apes lab review brian kaestner saint mary’s hall
TRANSCRIPT
APES LAB Review
Brian Kaestner
Saint Mary’s Hall
Introductory Environmental Journal
Basic Lab Format:Purpose/HypothesisMaterialsProcedureData CollectionData AnalysisConclusion
The Dynamics of Plate Tectonics: Earthquakes and
Volcanic Activity
Features of the Crust
Oceanic crustOceanic crust(lithosphere)(lithosphere)
AbyssalAbyssalhillshills AbyssalAbyssal
floorfloorOceanicOceanic
ridgeridgeTrenchTrench
VolcanoesVolcanoes
Folded mountain beltFolded mountain belt
CratonCraton
Mantle (lithosphere)Mantle (lithosphere)
Mantle (asthenosphere)Mantle (asthenosphere)
Ab
ys
sa
l p
lain
Continental crust(lithosphere)
MantleMantle(lithosphere)(lithosphere)
Continentalrise
Continentalslope
Continentalshelf
Abyssal plain
AbyssalAbyssalfloorfloor
Fig. 10.3, p. 213
Fig. 10.5b, p. 214
EURASIAN PLATE
CHINASUBPLATE PHILIPINE
PLATE
INDIAN-AUSTRLIAN PLATE
PACIFICPLATE
JUAN DEFUCA PLATE
COCOSPLATE
CARIBBEAN PLATE
NORTHAMERICAN
PLATE
SOUTHAMERICAN
PLATE
EURASIAN PLATE
ANATOLIAN PLATE
ARABIAN PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
CarlsbergRidge
Southwest IndianOcean Ridge
ANTARCTIC PLATE
Transformfault
East PacificRise
Transformfault
Mid-IndianOceanRidge
Southeast IndianOcean Ridge
Mid-AtlanticOceanRidge
ReykjanesRidge
Transformfault
Divergent ( ) andtransform fault ( )boundaries
Convergentplate boundaries
Plate motionat convergentplate boundaries
Plate motionat divergentplate boundaries
Internal EarthProcesses
Internal EarthProcessesPlate tectonicsPlate tectonics
Divergent boundaryDivergent boundary
Convergent boundaryConvergent boundary
Subduction zoneSubduction zone
Transform faultTransform fault
Ring of FireRing of Fire
Lithosphere
AsthenosphereOceanic ridge at a divergentOceanic ridge at a divergentplate boundaryplate boundary
Lithosphere
TrenchTrench Volcanic island arcVolcanic island arc
Asthenosphere
Risingmagma
Subductionzone
Trench and volcanic island arc atTrench and volcanic island arc ata convergent plate boundarya convergent plate boundary
Fracture zoneFracture zone
Transformfault
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Transform fault connecting twoTransform fault connecting twodivergent plate boundariesdivergent plate boundaries
Fig. 10.6, p. 215Refer to Fig. 10-5 p. 214
The Rock Cycle and Soil Formation
The Rock CycleThe Rock Cycle
Igneous RockGranite, Pumice,
Basalt
Sedimentary RockShale, Sandstone,
Limestone
Metamorphic RockSlate, Quartzite,
Marble
Magma(Molten Rock)
WeatheringWeathering
ErosionErosion
TransportTransport DepositionDeposition
External ProcessesInternal ProcessesExternal ProcessesInternal Processes
Heat,Pressure
Heat,Pressure
Heat,
Pressure
Heat,
Pressure
Fig. 10.8, p. 217
Soils: FormationSoils: FormationSoil horizonsSoil horizons Soil profile Soil profile Humus Humus
O horizonO horizonLeaf litterLeaf litter
A horizonA horizonTopsoilTopsoil
B horizonB horizonSubsoilSubsoil
C horizonC horizonParentParent
materialmaterial
Mature soilMature soil
Young soilYoung soil
RegolithRegolithRegolithRegolith
BedrockBedrockBedrockBedrock
Immature soilImmature soil
Fig. 10.12, p. 220
Fig. 10.13, p. 221
Flatworm
Rove beetle
AntCentipede
Mite
Pseudoscorpion
Groundbeetle
Adultfly
Millipede
Flylarvae
Sowbug
Mite
Earthworms
Slug
Snail
Roundworms
Protozoa
Bacteria
Organic debris
BeetleMites
Fungi
Springtail
Actinomycetes
Fig. 10.15a, p. 223
Weak humus-mineral mixture
Mosaicof closelypackedpebbles,boulders
Dry, brown toreddish-brownwith variableaccumulationsof clay, calciumcarbonate, andsoluble salts
Desert Soil(hot, dry climate)
Grassland Soil(semiarid climate)
Alkaline,dark,and richin humus
Clay,calciumcompounds
Fig. 10.15b, p. 223
Acidiclight-coloredhumus
Iron andaluminumcompoundsmixed withclay
Forest litterleaf mold
Humus-mineralmixture
Light, grayish-brown, silt loam
Dark brownFirm clay
Acid litterand humus
Humus andiron andaluminumcompounds
Light-coloredand acidic
Tropical Rain Forest Soil(humid, tropical climate)
