Contents of AP European History Exam City-States & Dynasties 14501550 The Age of Exploration The Reformations 15001600 Wars of Religion 15601650 Republican States 15501700 Absolutism 15501770 Enlightened Absolutism War & Colonies 16001789 The French Revolution The Napoleonic Era War & Revolution 18151890 Industrial Expansion The Age of Reform Imperialism 18001914 Alliances 18731914 The Great War 19141918 Russian Revolution & USSR Interwar Politics Fascism World War II 19391945 Cold War in Europe Decolonization European Union New Political Movement End of the Cold War City-States & Dynasties 14501550 Europe sees greater centralized monarchical control over taxes, law, armies; increased sense of belonging to a nation Italian city-states: Hundreds of cities (e.g., Florence, Venice, Milan, Genoa, Naples, Papal States) are ruled independently along with surrounding countryside, resulting in political and social instability Cities slowly consolidate into larger city-states ruled by powerful, ruthless families, such as the Medici of Florence Many city-states become constitutional oligarchies ruled by small numbers of people; others ruled by despots Papal States are ruled by the pope, like other city-states France invades Italian states three times (1494, 1499, 1515) 1527: Spanish soldiers sack Rome Spain: Reaches height of power during 1500s via marriage, inheritance, luck, exploration 1469: Marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella leads to united Spain 1492: Spain expels Jews; exiles Muslims in 1502 Charles V (r. 15191556) rules Habsburg Empire (Spain, Netherlands, areas of Italy, central Europe), Holy Roman Empire, and empire in New World After Charles, Habsburg Empire splits between Spanish and Austrian branches Holy Roman Empire: Continues divide into small independent states ruled by princes, archbishops; population mostly German Empire as a whole ruled by an elected emperor (usually an Austrian Habsburg) who negotiates powers with princes France: Centralizes under powerful Valois dynasty but faces constant warfare, religious conflict 1453: France defeats England, ending Hundred Years War 1477: Burgundy divided between France, Holy Roman Empire 1500s: Series of wars against Spanish Habsburgs end in defeat 15151547:Francis I rules with cooperation of nobles England: New Tudor dynasty ends decades of civil war 14551485:War of the Roses between House of Lancaster and House of York over crown 1485: Lancastrian Henry Tudor defeats ill-reputed Richard III at Bosworth Field; as Henry VII, he strengthens royal authority Byzantine Empire:Constantinople falls to Ottoman Turks in 1453; Islamic, religiously tolerant Ottoman Empire spreads into Balkans Russia: Princes, united under Ivan III of Moscow, end Mongol rule of Russian cities in 1480 Renaissance Thought & Culture Italian Renaissance: Exploration of the secular world (nature, humanity) through painting, poetry, sculpture, philosophy Humanism: Poets Dante Alighieri (12651321) and Petrarch (13041374) and other thinkers pursue scholarship in the humanities, inspired by ancient Greeks and Romans Wealthy nobles and merchants support the arts Techniques of symmetry, proportionality, chiaroscuro (light-dark contrast), perspective make art more realistic 1440:Donatello finishes sculpture David, first Western freestanding nude since antiquity 1507:Leonardo da Vinci (14521519), artist, engineer, scientist, inventor, ultimate Renaissance Man finishes Mona Lisa 1508:Michelangelo begins work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome; beautiful frescoes depict biblical passages 1513:Niccol Machiavellis The Prince: Leaders should inspire fear to end political instability, cause moral regeneration Mannerism: New expressive style rejects symmetry of earlier Renaissance art (c. 15201600) Northern Renaissance: Begins c. 1460s; humanists pursue intellectual activity, making religious reform possible Spurred by invention of movable-type printing press (Johann Gutenberg, c. 1450) and rising number of schools, universities Literacy leads to challenges to rule, religion; greater individual knowledge; propaganda; censorship; new trades; copyright law Desiderius Erasmus (Dutch, c. 14691536) promotes intellectual inquiry, piety, use of Latin as common scholarly language Albrecht Drer (German, 14711528) paints, engraves realistically Thomas More critiques society in Utopia (England, 1516) The Age of Exploration Spanish and Portuguese explore coast of Africa and the Atlantic in the late 1400s and 1500s 1492: Spanish monarchs fund Christopher Columbuss voyage; aims to find spices and gold in Asia, but actually lands in Caribbean 1498: Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reaches India by going around Africa; spice trade to the East by sea begins Spain claims most of Central, South America; Portugal