assessment of heavy metal concentration in the … · 2017. 10. 4. · ohimai, imoobe and bawo...

International Journal of Scientific Research and Innovative Technology ISSN: 2313-3759 Vol. 4 No. 9; September 2017

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ASSESSMENT OF HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION IN THE GROUND WATER OF SAND FILED AREAS IN PORT HARCOURT, NIGERIA Dapper, Meg Evbaruese, Oyegun, Charles Uwadiae, and Ogoro Mark Department of Geography and Environmental Management University of Port Harcourt Nigeria. ABSTRACT Land reclamation has long being a way to acquire more land in a swampy area and Port Harcourt as a city has engaged in that practice for decades. Meanwhile, the Niger Delta sediment which is used for reclamation has being proven by several researchers to have high levels of Chromium, Cadmium, Nickel, Lead, Zinc, Iron and Copper. Due to high rainfall and high water table, which encourages easy mobility of these heavy metals into the groundwater, it become imperative to examine the borehole water being consumed in reclaimed areas of Port Harcourt metropolis. Borokiri, Eastern by-pass and reclamation road areas were selected for the reclaimed areas while Ozuoba area was selected as control for this research. The objectives were to determine the presence or otherwise of heavy metals in the groundwater of both areas, check for variations between them and determines if the level of the heavy metalsstated above in the ground water conforms to WHO maximum concentration limit (MCL) for heavy metals. Water samples were collected in 2.0 liters plastic bottles and sent to the laboratory for testing, using the Atomic Absorption spectrophotoscopy (AAS) method. Elementary statistical tools of line graph and bar charts were used to compare the difference in heavy metal values between the reclaimed areas and the control, and between the values obtained from both areas (Reclaimed and Control) with WHO MCL This study has shown that there is relatively higher quantity of the aforementioned heavy metals in reclaimed areas than in non-reclaimed areas. It has also revealed that the ground water of both the study area and the control, both in Port Harcourt City, has a high incidence of Cadmium present in it. The relevant authorities therefore need to look into the cause of this trend and proffer solutions to it, so as to prevent the subsequent health implications for residents of Port Harcourt City.


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INTRODUCTION Port Harcourt as the headquarters of crude-oil as well as gas exploration and production in the country is saddled with urbanization challenges in terms of population growth which has increased from 440,399 recorded in the 1991 population census having a growth-rate estimate of 2.8% per annum to 1.9 million at 5.8% growth rate per annum ( NUDP, 2006). That places Port Harcourt estimated population at approximately 3.1 million people. This has been adduced to natural population increase, migration due the agglomeration of business activities such as oil and gas and other industrial activities both trade and manufacturing. (Eyenghe, Ibama, and Wocha, 2015).This is placing a huge demand on land for physical/ structural development which is making land reclamation very attractive and thus dredging for sedimentary sand from the adjoining rivers for this purpose. Mangrove soil and sediment are regarded as sulphidic because of the presence of pyrite minerals. As long as pyrite remains in the sediment in the absence of air, they are innocuous, but their disturbance through dredging followed by oxidation, when disposed and unconfined, leads to acidification (Ohimai, 2004) because of the oxidation of pyrite to sulphuric acid. Pyrite is common in the soil and sediment of the entire Gulf of Guinea, with a high presence in the Niger Delta (Sylla, Stein, Van, Mensvoort, and Van Breemen, (1996).of sedimentary pyritesre-suspension is caused by dredging, has been described which is linked to the remobilisation of pollutants principally heavy metals as well as growing their bio-availability (Perin, Fabris, Manente, Wagener, Hamacher, Scotto, (1997). Ohimai, Imoobe and Bawo (2008) and Areola, (1983), observed that there is a possibility that sedimentary landfill could result in heavy metal entrance or presence in ground water as a result of the rate of leaching alongside high water table it, therefore, becomes imperative to analyze the groundwater for heavy metal content.In the opinion of the facts presented here, this work will hence be focused on the effect of the sedimentary landfill on groundwater in Nigeria, precisely Port Harcourt, Rivers State. Assessing of heavy-metal concentration levels in groundwater of sand filled areas is what this work aims at and provides a basis to determine the availability or otherwise of traces of heavy metals in the ground water of selected reclaimed areas, compare the quality of the ground water in these sand filled areas with control sites and determine if the ground water quality of both the sand filled and control sites conform to WHO standard for drinking water Study Area: Location and Extent Metropolis of Port Harcourt is positionedfromLat4045'N -Lat4055'N, and Long6055'E – Long7005'E as shown in Fig. 2. The Atlantic Ocean is found at an approximate distance of 25km from it. In-between the Bonny River, Dockyard and Amadi creeks is found this metropolis. The two local governments which the metropolis extends to are the Obio-Akpor and Port Harcourt LGAs. (Fig.1). Ecologically, the lowland-swamp forest almost the entirety of the area. To the bounds of the southern, western and eastern parts the forests found there are the mangrove swamp types (Chindah; 2004), (Braide, Izonfur, Adiukwu, Chindah, and Obinwo,(2004). Precipitation in the area which falls in the form of rains is substantially high with an average of 2500mm/year. From the third month of the year to the tenth month, the area experiences rain which sums up to about 8months with additions during the months that are under the influence of the harmattan winds(Gobo, 1990). The topographical formation is almost flat all round having silty sands and clays in a mix, superficially underlain. Before getting to 10meters beneath the surface of the ground, the water-table is reached in this area.