Deciduous Forest Soil(humid, mild climate)
Coniferous Forest Soil(humid, cold climate)
Environmental Influences on Population Distribution
Population Dispersion
ClumpedClumped(elephants)(elephants)
UniformUniform(creosote bush)(creosote bush)
RandomRandom(dandelions)(dandelions)
Fig. 9.2, p. 199
Factors Affecting Population SizePOPULATION SIZE
Growth factors(biotic potential)
Favorable lightFavorable temperatureFavorable chemical environment(optimal level of critical nutrients)
Abiotic
BioticHigh reproductive rate
Generalized niche
Adequate food supply
Suitable habitat
Ability to compete for resources
Ability to hide from or defendagainst predatorsAbility to resist diseases and parasitesAbility to migrate and live in other habitatsAbility to adapt to environmentalchange
Decrease factors(environmental resistance)
Too much or too little lightTemperature too high or too lowUnfavorable chemical environment(too much or too little of critical nutrients)
Abiotic
BioticLow reproductive rate
Specialized niche
Inadequate food supply
Unsuitable or destroyed habitat
Too many competitorsInsufficient ability to hide from or defendagainst predatorsInability to resist diseases and parasitesInability to migrate and live in other habitatsInability to adapt to environmentalchange
Fig. 9.3, p. 200
Reproductive Patterns and SurvivalReproductive Patterns and Survival Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
r-selected species r-selected species K-selected species K-selected species
r-Selected Species
cockroach dandelion
Many small offspringLittle or no parental care and protection ofoffspringEarly reproductive ageMost offspring die before reaching reproductive ageSmall adultsAdapted to unstable climate and environmental conditionsHigh population growth rate (r)Population size fluctuates wildly above and below carrying capacity (K)Generalist nicheLow ability to competeEarly successional species
Fewer, larger offspringHigh parental care and protection of offspringLater reproductive ageMost offspring survive to reproductive ageLarger adultsAdapted to stable climate and environmental conditionsLower population growth rate (r)Population size fairly stable and usually close to carrying capacity (K)Specialist nicheHigh ability to competeLate successional species
elephant saguaro
K-Selected Species
Fig. 9.10b, p. 205
Survivorship Curves
Per
cen
tag
e su
rviv
ing
(lo
g s
cale
)P
erce
nta
ge
surv
ivin
g (
log
sca
le)
100100
1010
11
00
AgeAge
Fig. 9.11, p. 206
Fig. 9.12, p. 208
Physiological changesPsychological changesBehavior changesFewer or no offspringGenetic defectsBirth defectsCancersDeath
Organism Level
Change in population sizeChange in age structure (old, young, and weak may die)Survival of strains genetically resistant to stressLoss of genetic diversity and adaptabilityExtinction
Population Level Population Level
Disruption of energy flow throughfood chains and webs
Disruption of biogeochemical cyclesLower species diversityHabitat loss or degradationLess complex food websLower stabilityEcosystem collapse
Environmental Stress
Population Studies
Sampling PopulationSpecies Diversity IndexPopulation DistributionPopulation DensityDoubling TimeCarrying Capacity + Limiting factorsPopulation Growth RateSuccessionFood Webs
Human Population Demographics
DT = 70/pgr
DT = doubling timepgr = population growth rate (%)
Factors Affecting Human Population SizeFactors Affecting Human Population Size
Population change equationPopulation change equation
Zero population growth (ZPG)Zero population growth (ZPG)
Crude birth rate (BR)Crude birth rate (BR)
Crude death rate (DR)Crude death rate (DR)
Refer to Fig. 11-2 p. 239Refer to Fig. 11-2 p. 239
PopulationChange
PopulationChange == (Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)(Births + Immigration) – (Deaths + Emigration)
The Demographic Transition
LowLow
HighHigh
Rel
ativ
e p
op
ula
tio
n s
ize
Rel
ativ
e p
op
ula
tio
n s
ize
Bir
th r
ate