claims Brazil, African coast; conquer via small armies, advanced weapons 1493: Pope divides New World between Spain, Portugal 1521:Hernn Corts (Spain) conquers Aztec in Mexico 15311534:Francisco Pizarro (Spain) conquers Inca in Peru 15191522:Ferdinand Magellan (Portugal) circumnavigates world Indigenous people face disease, enslavement; loss of land, culture Africans sent to New World as slaves in mines, on plantations Catholic priests, notably Bartolom de Las Casas (14741566), protest against Spanish treatment of Native Americans The Reformations 15001600 Calls for church reform to end abuses and give lay authorities more power set the stage for ReformationsSale of indulgences (in which anxious individuals pay church money in hopes of spending less time in purgatory after death) comes under attackCorrupt, immoral popes, bishops, priests tarnish church imageGreat Schism (13781417): Period of several rival popes; undermines papal authorityCalls for reform by John Wycliffe (English, c. 13281384) and Jan Hus (Czech, c. 13691415)German cities, desiring more wealth and power, try to end churchs financial privileges and abusesProtestant Reformation: German priest Martin Luther challenges church doctrine, rejects pope as head of Christian ChurchArgues against monastic life; believes that faith alone leads to salvation (not good works, not indulgences)Acknowledges two holy sacraments rather than sevenPromotes personal religion, individual Bible study, Bible and Mass in vernacular (not Latin)1517: Luther posts his ninety-five theses (complaints about churchs sale of indulgences) on door of church at Wittenberg1521: Pope excommunicates Luther; H.R.E. Charles V signs Edict of Worms condemning Luthers ideas; church reform becomes political issue that divides German princes1530:Augsburg Confession makes Luthers break with church permanent, founds Lutheran ChurchProtestant movement spreads piecemeal through Holy Roman Empires individual states and citiesUrban reformers, pamphlets, preachers spread Luthers ideasCrowds attack churches; wars distract Charles V from resisting Reformation activelyRadical reformers in the Holy Roman Empire splinter into Anabaptists, Mennonites, Anti-Trinitarians1522:Ulrich Zwingli leads Reformation in Switzerland based on literal reading of scriptureJohn Calvin (French, 15091564) believes salvation comes only through predestination but also that living a strictly godly life is a sign of being chosen to be saved1540s: Calvin leads moral reform in Geneva, Switzerland, haven for persecuted ProtestantsCalvinism spreads to Netherlands, France1555:Peace of Augsburg lets German princes decide on religion of their states; Holy Roman Empire thus divides between Lutherans, Catholics; Calvinists, Anabaptists not recognized1530s: Englands Henry VIII (r. 15091547) founds Anglican Church in order to divorce his wife, breaks from Catholicism; daughter Mary returns to CatholicismOther daughter, Elizabeth I (r. 15581603), enforces Protestantism through Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy (1559) but tolerates Catholicism; seeks pragmatic solution to end violencePuritans press for further reform of Anglican Church; advocate simplified, fervent ProtestantismCatholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation): Defends against Protestantism, makes reforms within Catholicism1540:Ignatius of Loyola founds Society of Jesus (Jesuits), who preach and teach worldwide to promote Catholicism15451563:Council of Trent reforms bishop and priest conduct; reaffirms Catholic doctrine: papal authority, seven sacraments, Christs presence in Eucharist (communion), power of indulgences (but not sale), power of good works, celibacy of clergy1555: Pope Paul IV orders Jews to live in ghettos1559: Pope Paul IV establishes Index (list of forbidden books)1600:Pattern of Christianity in Europe set, but minorities existCatholic majority: Ireland, Spain, France, Italian states, Austria, Poland, southern German statesProtestant majority: England, Switzerland, Netherlands, Scandinavia, northern German statesOrthodox majority: Russia, Balkans, parts of Poland-Lithuania Families & Children 14501600European population in 1400s still recovering from Black Death (bubonic plague) of 1300sLife expectancy short; 40 considered old ageCouples marry lateHigh infant mortality; poor have few surviving childrenWives legally subservient to husbands but contribute to household economyChanges in marriage and families in the 1500s:Marriages occur at later ages; women considered partners in marriage; divorce still difficult but more acceptable under ProtestantismSome use of birth control; high infant mortality continues; many children placed in foundling homes; spreading practice of wet-nursingUntil late 17th century, plague sweeps through Europe every 1015 years, spread by armies