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Figure 1.Rivers State Showing Study Local Government Areas


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Figure 2. Port Harcourt Metropolis showing Communities Relief and Drainage The Port Harcourt drainage is poor, fundament allowing to a blend of high rainfall, high water table and low relief, which causes the low velocity of water flow in the rivers (Areola, 1983) The southern part of the heavily built Diobu section of the Port Harcourt is drained by the Abonnema River and the southern and western sections of the Diobu residential area is channeled through side drains into the Abonnema River. Port Harcourt area is drained in the North West by the New Calabar River which is linked to the Bonny River through the Primerose creek. The area is further drained in the north east by the Mini Apalugbo streams in which surface runoff from the Rumuigbo area empties into before joining the Woji River. The Rumuokwurushi – Rumuogba – Woji axis is drained by the Mini Woji River. The Woji River itself after being crossed by the Port Harcourt – Aba express way, runs in a southern easterly-direction to the east extreme of Trans – Amadi industrial area where it flows through a broad mangrove swamp near the Port Harcourt Zoological garden. Garrison junction area, near Port Harcourt – Aba express way, Elekahia, southern part of Trans – Amadi industrial area and virtually the whole of Rainbow Town are areas drained by the Elekahia River which flows into the Amadi creeks. Amadi creek is also joined at the western flank by the Ntawogba River which has a lengthy course of up to 9km and virtually


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divides Port Harcourt built – up area into two portions. The Ntawogba River drains Rumuokwuta, Ikwerre road, GRA Phases 1,11,111, and Amadi flats.( Oyegun, 1999). With the Bonny River to the west and Amadi Creek to the east, Dockyard Creek lies to the south of Port Harcourt and essentially drains the Old Port Harcourt Township and Borokiri areas where the study area is located. Soil Sedimentation in the Niger Delta geosyncline of which the Port Harcourt region belong started in the late Cretaceous times and got to its present form in the Quaternary Fubara(1988). The surface materials, therefore, comprise of several sorts of surficial deposits overlaying dense deposited tertiary clay and sand with depths often above 100m in thickness (Allen, 1965a). The monotonously flat relief of the Niger Delta is majorly the product of the ever – changing river channels of the distributaries of River Niger. These distributaries form an intricate maze of creeks and mud flats between the lower floodplains and barrier island-complexes of the outer parts and the lower flood plains of the River Niger. The adjoining areas of creeks and mud flats constitute the tidal basins which are flooded daily at high tide and seasonally, during the wet season. These conditions, along with the abundant vegetation, bring about the leading geomorphical course of weathering chemically. This weathering process results in the formation of clay minerals and silt particles from the parent materials of the environment, (Oyegun, and Adeyemo, 1999). Akpokodje, quoted by Oyegun (1999), identified the superficial soils of the region as consisting of the following: reddish brown sandy clay loam; brown sandy soils; light gray slightly organic fine sand soils; silty clay and dark organic clay soils. Allen (ibid) has shown that the greatest amount of soil in the region is rich in the silt–clay division more than in the sand-size category which makes civil constructions works in the region. Temperature The highest temperature is normally between the months of January to May each year while the lowest in the year is between June and July. The variation in temperature begins in January which is about 32oC (90oF) and the lowest is about 26oC (78.8oF) in July but the average mean yearly is 30oC (86oF).