and
dea
th r
ate
(nu
mb
er p
er 1
,000
per
yea
r)B
irth
rat
e an
d d
eath
rat
e(n
um
ber
per
1,0
00 p
er y
ear) 8080
7070
6060
5050
4040
3030
2020
1010
00
Stage 1Preindustrial
Stage 1Preindustrial
Stage 2Transindustrial
Stage 2Transindustrial
Stage 3IndustrialStage 3
IndustrialStage 4
PostindustrialStage 4
Postindustrial
Lowgrowth rate
Lowgrowth rate
Increasing Growthgrowth rate
Increasing Growthgrowth rate
Very highgrowth rateVery high
growth rateDecreasinggrowth rateDecreasinggrowth rate
Lowgrowth rate
Lowgrowth rate
Zerogrowth rate
Zerogrowth rate
Negativegrowth rate
Negativegrowth rate
Birth rate
Total population
Death rate
TimeTimeTimeTimeFig. 11.26, p. 255
Factors Affecting Natural Rate of Increase
Developed Countries5050
4040
3030
2020
1010
0017751775
18001800 1850
185019001900
19501950
20002000 2050
2050
Rat
e p
er 1
,000
peo
ple
Rat
e p
er 1
,000
peo
ple
Year
Rate ofnatural increase
Crudebirth rate
Crudedeath rate
Rate of natural increase = crude birth rate = crude death rate Rate of natural increase = crude birth rate = crude death rate
Developed Countries5050
4040
3030
2020
1010
0017751775
18001800 1850
185019001900
19501950
20002000 2050
2050
Rat
e p
er 1
,000
peo
ple
Rat
e p
er 1
,000
peo
ple Crude
birth rate
Rate ofnaturalincrease Crude
death rate
Year
Fig. 11.13, p. 245
Ages 0-14Ages 0-14 Ages 15-44Ages 15-44 Ages 45-85+Ages 45-85+
Rapid GrowthGuatemala
NigeriaSaudi Arabia
Rapid GrowthGuatemala
NigeriaSaudi Arabia
Slow GrowthUnited States
AustraliaCanada
Slow GrowthUnited States
AustraliaCanada
MaleMale FemaleFemale
Zero GrowthSpainAustriaGreece
Zero GrowthSpainAustriaGreece
Negative GrowthGermanyBulgariaSweden
Negative GrowthGermanyBulgariaSweden
Population Age StructurePopulation Age Structure
Fig. 11.16a, p. 247
Soil Analysis
Soil Properties Infiltration Infiltration
Leaching Leaching
Porosity/permeability Porosity/permeability
Texture Texture
Structure Structure
pH pH
100%clay100%clay
IncreasingIncreasingpercentage siltpercentage silt
IncreasingIncreasingpercentage claypercentage clay
00
2020
4040
6060
8080
8080
6060
4040
2020
00100%sand100%sand 8080 6060 4040 2020 100%silt100%silt
Increasing percentage sandIncreasing percentage sand
Fig. 10.16, p. 224
Water Water
High permeability Low permeability
Fig. 10.17, p. 224
Fig. 10.17, p. 224
Water Water
High permeability Low permeability
Fig. 10.16, p. 224
100%clay
Increasingpercentage silt
Increasingpercentage clay
0
20
40
60
80
80
60
40
20
0
100%sand 80 60 40 20 100%silt
Increasing percentage sand
sandyclay
clay
siltyclay
silty clayloam
clayloam
loam siltyloam
silt
sandy clayloam
sandyloam
loamy sandsand
Energy Consumption
The Importance of Improving Energy EfficiencyThe Importance of Improving Energy Efficiency
Net useful energy Net useful energy
Life cycle cost Life cycle cost
Least EfficientLeast Efficient Incandescent lights Incandescent lights Internal combustion
engine
Internal combustion engine
Nuclear power plants Nuclear power plants
Energy InputsEnergy Inputs SystemSystem OutputsOutputs
U.S.economy
andlifestyles
84%
7%
5%4%
9%
7%
41%
43%
Nonrenewable fossil Nonrenewable fossil fuelsfuels
Nonrenewable nuclearNonrenewable nuclear
Hydropower, geothermal,Hydropower, geothermal,wind, solarwind, solarBiomassBiomass
Useful energyUseful energy
PetrochemicalsPetrochemicals
Unavoidable energy Unavoidable energy wastewasteUnnecessary energy Unnecessary energy wastewaste
Fig. 15.2, p. 359
Ways to Improve Energy EfficiencyWays to Improve Energy EfficiencyInsulationInsulationElimination of air leaksElimination of air leaksAir to air heat exchangersAir to air heat exchangersCogenerationCogenerationEfficient electric motorsEfficient electric motorsHigh-efficiency lightingHigh-efficiency lightingIncreasing fuel economyIncreasing fuel economy
Solutions: A Sustainable Energy StrategySolutions: A Sustainable Energy Strategy
Improve Energy Efficiency
Increase fuel-efficiencystandards for vehicles,buildings, and appliances
