scales over the yellow parts of the wing; the reddish-brown

markings on both fore and hind wings are also similar, but the spots are larger, more clearly

34

defined, darker, and therefore far more conspicuous. In addition, on the fore wing there is a

preapical, very prominent, transverse, elongate spot or short bar or reddish brown extended

downwards from the costa. This spot is irregular in shape and of variable width, but does not

seem ever to spread outwards to the actual edge of the termen. In a few specimens there is also a

small reddish-brown spot in interspace 1 near the tornus. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen,

and in the male the sex-mark, as in wet-season specimens.

Life cycle

Eggs are laid on Abrus precatorius, Acacia spp., Aeschynomene spp., Albizzia spp. and

numerous other Leguminosae, Euphorbiaceae and Cucurbitaceae species. Studies suggest that

the females can discriminate colours when choosing host plants for oviposition.

Larva: Long, green, rough, cylindrical, or slightly depressed, with a large head.

Pupa: Suspended by the tail and by a moderately long band; the abdominal segments are round,

but the thorax is much compressed, the wing-cases uniting to form a deep sharp keel. The head-

case terminates in a short pointed snout. Ordinarily the pupa is solitary and green, but sometimes

on a twig in large numbers. Many Pierine and other larvae seek each other’s company at that

time. Having selected a dead branch of some neighbouring bush, they acquired the colour of

their surroundings as nearly all Pierine and Papilionine pupae do to a greater or less extent.

This species has been found to be parasitized by multiple strains of Wolbachia. These bacteria

can alter the sex-ratios of the species.

4) Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete)

The Painted Jezebel (Delias hyparete) is a medium-sized butterfly of the family Pieridae, found

in South Asia and Southeast Asia.

Description

Closely resembles Delias eucharis but can be distinguished as follows:

Male upper forewing has the black margins to the veins more diffuse; the transverse postdiscal

band diffuse, ill-defined, oblique, not parallel to termen in its lower portion but terminated at

apex of vein 2; the apical portion of the wing beyond the fascia more or less so thickly shaded

with black scales as to leave the white lanceolate spaces between the veins (so prominent in

eucharis) ill-defined and obscure. Hind wing white, the black venation and terminal narrow black

border as well as the sub-terminal vermilion-red spots between the veins on the underside show

through by transparency. Underside: fore wing as in eucharis, but the black margins to the veins

much broader and the postdiscal transverse fascia as on the upperside oblique but broader. Hind

wing differs from that of eucharis in the much deeper chrome-yellow tint of the ground-colour,

the postdiscal black curved band that in eucharis separates the yellow from the subterminal

vermilion-red spots entirely wanting, the red spots themselves pointed inwardly, not subcordate,

35

they conspicuously increase in size posteriorly. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen similar to

those of eucharis.

Female differs from the female of eucharis on the upperside by the very much darker shading,

especially on the fore wing, and by the postdiscal transverse band which is as in the d oblique but

broader. Hind wing also more darkly shaded, the postdiscal transverse curved black baud entirely

absent. Underside as in the female but darker, the fore wing especially more thickly shaded with

black scaling, the preapical interspaces tinged with yellow. Antennae, thorax and abdomen

similar to those in eucharis.

Race metarete, Butler. (Southern Myanmar; extending to Java and Sumatra). Differs from race

hierta as follows: Male upperside has the ground-colour a much purer white; apical half of fore

wing in contrast with the white on basal half densely shaded with black scales. Underside: the

colours clearer and purer, the chrome-yellow on the hind wing confined to the base and posterior

half of the wing, the apical half of the cell and the anterior inter- spaces within the line of the

vermilion-red spots pure white; the anterior two or three subterminal red spots margined

interiorly with diffuse black scaling. Female differs less from the 2 of hierta, but on the underside

of the hind wing the yellow colour is as restricted as it is in the male; the subterrninal red spots

are of a richer vermilion than in hierta, and the anterior two or three as in the d have an interior

narrow margin of diffuse black scales. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in hierta, but the

thorax and abdomen shaded slightly darker with a bluish-grey appearance.