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Figure 3. Temperature trend of the study area EMPIRICAL REVIEW An environment which encourages public-health and socioeconomic segments, vigorous-bio-physical sphere and bio-diversity sustenance possesses quality and balance. The implications to ecology and toxicology of heavy-metal discharge to the environs have not been known to the full. Heavy Metals in the Niger Delta Soil Globally, heavy metal accumulation in the aquatic environment, like the Niger Delta, is of great worry due to the toxic eco-system currently present and its effect on humans. Copper and Zinc are some examples of trace metals that are seen as important because of roles played in metabolism in living things. Nevertheless, metals like cadmium, Lead and Nickel (Ni) display life-threatening poisonousness, whether or not large quantities are consumed (Merian, 1991). Over 90 per cent loads of heavy metals are sure to sediment in the marine environment, which represents the most vital sink(Calmano, Hong and Forstner, 1993; Daskalakes and O’Connor, 1995).Adsorption depends on the compound’s property, matrixes the sediments possess, as well as the nature of it accompanied by chemical or physical mechanisms (Ankley, Lodge, Call, Balcer, Brooke, Cook, Kresis, BaptisaNeto, Smith and McAllister, 1992; Leivouri, 1998). Naturally, they could be introduced by humans or by soil/mineral weathering to the aquatic area (Merian, 1991, Komarek & Zeman, 2004, Daskalakes & O’Connor 1995). When heavy metals are weathered they could contaminate naturally or add to soil nutrients. The area’s geologic formations also contribute to how these metals can be concentrated (Windom, Schropp, Calder, Ryan, Smith, Burney, Lewis and Rawlinson 1989). Human contributions mostly originate from refinery processes, mining, emissions from vehicles, industrial effluent and domestic sewage (Merian, 1991; Kabala and Singh, 2001).