Mandate governmentpurchases of efficient vehicles and other devices
Provide tax credits for buying efficient cars, houses, and appliances
Offer tax credits for investments in efficiency
Reward utilities forreducing demand
Encourage independentpower producers
Increase efficiencyresearch and development
More Renewable Energy
Increase renewable energy to 40% by 2020
Provide subsidies and tax credits for renewable energy
Use full-cost accounting and least-cost analysis for com-paring all energy alternatives
Encourage government purchase of renewable energy devices
Increase renewable energyresearch and development
Reduce Pollution andHealth Risk
Cut coal use 50% by 2020
Phase out coal subsidies
Levy taxes on coal and oil use
Phase out nuclear power or put it on hold until 2020
Phase out nuclear power subsidies
Fig. 15.42, p. 392
Air Pollution
Outdoor Air PollutionOutdoor Air Pollution Primary pollutants Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants Secondary pollutants
Primary Pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
SourcesNatural Stationary
CO CO2
SO2 NO NO2
Most hydrocarbons
Most suspendedparticles
SO3
HNO3 H2SO4
H2O2 O3 PANs
Most and saltsNO3–
Mobile
SO42–
Fig. 17.4, p. 422See Table 17-1 p. 421See Table 17-2 p. 422
Temperature InversionsSubsidence inversionSubsidence inversion
Radiation inversionRadiation inversionWarmer airWarmer air
Inversion layerInversion layer
Cool layer
MountainMountainMountain
ValleyValley
Decreasing temperatureDecreasing temperature
Incr
easi
ng
alt
itu
de
Incr
easi
ng
alt
itu
de
Fig. 17.8, p. 426
Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition
Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition
Acid depositionAcid depositionWet depositionWet deposition Dry depositionDry deposition
Wind
Transformation tosulfuric acid (H2SO4)and nitric acid (HNO3)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Acid fog
Ocean
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)and NO
Windborne ammonia gasand particles of cultivated soilpartially neutralize acids andform dry sulfate and nitrate salts
Dry aciddeposition(sulfur dioxidegas and particlesof sulfate andnitrate salts)
Farm
Lakes indeep soilhigh in limestoneare buffered
Lakes in shallowsoil low inlimestonebecomeacidic
Wet acid deposition(droplets of H2SO4 andHNO3 dissolved in rainand snow)
Fig. 17.9, p. 428
Solutions: Preventing and Reducing Air Pollution
Solutions: Preventing and Reducing Air Pollution
Clean Air ActClean Air Act
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
Primary and secondary standardsPrimary and secondary standards
Output control vs. input controlOutput control vs. input control
Emission Reduction
Prevention Dispersionor Cleanup
Burn low-sulfurcoal
Remove sulfurfrom coal
Convert coalto a liquid orgaseous fuel
Shift to lesspolluting fuels
Disperseemissions abovethermal inversionlayer with tallsmokestacks
Removepollutants aftercombustion
Tax each unitof pollutionproduced
Fig. 17.21, p. 442
Electrostatic Precipitator
Dirty gasDust discharge
ElectrodesCleaned gas
Fig. 17.22, p. 442
Reducing IndoorAir Pollution
Prevention Cleanup orDilutionCover ceiling
tiles and liningof AC ducts toprevent releaseof mineral fibers
Ban smoking orlimit it to well-ventilated areas
Set stricterformaldehydeemissionsstandards forcarpet,furniture,and buildingmaterials
Prevent radoninfiltration
Use officemachines inwell-ventilatedareas
Use lesspollutingsubstitutes forharmfulcleaningagents, paints, and other products
Use adjustablefresh air ventsfor work spaces
Increase intakeof outside air
Change airmore frequently
Circulate building’s airthrough rooftopgreenhouses
Use exhausthoods for stoves andappliances burning naturalgas
Install efficientchimneys forwood-burningstoves
Fig. 17.24, p. 443
Toxicity Testing
Risk and ProbabilityRisk and ProbabilityRiskRisk
ProbabilityProbability
Riskassessment
Riskassessment
Riskmanagement
Riskmanagement
Hazard identificationWhat is the hazard?