Economies 145016001300s1400s: Europe more united economically than ever beforeItalian cities Genoa and Venice trade European wool and metal for silk, cotton, and spices from China, India, and PersiaTextile production and surplus agriculture provide goods for urban centers, fueling the Italian RenaissanceBanking, borrowing, raising capital through mining monopolies fuels expanding economiesItalian city Florences gold florin becomes the standard currency for many European traders1500s: Population and wealth of Europe increase, benefiting wealthy landowners but leading to inflation, less food, fewer jobs, higher taxes, wider gap between rich and poorAge of Exploration leads to new maritime spice, silk, slave trade; sea powers Spain and Portugal grow rich importing silver and gold from the New World; Italian states decline from competitionNew wealth allows western Europe to buy grain from Eastern Europe; land values in Poland rise, rents increase, leading small holders to reenter serfdom (losing freedom, gaining security)15241525:Peasants War in Holy Roman Empire calls for end to serfdom, unfair taxation; based partly on Luthers Reformation teachings but condemned by Luther; revolt is suppressedTownspeople in Western Europe gain freedoms from lords; generally could not be serfsLargest European cities in 1500: Constantinople, Naples, Milan, Paris, VeniceOnly about 15% of population lives in townsSmall number of merchants, nobles, manufacturers dominates urban society; next are artisans; most in cities are laborersGuilds regulate artisan training, production, goods distribution Wars of Religion 15601650 France: Dynastic conflict intensifies wars of religion between Huguenots (French Protestants) and Catholics (15621598) Three successive weak kings and their mother, Catherine de Medici, try to maintain their independence between Catholic and Protestant competing factions 1572: In St. Bartholomews Day Massacre, thousands of Huguenots killed in Paris and throughout France; Protestants increase resistance to Catholic rule 1598: Bourbon king Henry IV declares Edict of Nantes, a religious truce; official religion is Catholicism, but Protestants are granted freedomsNetherlands:Dutch Protestants begin revolt against Catholic Spanish Habsburgs (1572) 1581: Calvinist United Provinces (northern Netherlands) declare independence; southern Netherlands remain Catholic, loyal to Spain (Belgium and Luxembourg today) 1609: Truce declaredThirty Years War (16181648): Most destructive war of religion Despite Peace of Augsburg, tensions rise in Holy Roman Empire between Catholics and Protestants, Calvinists and Lutherans 1618: War begins in Bohemia (Czech region in Holy Roman Empire); dynastic conflicts draw in nearly all European countries (Denmark, Sweden, France, Spain, Netherlands) Armies grow large, cruel, undisciplined, live off the land; destructive war becomes the norm1648:Treaty of Westphalia brings lasting peace, ends wars of religion, establishes many of todays European borders Calvinists gain legal recognition; German rulers still allowed to determine religion of their own territories Independence of Swiss Confederation and United Provinces (Netherlands) recognized Holy Roman Empire weakened; German states greatly damaged by war but maintain relative independence within Empire; German states Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia gain power France and Spain continue at war until 1659 In 1650, 20% of Europeans are Protestant (decline from 1600)Scientific Ideas 15001700Scientific Revolution actually slow, uneven development in thought and approaches to the study of the universe, often following false leads or experiencing setbacksAstronomy: Mathematical formulas developed to describe earthly and planetary motion; observation places the Sun rather than Earth at the center of the planetsAncient, medieval science (based on Greeks Aristotle and Ptolemy ) placed Earth at the center of the universe1543:Nicolaus Copernicus (Polish, 14731543) publishes argument for heliocentric (sun-centered) universe, based on his own observationsTycho Brahe (Danish, 15461601) collects observations of planets and stars; his assistant, Johannes Kepler (German, 15711630), develops laws of planetary motionGalileo Galilei (Italian, 15641642) uses telescope to observe Suns rotation, moons craters; argues that universe follows laws of mathematicsMath and physics: Discoveries of gravity, mathematical lawsIsaac Newton (English, 16421727) argues that light can be described mathematically (1671), publishes laws of gravity (1687)Newton and Gottfried Leibnitz (German, 16461716) independently develop calculus, which describes motion, surface area, and change in volume via mathematical formulasAnatomy:Andreas Vesalius (Flemish, 15141564) and William Harvey (English, 15781657) explore workings of