29.530

30.531

31.532

32.5

1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31

Temperatures

Years

Temperature


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Indiscriminate dumping of wastes into natural bodies of water occurs in the third world countries often where laws banning such have not been made obligatory. Sedimentation of the toxins and heavy metals happens ultimately at the base gotten from the wasted substances (Ademoroti, 1996; Oguzie, 2002). Acid-sulphate soils originate from sedimentary rocks and are found in the Niger Delta mangrove environments and pyrites are contained in them (Anderson, 1966; Okonny, Ayolaga and Dickson 1999).If the soils are not disturbed they are harmless, but when dredged, the pyrites become oxidized and acidified, almost like AMD-acid-mine drainage, impacting on the environs (Dent, 1986; Rose and Cravotta, and Trahen 1998). In a study carried out by Lewis, Weber, Stanley and Moore (2001), dredging caused a primary productivity and benthic species decrease, and an increase in trace metals sediment bio-availability and turbidity. Long-term dredging effects accompany heavy-metal pollutions from unrestricted dredge-spoil, polluting ground and surface waters, rendering them toxic, bio-accumulation occurrences which result from heavily leached soils bringing about metals(Ohimian, Imoobe,. and Bawo, 2008). Among the most vulnerable areas to oil spill throughout the world is the Niger Delta, which averages 273 spill incidents & 115,000barrels in volume (Steiner, 2008). When the oil is explored and exploited, it interferes with the bio-diversity and the ecology of the ecosystem. This arises through chemical drilling, the spilling of oils, gas flaring and so on which can introduce traces of metals into waters of the coast. The Niger-Delta possesses high levels of Vanadium, cadmium, nickel, chromium, lead, copper, and zinc after a pollution study was carried out. This can be attributed to the petroleum extraction activities in the area (kakalu and Osinbanjo, 1992; Howard, Horsfall, Spiff and Teme 2006; Horsfall and Spiff, 2002) Heavy Metal and Ground Water Contamination The groundwater quality is dependent on many reasons, for example, aquifer makeup chemically, situation of the climate etc. Aside from the previously mentioned, pressures and temperatures also affect it (Ibiyemi, 2000). Sands or gravels which make up aquifers are not compact hence permeability is a characteristic (Allaby, 1996). Water passes through the pores present there. In 1997, Coode pointed to the fact that majority of the groundwater arises from precipitation infiltrating into the surrounding soils to the system of flow in the geological formations underground. As a result, heavy metals present in the soil are then able to be leached into the underground water. In the case of Port Harcourt with an average of 2500mm of rainfall, leachates can easily find its way into ground water. Several works were undertaken on the contamination of ground water by heavy-metals in Nigeria and other parts of the world. Friberg, Norberg and Vouk (1976) published a report that the cadmium concentration of a Swedish drinking water was of a concentration 5mg/dm3 in areas where the soil had been acidified. About a decade later some publications also came out on the concentration of zinc up to 24mg/dm3 from about 600 wells in Amsterdam. This health situation resulted in excessive vomiting, stomach crops, and diarrhea. Mustafa, (1988) made contributions in the cadmium concentration of 1-2 g/dm3 found in private wells in the Saudi Arabia. The work also reported of chronic oral exposure to this high concentration leading to kidney failures and impairment of sensory organs. Momodu, and Anyakora (2009) carried out a research on heavy metal contamination of ground water in Surulere Lagos. The result indicates that97.96% of the samples contain one or more of 3 heavy-metals considered, with everyone in different concentrations. Results suggested significant risks in the population given the toxicity of these metals. Pollution levels of some bore holes at Onitsha, Anambra state Nigeria was


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reported by Onwuka, Ajiwe, and Nnodu2007. The results showed that those water bodies were not safe for human consumption and domestic purposes unless treated. High nitrate was recorded in respect to the WHO 1993 general MCl (maximum contaminant level) for cations in drinking water. Mohammed and Gupta (2009) made studies on the Mumbai and Bead districts of India on heavy metals in contamination of groundwater resource is a result of urban solid water dumping. Cu2+ was found to be in the range of 0.9mg/dm3 , Zn2+ 1.02 mg/dm3, Cr2+ 0.01 mg/dm3, Cd in 0.09 mg/land Pb2+ 0.024 mg/dm3. The report indicated that the heavy metal lead was the cause of neurotoxins and most common type of human mental toxicosis, capable of causing irreversible brain damage. Effect of Heavy Metal on Human Health Destruction or degradation of heavy metals is not achievable and they keep contaminating the environment. They are also naturally occurring in the environment. By bioaccumulation through water, air, and food, these heavy-metals are being consumed by humans little by little for extended periods (Lenntech, 2004).For the ones important to man, they are not expected to be taken in certain quantities because it could become a poison or could become toxic. Evidently, it can be diagnosed clinically if particular symptoms are noticed (Nolan, 2003; Fosmire, 1990). Heavy Metal Poisoning and Bio toxicity When consumption restrictions of heavy metal consumption, have been surpassed, it results in some effects which become bio-toxic. There is variation from individual to individual on the quantity of absorption which depends on the status of nutrition, age, the chemicals involved etc. The digestive tract and kidneys do the distribution to the organs and tissues as soon as there is an absorption of the metal. The kidneys, bones, and liver are examples of spots in the body where the metals are stored for years or tens of years after excretion has taken place. Headaches and weaknesses generally are occurring symptoms which persons with severe and high doses exhibit, making diagnosis difficult except he/she has been trained specially. Exposures that are chronic may result in renal toxicity, hypertension etc. as well as cases with no symptoms at all. Although individual metals display exact symptoms due to their toxicity, these are generally experienced: pneumonia, depression, convulsion, vomiting, paralysis, ataxia, hemoglobinuria, tremor, stomatitis, diarrhea, disorders etc., for copper, zinc, lead, and cadmium poisoning (McCluggage, 1991). Teratogenic, mutagenic, neurotoxic, or toxic (sub-chronic, chronic oracute) Chromium, this is most harmful when it is in the hexavalent arrangement. It has a wide usage, especially in the leather industry. The industrial process brings about waste which is shed containing chromium and this now happens all over the world. It causes corrosion and allergy; it is carcinogenic which means it is cancer-causing, especially when inhaled. It is a gift of nature which can be obtained from gases, volcanic dust, soil, plants, animals, and rocks. Trivalent-chromium (Cr III) and hexavalent-chromium (Cr VI) are the two forms in which it comes, with the former is much less toxic than chromium (VI). The uses include cooling tower-water treatment, wood and leather preservation, pigments and dyes manufacturing, chrome plating and alloy/steel making from metal chromium. Toners, textile making, and mud drilling are other uses for small amounts. It is also important in dietary because it plays a role in the metabolism of fat, protein, and glucose. Public exposure to Cr is through food consumption, inhaling air and drinking water, containing the chemical. If persons live around places where waste containing chromium is disposed of, they will be more liable to having more