Race ethire, Doherty. (Madras;Orissa; Lower Bengal) Differs from typical hierta as follows:

Male upperside very pure white. Fore wing has the black margins to the veins very narrow, the

oblique postdiscal band ill-defined, scarcely any irroration of black scales on the apical half of

the wing. Hind wing pure white, the colours of the underside seen through by transparency as in

hierta. Underside differs from hierta principally in the brighter tint of the yellow on the hind

wing, and in the more clearly defined, less diffuse black margins of the veins. Female differs less

from female hierta than does the male from the corresponding sex of the same insect. Upperside

has the interspaces beyond the postdiscal oblique band on fore wing and the cell and basal halves

of the interspaces beyond the cell on the hind wing distinctly tinged with yellow. Underside: all

the markings more neatly and clearly defined than in hierta, the inter-spaces beyond the oblique

postdiscal band on the fore wing bright lemon-yellow. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen in

both sexes as in D. hierta.

Distribution

Sri Lanka; India (Uttaranchal to Arunachal Pradesh, Northeast, West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra

Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Western Maharashtra); North Myanmar; Java, Sumatra, Bangladesh

5) Yellow Orange-tip (Ixias pyrene)

Yellow Orange Tip, Ixias pyrene is a small butterfly of the Family Pieridae, that is, the Yellows

and Whites, which is found in India and Southeast Asia.

36

Description

Wingspan: 50-55 mm. Dry-season brood.

Male upperside: deep sulphur-yellow. Fore wing: base and basal half of costa thickly irrorated

with black scales; apical half of the wing black, with an enclosed, large, irregularly triangular,

orange-coloured patch, the apex of which is more or less broadly rounded and blunt; the orange

colour extends into the apex of the cell bat is interrupted there by a black discocellular spot that

spreads diffusely inwards and joins the black oblique bar which forms the base of the orange

patch; veins that traverse this latter, black. Hind wing: uniform with a little black scaling at

extreme base; termen with a dusky-black somewhat narrow border (sometimes entirely absent)

which decreases in width posteriorly.

Underside: a darker yellow, sparsely irrorated with fusco-ferruginous short strigae and minute

spots. Fore wing: base and posterior area broadly, with a whitish pale virescent tint; the strigae

and minute spots most numerous towards the apex and along the termen; interspaces 4, 5, 6 and

8 with a curved sub-apical series of small, rounded, dull ferruginous spots and a similar spot on

the discocellulars. Hind wing also with a ferruginous spot on the discocellulars, followed by a

postdiscal series of similar spots in interspaces 3 to 8, all or most of them centred with white; the

spots in interspaces 5, 6 and 8 the largest, those in 5 and 6 often coalescent. Antennae and thorax

anteriorly dull ferruginous, thorax posteriorly and abdomen above fuscous black; head, thorax

and abdomen beneath yellow.

Female upperside: white faintly tinged with yellow. Fore wing: apical half black, with an

enclosed, irregular, broad, oblique patch of the ground-colour that extends into the upper apex of

the cell, on the inner side of this the black is reduced to a short oblique bar broadened at the

lower apex of the cell, from whence it is continued as a somewhat slender diffuse oblique streak

to the tornus, where it broadens again abruptly and meets the black on the termen; the outer

margin of the oblique white patch is irregularly crenulate, sometimes trisinuate; the black colour

on the apex often forms a right angle on vein 4; on the white patch posteriorly there is a black

spot in interspace 2 and another in interspace 3. Hind wing: uniform, a few subobsolete slender,

fuscous, transverse strigae posteriorly; the terminal margin sometimes with (more often without)

a narrow dusky black edging, broadened anteriorly at the apices of the veins.

Underside: similar to that in the male, with similar markings, the ground-colour a dark dull

ochraceous, the fusco-ferruginous strigae more numerous. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen

as in the male.