the human body, including the skeletal and circulatory systemsSome scientists come into conflict with the Catholic Church for disagreeing with the Bible and emphasizing material world rather than the spiritual world1633: Pope prosecutes Galileo for promoting Copernican systemHowever, most scientists view their work as glorifying and understanding Gods creation, not as a challenge to religionBlaise Pascal (French, 16231662) attempts to reconcile science with religionScientific reasoning: Scientists and philosophers begin to view the universe as governed by universal laws that can be discovered and tested using rational inquiry and experimentFrancis Bacon (English, 15611626) uses inductive reasoning (gathering small pieces of information via experiments and drawing larger conclusions from them)Ren Descartes (French, 15961650) uses deductive reasoning (beginning with general principles such as I think, therefore I am, and using reason to derive knowledge from them)Newton combines experimentation with theoryScientific knowledge spreads through letters, publications, private and public demonstrations; Royal Society of London becomes the most prominent scientific societyWomen prevented from participating in scientific societies and universities, yet some make scientific contributions, such as English noblewoman Margaret Cavendish (16231673) Early Modern Thought & CultureReformation leads to fewer monasteries, fewer religious holidays; encourages spread of humanist education and reading, including literacy for womenBaroque style of art and architecture embraced in Catholic countries; heavily ornamented, monumental, emotional religious artBaroque music flourishes c. 16001750, distinguished by bass continuo (sustained note) and ornamentation heard in compositions of Johann Sebastian Bach (German, 16851750) and Antonio Vivaldi (Italian, 16781741)1600s Dutch artists paint secular scenes of daily life, still-lifes, families eating, drinking, enjoying wealth; emerging middle class can afford to buy and commission paintingsRembrandt von Rijn (Dutch, 16061669) paints townspeople in rich color, shadowMid-1700s rococo style features flowing curves like Baroque, but smaller-scale, less ornateJean-Antoine Watteau (French, 16841721) paints elegant, smaller, secular themesLiterature: Plays and novels examine human nature and morality in changing society1605:Miguel de Cervantes (Spanish, 15471616) publishes first part of Don Quixote, a sympathetic satire of chivalryWilliam Shakespeare (English, 15641616) dramatizes human nature, English history in plays including Hamlet and Macbeth1667: English Puritan John MiltonsParadise Lost explores the sin of pride1651: English philosopher Thomas HobbessLeviathan sees humanity as naturally materialistic and selfish, argues that absolutism is necessary to prevent conflict1690: English philosopher John LockesTwo Treatises of Government argue that humanity is naturally peaceful, call for moderate rule, rights, liberty, and protection of propertyContinued superstition despite new philosophies and scientific ideas; most Europeans of the period believe in demons; thousands accused of witchcraft are sentenced to death from 14001700Women targeted as witches due to misogyny, dependency of older single women, womens disproportionate claims to have magical powers, suspicions against midwivesWitch hunts end due to spread of scientific ideas, increasing fear of anarchy, decreasing fear of devil, increasing belief in human responsibility Republican States 15501700In republican states, legislatures hold some power over taxation and law; but states not necessarily democratic, as legislatures may represent only nobles and wealthyEngland: Despite kings attempts at Catholicism and absolutism, England remains Protestant and maintains strong parliamentary monarchy led by landed gentryElizabeth I (r. 15581603) establishes tolerant religious settlement, increases royal bureaucracy and efficiency1588: English fleet defeats the Spanish ArmadaJames I (r. 16031625; a.k.a. James VI of Scotland) unites rule of Scotland and England, believes in divine right of kings, alienating PuritansCharles I (r. 16251649) and Parliament (led by Puritan John Pym ) quarrel over Charles Is taxation without Parliaments consent, his refusal to call Parliament, and centralized structure of church governance16421646:Civil war between Charles Is royalists (Cavaliers) and Parliament (Roundheads, favored by religious outsiders the Puritans)1649: Victory of Parliaments New Model Army, commanded by Oliver Cromwell, leads to Charles Is execution16531658: Cromwell rules England, enforces Puritan ideals, subdues Ireland and ScotlandCharles II (r. 16601685) given throne in Restoration, as English desire end to Puritan republicJames II (r. 16851688) renews fears of Catholic, absolutist monarch1688: Peaceful Glorious Revolution brings moderate monarchs William and Mary to England, assuring Protestant rule and Bill of Rights1707: Union of Scotland with England and Wales creates United Kingdom18th-century Hanoverian monarchs rule with Parliament, dominated by wealthy property owners, but sometimes responsive to public pressureBritish sense of national identity emerges: Protestant, wealthy, loyal to monarchy, sense of rivalry with FrancePolitical parties emerge: Whigs, Tories vie for House of Commons (lower house of Parliament)Netherlands: Newly independent northern United Provinces (or Dutch Republic) thrives in 1600s; expands middle class through trade and industry, via growing global economyDraining and filling in of land from sea creates fertile soil for increased agricultural productionResists authoritarian government; maintains federalist republic led by wealthy familiesSlight majority of Dutch are Calvinist, but country is known for religious tolerationPolish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: Created by Lublin Union (1569), which unites northeastern Europe under one king; golden age of PolandNobles of the Sejm (the parliament) have customary veto power, which weakens central authorityReligious toleration as Catholics, Orthodox, Lutherans, Calvinists, Anabaptists, Jews live together1648: Ukrainian peasants revolt against cultural, religious and economic domination of Polish-Lithuanian nobles; turmoil lasts over a decade The Global Economy 16001800Global trade brings spices, tea, sugar, cotton from Asia and Americas to Europe; England and Netherlands especially benefit, while Italian states and Spain declineDutch and English shipbuilding, large middle class, urban population contribute to economy based on tradeCommercial innovations: Banks, credit, bills of exchange, joint stock companies (long-term investments by many) spark tradeDutch East Indies Company trades spices, tulips from Indonesian colonies; though independent of the government, it represents the governments interestsBritish East India Company establishes trade in India, operates its own administration and militarySlaves from central west Africa provide labor in American economies from North America to BrazilMillions of Africans forced to migrate across the ocean, bringing languages, culture to American coloniesProsperity of colonial traders, merchants, and manufacturers of consumer goods comes to depend on slaveryMercantile system: Belief that there is a limited amount of wealth in the world and that each nation must seek a favorable trade balance; expansion only through conquestDutch economy declines in late 1600s due to series of wars with England and France, lack of strong leadershipPort cities and capitals expand; medieval trade and ecclesiastical centers declineLargest European cities in 1800: London, Paris, Naples, Constantinople, Moscow Absolutism 15501770Monarchs throughout Europe establish absolute rule based on claims of divine right, personal loyalties; increase control over taxation, growing armies, religionSmaller princes and noble aristocracies agree to absolutism to minimize warfare and gain land and local authorityAbsolutist rule limited by custom and law; not arbitraryFrance: Monarchs establish rule by divine right, though parliaments retain the rights to register royal decrees and oversee local administration and taxationLouis XIII advisor Richelieu increases royal administrationLouis XIV, the Sun King (r. 16431715), lives at Versailles Palace, leads France into several dynastic wars16481653: Nobles revolt against royal authority in conflict called the Fronde1685: Louis XIV revokes Edict of NantesLouis XV (r. 17151774) ineffective, less popular; monarchy no longer considered sacredHoly Roman Empire:Austria- based Habsburg family rules Holy Roman Empire through negotiation with Germanic princes; also rules non-Germanic Croatia, Hungary, BohemiaLate 17th-century territorial gains from Ottoman Empire add to multiethnic empirePrussia: Ambitious Hohenzollern family turns small, disconnected German territories of Brandenburg-Prussia into strong military power with agreement of loyal landowning nobles (Junkers) during 17th and 18th centuriesHohenzollern family challenges Habsburgs for dominance over Central EuropeRussia: Develops into powerful, Orthodox, multiethnic empireCruel Ivan IV the Terrible (r. 15331584) enlarges rule of tsars15841613:Time of Troubles: Many contenders claim throne1613:Michael Romanov selected as tsar, establishing new Romanov ruling dynastySerfdom increases due to economic crisis, labor shortages; no representative institutions and few towns to resistPeter I the Great (r. 16821725) expands Russia; struggles against nobles (boyars); controls Orthodox Church; encourages service to state with Table of Ranks; builds new capital, St. Petersburg; introduces