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quantities in their system than the populace.50µg/d to 200µg/d of CrIII is what their commendation for human intake is put at. The human body reduces CrIV to CrIII through many ways. The blood, immune system, gastrointestinal system, kidney, and liver can be affected (The United States Environmental Protection Agency). Copper this occurs naturally and it is a metal, found in soils at about 50 ppm concentrations. It is also found in animals and humans in little quantities. Plant disease treatment, production of bath fixtures, water pipes, metal sheet, pipes, wires, copper refining, smelting, and mining etc are all sources through which Cu is introduced into the environs. Copper is leached into water used for drinking purposes from pipes, which leaves a blue-green stain in baths.0.9mg is the RDA-Recommended Daily Allowance. If the poison is severe, abdominal pain, abdominal pain, and nausea are symptoms alongside gastrointestinal distress experienced. Death is a resulting factor when the liver gets toxic. Anemia is also experienced due to red blood cell damage. Those of the mammalian family have a regulation which is inbuilt with which the body is protected from excesses of copper though, when chronic, it damages the organs such as the kidney and livers. In adolescents, pains, swelling, and jaundice which is are signs of toxicity of the liver. The hereditary disease which arises as copper build up in the liver is known as Wilson's disease. Copper is cartilaginous, and it is placed in class D of carcinogens Cadmium even at little quantities, it is toxic. Tubular proteinuria which is a renal dysfunction occurs when there have been exposures for a long time in people. Some other ailments are cadmium pneumonitis, obstructive lung diseases etc when the fume or dust containing cadmium is inhaled. If a fluid containing it is ingested in excess the linings of the lung will die, bloody and foamy sputum, cough and chest pain will be experienced. Myocardic dysfunction, high pressures in blood, impulsive fractures, osteoporosis, and osteomalacia which have to do with defects in bones occur. Indicators include muscular weaknesses, dyspnea, abdominal cramps, vomiting, and nausea. When severe, pulmonary-odema and death occur (McCluggage, 1991). 0.007 mg/kg was the FAO/WHO joint recommendation while EPA took 0.005 mg/L as the water level of contamination but the WHO’s figure rests on 0.003 mg/L as the temporary recommendation WHO, 2003a, JEFCA, 2004) Lead this happens to be the most important of them all. It's inanimate forms are taken into the body through the intake of air, water and of food (Ferner, 2001). Lead is notably “teratogenic”. If there is lead poison in anything being ingested, the following can be caused: inhibition of iodine uptake, serious damage to the brain sometimes permanently, causes disorder neurologically, damages the urinary tract bringing about blood in urine, damages the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), PNS and CNS -peripheral and Central nervous systems, cardiovascular and reproductive systems, joint and kidney malfunctions, as well as inhibit haemoglobin synthesis (Ogwegbu and Muhanga, 2005). Poor IQ-intelligent quotient is developed when the gray matter does not develop well and this is caused by lead in children, and the body absorbs it when there is Zn and Ca deficiency. Psychosis results as a chronic and acute condition. JECFA-Joint FAO/World Health Organization Expert Committee placed 0.025mg/kg as the PTWI-provisional tolerable weekly intake while that of WHO for drinking water is 0.01 mg/L(WHO, 2004a, JECFA, 2004) Zinc it dehydrogenates enzymes and results in retarded developmental growth and anemia if it is deficient. (McCluggage, 1991, Holum, 1983). This acts as a balance for Cu content in humans, which is important for reproduction in males (Nolan, 2003). If deficient, anemia, dysfunctioning of systems that bring about reproduction and growth deficiency is caused (Nolan, 2003, INECAR, 2000, McCluggage, 1991). Symptoms