Wet-season brood. - Upperside in both male and female differs in the broader, more pronounced,

black terminal edging to the hind wing, which is often remarkably broad, and in the female by

the ground-colour which is pale yellow. Underside: the fusco-ferruginous strigae and spots often

subobsolete, occasionally entirely absent in the male.

Status, distribution and habitat in Sri Lanka and peninsular India

37

It is distributed throughout the plains and lowlands. It is common in dry deciduous forests, scrub

and fallow lands and found throughout the year. However, it is more common during the

monsoon and post-monsoon and considerably rare in the summer.

6) Great Orange-tip (Hebomoia glaucippe)

The Great Orange Tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) is a butterfly belonging to the Pieridae family, that

is the yellows and whites’ butterflies, found in the Indomalaya ecozone and Wallacea.

Distribution

This species is found in much of South and Southeast Asia, as well as in southern China and

southern Japan.

Description

The following descriptions are true for much of its range. There are subspecies that differ, such

as H. g. vossi where the white is replaced by pure yellow.

Wet-season brood

In the males the upperside is creamy white. Fore wing: the costa narrowly, the apex and terminal

margin to middle of interspace 1 are black. An irregular, somewhat sinuous, black band extends

obliquely from beyond the middle of the costa across the upper apex of the cell, and meets at

interspace 1 the black on the terminal margin. Within the triangle thus formed is enclosed a rich

orange-red patch that is traversed by the black veins and bears in interspaces 3 to 6 a postdiscal

series of black inwardly-elongated spots. Hind wing: nearly uniform, touched with black on the

terminal margin anteriorly and with a conspicuous postdiscal black spot in interspace 7. In some

specimens there are one or two smaller spots in continuation of the series in the interspaces

below.

The underside is white. The apical third of the fore wing and the whole of the hind wing are

mottled, with more or less prominent brown stripe and spots. Costa of the fore wing and a fine

line that runs from base of the hind wing through the cell, straight to the middle of the terminal

margin, are brown. Antennae are dark brown. The head and thorax have anteriorly a reddish-

brown pile. Thorax above is greyish-blue, while the abdomen is white with a bluish tinge.

Beneath: head and thorax are more or less brownish, abdomen is white.

Female is similar to the male. Upperside: ground-colour with a slight greenish tinge. The orange

patch on fore wing is more restricted, it consists of a series of brood streaks in interspaces 3 to 6

and 10, the outer apices of which are deeply incised by black and with a row of hastate orange

spots beyond in interspaces 2 to 6. Hind wing: similar to the hind wing in the male, but with a

postdiscal series of large triangular black spots and a terminal connected series of still larger

triangular black spots at the apices of veins 2 to 7. Underside: similar to that in the male, the

brown transverse strigae and spots are more numerous, the costa of the fore and the median line

38

on the hind wing are very prominently brown. Antennae, head, thorax and abdomen as in the

male.

Dry-season brood

Differ only from the wet-season brood in the slightly more falcate apex to fore wing, and in the

purer white ground-colour on the upperside. Also the terminal margin on the hind wing in the

male has the black markings all but obsolete, while in the female the postdiscal and terminal

black markings on the same are smaller than in the wet-season form. Underside: the mottlings of

brown strigae and minute spots are more numerous and dense.

Race australis, Butler (Southern India and Sri Lanka). Males and females. Differs only from the

typical form in the following particulars: - Inner black border to the orange patch on the

upperside of the fore wing is absent, this represented by a few obsolete touches of black scaling.

Hind wing: white throughout, with only a half-obliterated subcostal black spot in interspace 7 in

the male; in the female the postdiscal and terminal series of spots are smaller.

Toxicity

In the wings of Hebomoia glaucippe is present glacontryphan-M, a peptide toxin belonging to

the family contryphan that are active constituents of the poisonous venom produced by cone

snail (genus conus). In H. glaucippe this toxin should function as a defense against predators.

The life cycle

The eggs

The eggs are laid on the larval food plants Crataeva religiosa, Capparis monii, Capparis