Western ideas, dress, cultureSweden: Protestant monarchy plays important role in Thirty Years War, fights Great Northern War against Russia (17001721) under leadership of Charles XII (r. 16971718)Ottoman Empire: Spans North Africa, Middle East, Balkans; ethnically, religiously diverse territories become difficult to ruleGoverned through millets (recognized religious communities)Land belongs to sultan, so no hereditary nobility formsSultan heads Islamic theocracy but tolerates other religions1571: Wealthy, powerful Spanish Philip II (r. 15561598) defeats Ottoman Turks at sea battle of Lepanto1683: King John III Sobieski of Poland prevents Ottoman Empire from capturing Habsburg capital, ViennaOttoman Empire suffers long decline due to military defeats, renegotiations of rule with local elites, less vigorous industry and trade compared to Western Europe, isolation from European military and scientific advances The Enlightenment 1700180018th-century intellectual and philosophical movement with origins in scientific ideas, Renaissance, print culturePhilosophers share ideas in woman-led salons1751: First volume of The Encyclopedia by Denis Diderot and others shares knowledge of science, crafts, ideas1781:Immanuel KantsCritique of Pure Reason promotes rational inquiryPhilosophers criticize religious institutions, promote religious toleration; themselves range from Christians to atheists1696:John Toland (English, 16701722) sets forth deist outlook of God as divine watchmaker1748:David Hume (Scottish, 17111776) claims miracles cannot be proven in An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding1759:Voltaire (French, 16941778) criticizes Catholicism in Candide1779:Gotthold Lessing (German, 17291781) calls for tolerance of non-Christian faiths in Nathan the WiseTheorists desire government reform but disagree over best form of government1748:Charles de Montesquieu (French, 16891755) promotes constitutional limits on monarchs in The Spirit of the Laws1762:Jean-Jacques Rousseau (Swiss-French, 17121778) promotes democracy, personal freedom under the law in The Social ContractPhilosophers seek universal standards of justice, uniform law, but few promote extending equal rights to women1763:Voltaire defends persecuted French Protestants1764:Cesare Beccaria (Italian, 17381794) espouses justice, protests against torture in On Crimes and Punishments1792:Mary Wollstonecraft (English, 17591797) argues for womens rights in A Vindication of the Rights of WomanEnlightenment thinkers view mankind as changeable, not locked into social categories1690:John Locke (English, 16321704) calls the mind a blank slate in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, believes man can learn, improve1762:Rousseau suggests in mile that men can be molded with education; women should be subordinate to menEnlightened economists oppose mercantilism1755:Rousseau blames worlds problems on uneven property distribution in Discourse on the Origin of Inequality1776:Adam Smith (Scottish, 17231790) promotes free markets, specialization of labor in The Wealth of NationsEnlightenment influences enlightened absolutism, is blamed for causing French Revolution (right) Enlightened AbsolutismAbsolute rulers adopt some Enlightenment ideas, correspond with Enlightenment philosophers; however, rulers do not fundamentally change absolutist ruleRational reforms strengthen state and military power but do not greatly improve lives of subjectsRussia:Catherine II the Great (r. 17621796) establishes schools for nobles, printing presses, clarifies nobilitys rights; but also imprisons opponents, maintains censorship and serfdom 17731775:Pugachev Rebellion of peasants suppressed Russian westward expansion continuesAustria:Maria-Theresa (r. 17401780) works to end mistreatment of peasants 1781:Joseph II (r. 17651790; co-reigns with Maria-Theresa 17651780) abolishes serfdom, promotes religious toleration Joseph II imposes more taxes on peasantsPrussia:Frederick II the Great (r. 17401786) supports arts and education, admires Voltaire, reforms justice system, improves agriculture, writes law code Reforms ultimately strengthen and streamline Prussian state Tax burden still falls on peasants and townspeople1772, 1793, 1795: In three steps, Russia, Austria, Prussia partition Poland-Lithuania among themselves until it is no longer an independent nation Unlike Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Poland does not develop strong central institutions 1780s1790s: Polish king Stanislaw promotes military, economic, educational, constitutional reforms Reform undermined by Polish counterrevolutionaries, making partitions by powerful neighbors possible War & Colonies 16001789Spanish empire: South America (except Portuguese Brazil), Central America, southern North America, Caribbean islandsFrench empire: Qubec, Louisiana, Caribbean, Ohio and Mississippi river valleys, Indian territories, Caribbean islandsDutch empire: South Africa, Indonesia, territories in South America and IndiaBritish empire: North American east coast, India, CaribbeanBritish, French, Spanish, Dutch battle over global economy; navies grow to defend colonial empires, with Britains particularly strong 18th-century nations seek balance of power: If one grows too strong, others unite in war and diplomacy to limit it17401748:War of Austrian Succession: Austria, Russia, Britain fear expansion of Prussia (aided by France), prevent disintegration of Habsburg Empire17561763:Seven Years War: First global war pits Austria and France against Prussia and BritainFighting occurs in Europe, North America, IndiaWar of nations, not just monarchsBritain ends Frances North American empire (in America, war is known as the French and Indian War )Wars are expensive and cause domestic instability1783: British recognize independence of United States of America; American Revolution inspires many Europeans to question traditional governmentArmies of conscripts and mercenaries use bayonets, muskets, line formations, cavalry charges, defensive tacticsBattles usually only limited engagements, as armies are too expensive to risk destroying in entiretyDynastic wars led by chivalrous aristocratic officers inflict fewer civilian casualties than 17th-century wars of religion Social Classes & Families 16001789Social classes given by birth, sometimes called estates; define legal rights and privilegesNobles: Dominate political life, but increasing wealth of nonnobles causes anxietyNobles own large estates, are exempt from taxesLarge nobility in Poland, Russia, Hungary, and Spain; small nobility in BritainTension grows between old nobility, newly ennobled familiesNobles try to hold onto traditional privilegesClergy: Hold legal privileges but are divided between wealthy bishops and impoverished village priests and ministersUrban middle classes: Artisans, merchants, manufacturersSome members of middle class acquire sizable fortunesMiddle classes resent persisting privileges of nobilitySocial life of cities thrives in cafs, theaters, private clubsPeasants: Make up majority of European populationRussia 90% peasants; Prussia, France 75%; Britain very fewPeasants owe taxes, work duties; some peasants own land, others work on large estates for wages and foodLandowners use legal measures to prevent poor peasants from hunting, chopping down trees, gathering wood on their propertyEastern European peasants live in worse conditions, often as serfs, under noble authorityUrban and rural poor: Struggle to survive despite starvation, disease, social controlMany turn to begging, smuggling, prostitution, crimeTowns imprison beggars, increase punishments for crimes to maintain orderBands of thieves threaten travelers, traders on highwaysUnwanted children are increasingly left at foundling homes, where many die quicklyJews: Required to live in separate communities called ghettos; have few rights, experience legal discrimination based on their religion, live mostly in povertyGender difference continues to determine social lives of men and women, regardless of class, from time of birth; opportunities, expectations, economic and cultural roles generally more limited for womenFamilies, not individuals, are the primary economic unitFamily members work together in agriculture, artisanal crafts, small industries to provide for each otherHouseholds in Western Europe include married couple, children, servantsOlder children move away, establish their own households, marry lateWomen leave home to earn money for dowry, with goal of establishing a household with a husbandHouseholds in Eastern Europe include several generations under one roof; children marry young, stay with parents after marriage Agriculture, Consumption, & Industry 17001800Population explosion across Europe in 1700s: less devastating warfare, more children, better nourishment, fewer epidemicsAgricultural revolution in Western Europe in 1700s: new crops, enclosure of open fields, commercialization of agriculture increase food production and distributionBritain industrializes first (late 1700s) due to free trade, consumer demand, social mobilityRising demand for convenient, inexpensive consumer goods (furniture, clothing, housewares) prompts industrial innovationWealthy willing to risk money, or capital, to start an industryGovernment laws protect and promote industry, trade; money from global economy invested in manufacturing in EuropeNew technologies invented in Britain make industrial production faster, separate production into many steps1765:Spinning jenny allows fast thread production in home1776:Steam engine first used commercially1769:Water frame allows small-factory thread productionMost