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of zinc poisoning include anemia, kidney and liver failure, bloody urine, diarrhea, as well as vomiting (Fosmire, 1990).8mg and 11mg are recommended for females and males respectively. Nickel: it is used to prepare alloy, plating, foundry products, coinage, catalysts, rechargeable batteries, alloy steels, super alloy sand it also makes up some compounds that are complex. It is used to make rocket engines and gas turbines because it is corrosion resistant. Organic matters do strongly grip unto metals for example; crude oil, as well as coal, has reasonable quantities. When there is a release of this metal, it is absorbed into soils, becoming immovable. When it is in a soil that has a high acid content, it becomes more moveable, rising into ground water. In the environs, it is low in quantities. It could be ingested by cigarette smoking, food and water consumption, and breathing. Excess of it becomes harmful but little volumes are important to humans. Heart disorders, allergy, asthma, and chronic, birth defects, respiratory failure, lung embolism, dizziness after exposure to nickel gas, prostate, larynx, nose, and lung cancer can be noticed when an excess of nickel is consumed. It is a carcinogen. IARC-International Agency for Research on Cancer classified nickel into carcinogenic groups 1 and2b. Iron It comes in the ferric, ferrous and bivalent compounds. Iron does not rust in dry air but rusts in damp air. Out of all metallic elements, iron is mostly used summing up to about 95%of all the world’s tons of manufactured metal. It is an essential trace element in a living organism, it is naturally found in animals and plants. It contains about 20 – 150mg/kg of green vegetables, fish, kidney, liver, and 10 – 20mg/kg of egg yolks and red meats (WHO 2008). It develops the nerves and brains of humans. If it is excessively consumed, it can bring about Skin discoloration, increase the risk of liver cancer, development of diabetes, Liver damage, colorectal cancer, bloody diarrhea, vomiting, destruction of cells in the gastrointestinal tract, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s, increased oxidative stress and eventually death. Instrumentation The Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) instruments are basically instruments with a burner compartment instead of a cell (for the sample). They consist of a source of radiation burners plus sample compartment, monochromator and a detector and recorder. A hollow lamp powered by cathode will be the radiation’s source. This comprises a considerable amount of the element to be examined. The monochromator will isolate the line readily corresponding to the spectrum’s emission of a particular element radiation. Many elements have their individual hollow cathode lamps. Sample Collection Procedure Water samples will be collected in 2.0 litre plastic bottles; before the collection of water samples, the borehole will be allowed to pump for 18 minutes so that water with a constant temperature and pH, representing that from the aquifer will be collected. Water samples will be collected at the borehole heads. Prior to sample collection, all plastic bottles will be rinsed thrice with the borehole water. After sampling, the containers will be tightly covered; information such as date of collection, location, serial identifications about each sample collected will be recorded on labels pasted on each container as outlined in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. The samples thus collected will be stored in coolers with ice cubes in other to keep it cold, to about 4oC, but not frozen, this is then taken to the laboratory for testing. The concentration of heavy metals in the water samples will be determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.


