What are Reports?

“A business report is an orderly and

objective communication of

factual information that serves some

business purpose”.

Raymond Lesikar and John Pettit

Definition• Orderly- carefully prepared• Objective- unbiased• Communication- mostly writing• Factual information-emphasis on

events, records, data.• Purpose-example; solve a problem

and to present information.

“A report is a document in which a given problem is examined for the purpose of conveying information, reporting findings, putting

forward ideas and sometimes making recommendations”

The British Association of Commercial and Industrial Education

Types of Report1. Formality ( relationship of writer

and reader) and legality; • Formal • Informal 2. Function; • Informational • interpretative

3. Time interval; • Periodic• Special4. Physical factors/form;• Memorandum• Letter• Short• Long 5. Nature of subject;• Problem determining report• Fact finding report• Performance report • Technical report

Format • Title• Terms of reference1. By whom has the report been

requested/directed2. The precise area to be covered3. Intended outcome of the report4. Establishing the limits of the

report

Table of contents • List headings as they appear in

the body of the report, along with page numbers.

Format• Procedure (methods of investigation)1. Experiment2. Observation3. Survey4. Consultation5. Research• Findings• Recommendations (listed in conclusion)• signature

Basics of Technical WritingBasics of Technical WritingBasics of Technical WritingBasics of Technical WritingMain documentation priorities Main documentation priorities Use simple sentence structure (subject-verb-Use simple sentence structure (subject-verb-object)object)

this method terminates communicationthis method terminates communicationMinimize adjectives and adverbsMinimize adjectives and adverbsWrite predictably Write predictably Use graphics Use graphics

““A picture is worth 1,000 wordsA picture is worth 1,000 words””Apply seven ‘C’sApply seven ‘C’s

Problems that beginner writers have

Thinking that writing is easy Writing in EnglishUnderstanding how to get started Understanding how the software

worksOrganizing material

“Every journey begins with a step”

Write Clear Sentences

Write clear sentences Write active

sentences Write present tense Write positive

sentences Use short, familiar

words Write short

sentences Use lists

Active sentencesAre clearer; they tell the user who or

what does the action Passive; A mail message is sent to the main service.

Active; The handler sends a mail message to the main service

Are more conciseHelp you write from user’s view

Passive Vs ActiveActor is unknown

1. The file is opened by Ralph

Uses “to be”1. The file is printed 2. Lunch is eaten

Actor is unknown

• Ralph opens the file

Uses strong verbs• I print the file

• I eat lunch

Use passive sentences in certain situations

The actor is unknown or unimportant• To make any kind of connection to the internet, you must

determine how your computer is connected to the internet

The action or object is more important• To set up XYZ component, a sample application is provided

in the Samples directory of your program

Transitions need to be strengthened• To print the file. Press Print. The file is printed by your printer

Present tense• Helps users read the material

quickly• Tells users when to do something1. You will be able to select all display options2. Click the button. A submenu will appear

Correct:1. You can select all display options2. Click the button. A submenu appears

Acceptable use of future tense;Write down these steps. You will use these later.

Write positive sentences

• Do not turn off your computer without saving your work.

Correct;• Save you work, and then turn off

your computer.Acceptable use of negatives;Caution. Do not put your coffee up on the CD-ROM drive

Use short familial words

• Cigarette smoking is causally related to lung cancer in men; the magnitude of the effect of cigarette smoking far outweighs all other factors. The data for women, though less extensive, point in the same direction.

Correct• Cigarette smoking is a major cause of lung

cancer in men, and probably in women too.

Write short sentences• We hereby wish to let you know that

our company is pleased with the confidence you have reposed in us.

• We appreciate your confidence

Write a long sentence if separate sentence is too complex

Use lists

• Use bulleted lists for similar but unordered ideas

• Use numbered lists for a sequence of events or steps

The Seven ‘C’s of effective

communication1. Completeness2. Conciseness3. Consideration4. Concreteness5. Clarity6. Courtesy7. Correctness

Graphics • Tables• Fonts• Flowcharts and process charts• Pie chart• Line chart• Statistical Maps• Illustrations

Acknowledgment • ParaphraseLogan Wilson (201) criticized

academicians for being scientific in their approach to every area…

• Key phrase quotationLogan Wilson (201) characterizes as a

“curious paradox” what he sees as the failure of academics to be scientific….

Acknowledgment • Verbatim• Partial quotationAccording to Logan Wilson(201), “…

academics display a scientific attitude toward every universe except that which comprises their own profession”

• Extended quotation

Acknowledgement• Use MLA ( Modern Language

Association) style sheetMethods;1. Footnote methodCindy Burford, Aline Culberson, and Peter

Dykus, Writing for Results, 4th ed.,New York: Charles Storm Publishing Company, 1994, 17-18.