Probability of riskHow likely is the event?
Consequences of riskWhat is the likelydamage?
Risk Assessment Risk Management
Comparative risk analysisHow does it comparewith other risks?
Risk reductionHow much shouldit be reduced?
Risk reduction strategyHow will the riskbe reduced?
Financial commitmentHow much moneyshould be spent?
Fig. 16.2, p. 297
Poisons
Poison Poison
LD50 LD50
Median lethal dose Median lethal dose
See Table 16-1 p. 400See Table 16-1 p. 400
25
100100
7575
5050
00 22 44 66 88 1010 1212 1414 1616
Per
cen
tag
e o
f p
op
ula
tio
n k
ille
d b
y a
giv
en d
ose
Per
cen
tag
e o
f p
op
ula
tio
n k
ille
d b
y a
giv
en d
ose
Dose (hypothetical units)Dose (hypothetical units)
LD50
Fig. 16.5, p. 400See Table 16-1 p. 400
Risk AnalysisRisk AnalysisRisk analysisRisk analysis
Comparative riskanalysis
Comparative riskanalysis
Cost-benefitanalysis
Cost-benefitanalysis
Risk managementRisk management
Risk perceptionRisk perception
Riskprobability
Riskassessment
Riskseverity
Is the riskacceptable?
Acceptable ifbenefitsoutweigh costs
Cost–benefit ExpressedpreferencesAcceptable ifpeople agree toaccept the risks
Naturalstandards
Acceptable ifrisk is notgreater thanthose created bynatural hazard
RevealedpreferencesAcceptable ifrisk is notgreater thanthose currentlytolerated
Fig. 16.14, p. 412
Water Quality Testing
DOBODTempPhosphatesNitratesTurbidity
Types and Sources of Water PollutionTypes and Sources of Water Pollution
Point sourcesPoint sources
Nonpoint sourcesNonpoint sources
Biological oxygen demand
Biological oxygen demand
Water qualityWater quality
Refer to Tables 19-1 and 19-2 p. 477 and 478
Refer to Tables 19-1 and 19-2 p. 477 and 478
WaterWaterQualityQuality
GoodGood 8-98-9
Do (ppm) at 20˚CDo (ppm) at 20˚C
SlightlySlightlypollutedpolluted
ModeratelyModeratelypollutedpolluted
HeavilyHeavilypollutedpolluted
GravelyGravelypollutedpolluted
6.7-86.7-8
4.5-6.74.5-6.7
Below 4.5Below 4.5
Below 4Below 4Fig. 19.2, p. 478
Pollution of StreamsPollution of Streams Oxygen sag curve Oxygen sag curve Factors influencing recovery Factors influencing recovery
Clean ZoneClean Zone DecompositionDecompositionZoneZone
Septic ZoneSeptic Zone Recovery ZoneRecovery Zone Clean ZoneClean Zone
Normal clean water organisms(Trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
Trash fish(carp, gar,Leeches)
Fish absent, fungi,Sludge worms,
bacteria(anaerobic)
Trash fish(carp, gar,Leeches)
Normal clean water organisms(Trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
8 ppm
Dissolved oxygen
Biological oxygendemand
Oxygen sag
2 ppm
8 ppm
Co
nce
ntr
ati
on
Co
nce
ntr
ati
on
Typ
es o
fT
ypes
of
org
anis
ms
org
anis
ms
Time of distance downstreamTime of distance downstream
Direction of flow
Point of waste orheat discharge
Fig. 19.3, p. 479
Pollution of Lakes Eutrophication Eutrophication
Slow turnover
Slow turnover
Thermal stratification
Thermal stratification
Discharge of untreatedmunicipal sewage
(nitrates and phosphates)Nitrogen compounds
produced by carsand factories
Discharge of treatedmunicipal sewage
(primary and secondarytreatment:
nitrates and phosphates)
Discharge of detergents
( phosphates)
Natural runoff(nitrates andphosphates
Manure runoffFrom feedlots(nitrates andPhosphates,
ammonia)
Dissolving of nitrogen oxides
(from internal combustionengines and furnaces)
Runoff and erosion(from from cultivation,mining, construction,
and poor land use)
Runoff from streets,lawns, and construction
lots (nitrates andphosphates)
Lake ecosystemnutrient overload
and breakdown of chemical cycling
Fig. 19.5, p. 482
Water/Wastewater Treatment
Technological Approach: Sewage Treatment