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Techniques There is specific wavelength absorption of light energy in the "ground state" as it enters the "excited state". There is a proportional increase in absorbed light as that of the atoms increase. When the absorbed light is measured, the amount can be quantitatively determined. The hollow cathode lamps must be run at their specified currents. Too low a current may give insufficient sensitivity, but too high a current will shorten the life of the lamp. The position of the lamp in relation to the flame is critical and should be checked periodically. One advantage of this method is that it is well suited for routine measurements by relative inexperienced operators. However, the fact that different hollow-cathode lamp is required for each element and only a single element can be determined at a time, are major disadvantages of AAS. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) is currently the most widely used of all the atomic methods because of its simplicity, effectiveness, and relatively low cost. The technique was introduced in 1955 by Walsh in Australia and by Alkemade and Milatz in Holland. The first commercial atomic absorption (AA) spectrometer was introduced in 1959, and use of the technique grew explosively after that. The reason that atomic absorption methods were not widely used until that time was directly related to problems created by the very narrow widths of atomic absorption lines. AAS is used for the qualitative and quantitative determination of more than 70 elements. Typically, this method can detect parts-per-million to parts-per-billion amounts, and in some cases, even smaller concentrations. Atomic spectroscopic methods are also rapid, convenient, and usually of high selectivity. In atomic absorption spectroscopy, an external source of radiation impinges on the analyte vapour. If the source radiation is of the appropriate frequency (wavelength), it can be absorbed by the analyte atoms and promote them to excited states. After a few nanoseconds, the excited atoms relax to their ground state by transferring their excess energy to other atoms or molecules in the medium. The first step in all atomic spectroscopic procedures is atomization, a process in which a sample is volatilized and decomposed in such a way as to produce gas-phase atoms and ions. The efficiency and reproducibility of the atomization step can have a large influence on the sensitivity, precision, and accuracy of the method. In short, atomization is a critical step in atomic spectroscopy and this is carried out in AAS with flame between 1700-3150oC. Sample Collection Procedure Water samples will be collected in 2.0 liter plastic bottles; before the collection of water samples, the borehole will be allowed to pump for 18 minutes so that water with a constant temperature and pH, representing that from the aquifer will be collected. Water samples will be collected at the borehole heads. Prior to sample collection, all plastic bottles will be rinsed thrice with the borehole water. After sampling, the containers will be tightly covered; information such as date of collection, location, serial identifications about each sample collected will be recorded on labels pasted on each container as outlined in the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Waste Water. The samples thus collected will be stored in coolers with ice cubes in other to keep it cold, to about 4oC, but not frozen, this is then taken to the laboratory for testing. The concentration of heavy metals in the water samples will be determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer.


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Method of Data Analysis The data derived from water testing will be analyzed using the elementary statistical tools of percentages and contingency tables to determine and show the variability between the samples and that of the control value as determined by the WHO as the minimum requirement for portable water.

Figure 4 Study Area showing Sampled Locations


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Findings Heavy Metal Presence in Reclaimed Site in Relation to Non Reclaimed Sites and Standard

Figure 5 Level of copper presence in reclaimed site in relation to non-reclaimed sites Figure 5 reveals the level of copper present in the sampled borehole water in relation to the control sample (non-reclaimed site) and expected level (standard). From the analysis, it is obvious that copper presence is noticeable in both the reclaimed site and also the control sites. Though, there is a higher level of copper present in the control than samples from locations such as Eastern Bypass II and III. For the other locations, copper presence /level is higher than that of the control and both samples values are higher than the minimum required standard by WHO.