Methods of compiling data

• Library research• Sampling theory• Face to face interview

Library research• Encyclopedias• Government publications• International sources• Searching Databases• Internet

Sampling theory as a basis for surveying

• Random sampling• Systematic sampling• Stratified sampling• Convenience sampling• Judgment sampling• Quota sampling• Snowball sampling

Sampling methods• Probability1. Random2. Systematic 3. Stratified

• Non probability1. convenient2. Judgment3. Quota4. Snowball

Random• Random sampling is the purest

form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected

Systematic• Systematic sampling is often

used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members.

• Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.

Stratified • Stratified sampling is commonly used probability

method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers.

• Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.

Convenience • This non probability method is often used

during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.

• In convenience sampling, the selection of units from the population is based on easy availability and/or accessibility.

Judgment• usually an extension of convenience

sampling • a researcher may decide to draw the

entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.

Quota • the non probability equivalent of

stratified sampling • Like stratified sampling, the researcher

first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.

Snowball • used when the desired sample

characteristic is rare • Snowball sampling relies on

referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects.

• Chances of bias as it may be less representative

Questionnaires

Why Questionnaires? • To maximize the proportion of

subjects answering our questionnaire - that is, the response rate.

• To obtain accurate relevant information for our survey.

Types of questionnaires

1.Open

2.Closed

Open format • Advantages of open format • Allows exploration of the range of

possible themes arising from an issue

• Can be used even if a comprehensive range of alternative choices cannot be compiled

Open format• Numeric open endHow much did you spend on groceries this

week?_______

• Text open end• How can our company improve its working

conditions?______________________

Closed format• Closed-that is, forced choice-format • Easy and quick to fill in • Minimize discrimination against the less

literate (in self administered questionnaire) or the less articulate (in interview questionnaire)

• Easy to code, record, and analyse results quantitatively

• Easy to report results

Testing

Types of closed format• Choice of categories• Likert style• Checklists• Differential• Ranking

Types of closed format• Choice of categoriesFor example( what is your marital

status)Single []Divorced []Married []Widowed []

Likert style scale• Statistics is an important subjectStrongly disagreedisagreeCannot decideAgree Strongly agree

Checklists“Circle the clinical specialties you are

particularly interested in”

• General medicine• General surgery• Pediatrics• Ophthalmology• Orthopedics• Accident and emergency• General practice

Differential scale

• How would you rate the puppet show?

Extremely interesting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 extremely dull

How would you rate this product?Excellent ___Good ___Fair ___Poor ___

RankingPlease rank your interests in the

following specialties• General medicine• General practice• Orthopedics• Ophthalmology• Pediatrics• General surgery

Wording of individual

questions • Use short and simple sentences • Ask for only one piece of information at a

time

• Avoid negatives if possible Small group teaching should not be abolished

Small group teaching should continue

• Ask precise questions How often did you borrow books from your library?

How many books have you borrowed from the library within the past six months altogether?

• Ensure those you ask have the necessary knowledge

• Level of details • Sensitive issues • Minimize bias • Must be non-threatening

• accommodate all possible answers

What brand of computer do you own? __ A. IBM PC B. Apple ( possible other choice)

Do you own an IBM PC? (circle: Yes or No)

• What brand of computer do you own?(Check all that apply)

__ Do not own a computer__ IBM PC__ Apple__ Other

• There should be only one correct or appropriate choice for the respondent to make. An obvious example is:

Where did you grow up? __A. CountryB. farmC. city

• Does not presuppose a certain state of affairs

Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance? (Yes or No)This question will present a problem for someone who does not currently have auto insurance. Write your questions so they apply to everyone. This often means simply adding an additional response category.

• Are you satisfied with your current auto insurance?___ Yes___ No___ Don't have auto insurance

• Does not use unfamiliar words or abbreviations.

• Remember who are your audience. • Do not use uncommon words or

compound sentences. • Write short sentences. • Abbreviations are okay if you are

absolutely certain that every single respondent will understand their meanings

Length of questionnaire

• There are no universal agreements about the optimal length of questionnaires. However, short simple questionnaires usually attract higher response rates than long complex ones.

Arranging the questions The order of the questions is also

important. Some general rules are:

• Go from general to particular. • Go from easy to difficult. • Go from factual to abstract. • Start with closed format questions. • Start with questions relevant to the main subject. • Do not start with demographic and personal

questions

Introduction, personalized letter, and ending

• It seems a good idea to have either a personalized covering letter or at least an introduction explaining briefly the purpose of the survey, the importance of the respondents' participation, who is responsible for the survey, and a statement guaranteeing confidentiality. A personalized letter can be easily generated using mail-merge on a word processor. It is also important to thank the respondent at the end of the questionnaire.

Cover letter1. Describe why the study is being done (briefly)

and identify the sponsors.2. Mention the incentive. (A good incentive is a

copy of the results).3. Mention inclusion of a stamped, self-addressed

return envelope.4. Encourage prompt response without using

deadlines.5. Describe your "confidentiality/anonymity"

policy.6. Give the name and phone number of someone

they can call with questions.

Face to face interview

Don’t forget the most

important thing!!!!

Have loads of fun and enjoy what

you do !!!