Mechanical and biological treatmentMechanical and biological treatment
Raw sewagefrom sewers
Bar screenGritchamber Settling tank Aeration tank Settling tank
Chlorinedisinfection tank
Sludge
Sludge digester
Activated sludge
Air pump
(kills bacteria)
To river, lake,or ocean
Sludge drying bed
Disposed of in landfill orocean or applied to cropland,pasture, or rangeland
Primary Secondary
Fig. 19.15, p. 494
Technological Approach: Advanced Sewage Treatment
Removes specific pollutantsRemoves specific pollutantsEffluent fromSecondarytreatment
Alumflocculation
plus sedimentsActivated
carbon
Desalination(electrodialysis
or reverse osmosis)Nitrate
removal
Specializedcompound
removal(DDT, etc.)
98% ofsuspended solids
90% ofphosphates
98% ofdissolvedorganics
Most ofdissolved salts
Recycled to landfor irrigation
and fertilization
To rivers, lakes,streams, oceans,
reservoirs, or industries
Fig. 19.16, p. 495
Solid Waste Management
Fig. 21.4, p. 521
1st Priority 2nd Priority Last Priority
Primary Pollutionand Waste Prevention
• Change industrial process to eliminate use of harmful chemicals
• Purchase different products
• Use less of a harmful product
• Reduce packaging and materials in products
• Make products that last longer and are recyclable, reusable or easy to repair
Secondary Pollution and Waste Prevention
• Reduce products
• Repair products
• Recycle
• Compost
• Buy reusable and recyclable products
Waste Management
• Treat waste to reduce toxicity
• Incinerate waste
• Bury waste in landfill
• Release waste into environment for dispersal or dilution
Fig. 21.7, p. 530
Reduces globalwarming
Reduces aciddeposition
Reduces urbanair pollution
Make fuelsupplies
last longer
Reducesair pollution
Savesenergy
Reducesenergy demand
Reduceswater pollution
Recycling
Reduces solidwaste disposal
Reducesmineraldemand
Protectsspecies
Reduceshabitat
destruction
Fig. 21.9, p. 534
Source materials
Natural gas Petroleum Coal
Feedstocks
Monomers (small molecules)
Polymers
Resins (giant molecules)
Productsbottles, milk jugs,
Sodabottles, drums,
containers
Productsappliance
housing, CDs,toys, plastic parts,
aircraft, boats
ProductsVinyl, siding,
plastic film andbags, pipe
Refining
Polymerzation
Manufacturing
Blow molding(hollow objects)
Molding(solid objects)
Extrusion(Flat, rolled, andtubular shapes)
Fig. 21.10, p. 536
Power plant
Steam
Turbine GeneratorElectricity
Crane
Furnace
Boiler
Wetscrubber
Electrostaticprecipitator
Conveyor
Water Bottomash
Conven-tional
landfill
Wastetreatment
HazardousWastelandfill
Dirtywater
Waste pit
Smokestack
Flyash
Fig. 21.12, p. 537
Topsoil
Sand
Clay
Garbage
Garbage
Sand
Synthetic liner
Sand
Clay
Subsoil
When landfill is full,layers of soil and clayseal in trash
Methane storageand compressor
building
Electricitygeneratorbuilding
Leachatetreatment system
Methane gasrecovery
Pipe collect explosivemethane gas used as fuel
to generate electricity
Compactedsolid waste
Leachatestorage tanks
Leachatemonitoringwell
Leachatemonitoringwell
GroundwaterGroundwater
Groundwatermonitoringwell
Groundwatermonitoringwell
Leachate pipesLeachate pipes Leachate pumped upto storage tanks for
safe disposal
Leachate pumped upto storage tanks for
safe disposal
Clay and plastic liningto prevent leaks; pipescollect leachate from
bottom of landfill
The Greenhouse Effect
The Natural Greenhouse EffectThe Natural Greenhouse EffectGreenhouse effectGreenhouse effect Greenhouse gases
(Refer to Table 18-1 p. 448)
Greenhouse gases(Refer to Table 18-1 p. 448)
Rays of sunlight penetrate Rays of sunlight penetrate the lower atmosphere and the lower atmosphere and warm the earth's surface.warm the earth's surface.