Figure 6 Level of zinc presence in reclaimed site in relation to non reclaimed sites

00.010.020.030.040.050.060.070.080.090.1

E-BY I E-By II E-By III RC I RC II RC III Brk I Brk II Brk III

SamplesContolStandard

00.5

11.5

22.5

33.5


SamplesControlStandard


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Figure 6 reveals the presence/level of zinc in the sampled borehole water in relation to the control (non-reclaimed site) and required minimum standard. From the analysis, it is obvious that zinc presence is noticeable in both the reclaimed site and also the control sites. Though there is a higher level of zinc present in the control than reclaimed sites in samples location of Eastern Bypass I, II and III. For the other locations, zinc presence is at a level higher in the reclaimed sites than the control. It is also remarkable that the presence of zinc in control and reclaimed sites are below the minimum required levels and both samples values are lower than the minimum required standard by WHO.

Figure 7 Level of iron presence in reclaimed site in relation to non-reclaimed sites Figure 7 reveals the level of iron present in the sampled borehole water of reclaimed sites in relation to the control (non-reclaimed site) and minimum standard. From the analysis, it is obvious that iron presence is noticeable in both the reclaimed site and also the control sites (non-reclaimed site). Though, there is a higher level of iron present in the control (non-reclaimed site) than samples from Eastern Bypass I, II and III. For the other locations, iron presence is at a level higher than the control (non-reclaimed site). It is worth to mention that both samples values are lower than the minimum required standard by WHO in all locations except for locations such as Reclamation 1 where samples values are higher than that of the control and standard by WHO.

01234567




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Figure 8 Level of lead presence in reclaimed site in relation to non-reclaimed sites Figure 8 reveals that the level of lead present in the sampled borehole water of reclaimed sites in relation to the control (non-reclaimed site) sample borehole water collected. From the analysis, it is obvious that lead presence is noticeable in all reclaimed sites except for Reclamation road II and III. Though there is no presence of lead in the control samples and both samples values are lower than the minimum required standard by WHO

Figure 9 Level of chromium presence in reclaimed site in relation to non-reclaimed sites Figure 4.11 reveals the level of chromium present in the sampled borehole water of reclaimed sites in relation to the control (non-reclaimed site) sample borehole water collected. From the analysis, it is obvious that chromium presence is noticeable only on the reclaimed site of Eastern Bypass II, III, and Reclamation site III. Though, there is no presence of lead in the control samples in all locations except for locations such as Reclamation 111 where samples values are higher than that of the control and standard by WHO.

00.0020.0040.0060.008

0.010.012



00.05

0.10.15

0.20.25




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Figure 10 Level of cadmium presence in reclaimed site in relation to non-reclaimed sites Figure 10 reveals the level of cadmium present in the sampled borehole water reclaimed sites in relation to the control (non-reclaimed site) sample borehole water collected. From the analysis, it is obvious that cadmium presence is noticeable in both the reclaimed site and also the control sites. Though there is a higher level of cadmium present in the control than samples from Eastern Bypass I, II, Borokiri I, II and III. For the other locations, cadmium presence is at a level higher than the control. It is worth to note that parameters values for of sample locations are higher than that derived from control for locations such as Eastern Bypass 111, Reclamation road control, 11. Also, analysis and result revealed that both samples collected from control and reclaimed sites reveal value of parameter higher than the minimum standard set by WHO. Conclusion In conclusion, the presence of heavy metals in ground water of selected sand filled areas of Port Harcourt and the choice of Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy is as a result of its qualitative and quantitative determination of more metals ( more than 70) and its ability to detect parts per million to parts per billion. AAS is also fast, convenient and of high selectivity. Findings revealed that heavy metal values were higher in ground water of sand filled areas than that of control in most of the location for parameters sampled. However, all the metals fall within the WHO maximum Concentration Limit (MCL) for heavy metals in drinking water except for cadmium (cd) with recorded values higher than the MCL values of 0.003mg/l. This was however found to be true for both the study area and the control. The implication of this finding is that the residents of both the sand fill area and control, consequent upon the consumption of the ground water, is facing adverse health risk which includes renal dysfunction, obstructive lung disease, bone defects like osteoporosis and spontaneous fractures, increased blood pressure and myocardia dysfunctions.

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