The earth's surface absorbs much of The earth's surface absorbs much of the incoming solar radiation and the incoming solar radiation and degrades it to longer-wavelength degrades it to longer-wavelength infrared radiation (heat), which rises infrared radiation (heat), which rises into the lower atmosphere. Some of into the lower atmosphere. Some of this heat escapes into space and some this heat escapes into space and some is absorbed by molecules of is absorbed by molecules of greenhouse gases and emitted as greenhouse gases and emitted as infrared radiation, which warms the infrared radiation, which warms the lower atmosphere.lower atmosphere.
As concentrations of greenhouse As concentrations of greenhouse gases rise, their molecules gases rise, their molecules absorb and emit more infrared absorb and emit more infrared radiation, which adds more heat radiation, which adds more heat to the to the lower atmosphere.lower atmosphere.
(a)(a) (b)(b) (c)(c)
Fig. 6.13, p. 128
Carbon dioxide
Temperaturechange End of
last ice age
160 120 80 40 0Thousands of years before present
Co
nc
entr
ati
on
of
carb
on
dio
xid
ein
th
e a
tmo
sph
ere
(p
pm
)
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
–10.0
–7.5
–5.0
–2.5
0
+2.5
Va
riat
ion
of
tem
pe
ratu
re (
˚C)
fro
m c
urr
en
t le
vel
Fig. 18.3, p. 449
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Year1800 1900 2000 2100
260
310
360
410P
arts
per
mil
lio
n
Fig. 18.4a, p. 450
Methane (CH4)
Year1800 1900 2000 2100
0.6
1.2
1.8
2.4P
arts
per
mil
lio
n
Fig. 18.4b, p. 450
Year
1990 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100
100
150
200
250
Ind
ex
(19
00
= 1
00
)Carbon dioxide
MethaneNitrous oxide
Fig. 18.5, p. 451
Human Activities and Earth’s ClimateIncreased use of fossil fuelsIncreased use of fossil fuels
Deforestation Deforestation
Global warmingGlobal warming
Melting icecaps and glaciersMelting icecaps and glaciers
Coral reef bleachingCoral reef bleaching
Some Possible Effects of a Warmer World
Some Possible Effects of a Warmer World
• Increased deaths from heat and disease
• Disruption of food and water supplies
• Spread of tropical diseases to temperate areas
• Increased respiratory disease
• Increased water pollution from coastal flooding
Human Health
• Rising sea levels• Flooding of low-lying
islands and coastal cities• Flooding of coastal
estuaries, wetlands, and coral reefs
• Beach erosion• Disruption of coastal
fisheries• Contamination of coastal
aquifiers with salt water
Sea Level and Coastal Areas
• Changes in forest composition and locations
• Disappearance of some forests
• Increased fires from drying
• Loss of wildlife habitat and species
Forests
• Changes in water supply
• Decreased water quality
• Increased drought
• Increased flooding
Water Resources
• Shifts in food-growing areas
• Changes in crop yields
• Increased irrigation demands
• Increased pests, crop diseases, and weeds in warmer areas
Agriculture
• Extinction of some plant and animal species
• Loss of habitats
• Disruption of aquatic life
Biodiversity
• Prolonged heat waves and droughts
• Increased flooding
• More intense hurricanes, typhoons, tornadoes, and violent storms
Weather Extremes
• Increased deaths
• More environmental refugees
• Increased migration
Human Population
Fig. 18.12, p. 458
Solutions: Dealing with the Threat of Climate Change
Solutions: Dealing with the Threat of Climate Change
OptionsOptions
Do nothing Do nothing
Do more research Do more research
Act now to reduce risks
Act now to reduce risks
No-regrets strategy No-regrets strategy
Prevention Cleanup
Cut fossil fueluse (especiallycoal)
Shift from coalto natural gas
Transfer energyefficiency andrenewable energytechnologiesto developingcountries
Improve energyefficiency
Shift torenewableenergy resources
Reducedeforestation
Use sustainableagriculture
Slow populationgrowth
Remove CO2
from smokestackand vehicleemissions
Store (sequesterCO2 by plantingtrees)
Sequester CO2
underground
Sequester CO2 in soil
Sequester CO2 in deep ocean
Fig. 18.14, p. 461
Acid Deposition
Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition
Regional Outdoor Air Pollution from Acid Deposition
Acid depositionAcid depositionWet depositionWet deposition Dry depositionDry deposition
Wind
Transformation tosulfuric acid (H2SO4)and nitric acid (HNO3)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Acid fog
Ocean
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)and NO
Windborne ammonia gasand particles of cultivated soilpartially neutralize acids andform dry sulfate and nitrate salts
Dry aciddeposition(sulfur dioxidegas and particlesof sulfate andnitrate salts)
Farm
Lakes indeep soilhigh in limestoneare buffered
Lakes in shallowsoil low inlimestonebecomeacidic
Wet acid deposition(droplets of H2SO4 andHNO3 dissolved in rainand snow)
Fig. 17.9, p. 428
Acid Deposition and Humans Respiratory diseases Respiratory diseases
Toxic metal leaching Toxic metal leaching
Decreased visibility Decreased visibility
Damage to structures, especially containing limestone
Damage to structures, especially containing limestone
Decreased productivity and profitability of fisheries, forests, and farms
Decreased productivity and profitability of fisheries, forests, and farms
Acid Deposition and Aquatic Systems Fish declines Fish declines
Undesirable species
Undesirable species
Aluminum toxicity
Aluminum toxicity
Acid shock Acid shock
WaterWaterboatmanboatman
WhirligigWhirligig
Yellow perchYellow perch
Lake troutLake trout
Brown troutBrown trout
SalamanderSalamander(embryonic)(embryonic)
MayflyMayfly
SmallmouthSmallmouthbassbass
MusselMussel
6.56.5 6.06.0 5.55.5 5.05.0 4.54.5 4.04.0 3.53.5pHpH
Fig. 17.13, p. 430
Acid Deposition, Plants, and Soil Nutrient
leaching
Nutrient leaching
Heavy metal release
Heavy metal release
Weakens trees Weakens trees
Emissions
Effects of Weather
Aciddeposition
Dryweather
Lowprecipitation
Increasedevapotranspiration
Increasedtranspiration
LakeGroundwater
SO2 NOX
H2O2 O3
PANs Others
Increasedsusceptibility
to frost,pests, fungi,
mosses,and disease
Dead leavesor needles
Reducedphotosynthesis
and growth
Tree deathDamageto treecrown
Waterdeficit
Nutrientdeficiency
Bark damage
Direct damageto leaves
and needles
Leaching ofsoil nutrients
Acidsand soilnutrients
Damage tofine roots Disturbance
of wateruptake
Disturbanceof nutrient
uptake
Soil acidification
Kills certainessential soil
microorganisms
Release of toxic metal ionsN
itra
te
Su
lfat
e
Mag
nes
ium
Alu
min
um
Cal
ciu
m
Po
tass
ium
Aci
ds
Fig. 17.14, p. 432See Connections p. 431
The Effects of Radiation on Growth
Calculate growth rateGraph exp and control dataAnalyze effectsPredict effects due to natural exposure and nuclear accidents