weaving still done by hand until 19th centuryFamilies in rural areas and small villages do textile work at home to earn extra moneyMerchant entrepreneurs supply raw materials to workers in their homes, and then sell textilesVillages in contact with cities sell their agricultural products in exchange for manufactured and imported goodsWomens role in agricultural production and in large-scale mechanized industry declinesWomen continue to earn money in cottage industries or as domestics, but they have fewer optionsWomens work increasingly associated with the home, tradition, viewed as supplemental to a husbands income The French RevolutionUnrest stems from population increase, famine, popular Enlightenment ideas that promote democracy and lower prestige of monarchy, monarchys financial crisis, and increasing view that the parliaments and the public represent the French nation more than the monarch does17871788: Governments attempts at reform fail1789: King Louis XVI (r. 17741792) opens meeting of Estates-General to resolve financial problems (Estates-General is a meeting of three estatesclergy, nobles, and all others) 1789:Priest Emmanuel-Joseph Sieys says the Third Estate (non-clergy, non-nobles) is the true French nation and should have political power Estates-General goes further than expected, renames itself National Assembly, turns absolute monarchy into constitutional monarchy (king answerable to an elected legislature), abolishes noble privilege Parisians storm Bastille (old prison seen as symbol of injustice) Women of Paris force king to come to Paris from Versailles1791: Louis XVI tries to flee France, denounces Revolution1792: France becomes a republic, promoting liberty, equality, and fraternity, but women lack right to vote or participate Government creates new calendar, metric system Republic takes control of Catholic Church; move is divisive Sans-culottes (those wearing long pants) and tricolor (red, white, blue) flag symbolize republican support1792: France wars against anti revolution European powers War continues sporadically for 23 years, spreading nationalism, democracy, and suffering across the continent17931794:Reign of Terror: Government in hands of a few radicals (Jacobins) led by Maximilien Robespierre Aristocrats and some peasants start counterrevolution Federalists want decentralized revolution; crushed by Jacobins Over 20,000 people guillotined, including King Louis XVI and wife, Marie-Antoinette1794: Robespierres regime falls; replaced by unstable government called the Directory (lasts until 1799) The Napoleonic EraGeneral Napoleon Bonaparte takes control of French government in 1799, declares himself emperor in 1804Napoleon brings domestic order to France1801: Makes peace with pope in the Concordat1804:Napoleonic Code reforms, codifies French law; promotes traditional ideas about family and womenNapoleon uses plebiscite (yes or no vote) to gain popular approval of himself and his policiesStrengthens centralized administration, social hierarchy based on service to the state rather than noble birthCensorship, arrest for those who disagreeEurope in almost constant war during Napoleons reignNapoleon a genius at military organization, strategy1805: British confirm naval superiority at Battle of Trafalgar1805: France defeats Austria and Russia at Austerlitz1806: Napoleon blockades British trade with rest of Europe1806: Holy Roman Empire dissolves1808: Spanish resist French invasion1812: French invade Russia1815: Coalition of Austrian, British, Prussian, and Russian forces defeat Napoleon at WaterlooFrench army spreads ideas about democracy, stirs nationalism throughout Europe18141815:Congress of Vienna establishes a conservative order in EuropeAustrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich dominates meeting of major European powersPre-Napoleon national boundaries restoredLegitimate Bourbon monarchy restored to FranceEngland, Austria, Prussia, Russia, France form the Concert of EuropeAgreement to maintain a balance of power under which no one nation can become too strongAgreement to squash revolutions, maintain order Neoclassicism & RomanticismCultural trends of neoclassicism and romanticism emerge during French Revolution and Napoleonic eraNeoclassicism: Admiration for ancient Greek and Roman culture, architecturePainting: Geometric lines, large spaces, often portraying a moral theme1789:Jacques-Louis DavidsLictors Bringing to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons illustrates republican virtueMusic (c. 17501820): Court patronage, first public concerts; precise melodies, symmetrical, orderly but complex1786:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (Austrian, 17561791) composes The Marriage of FigaroRomanticism: Belief that the artist creates art from within; not necessarily concerned with pursuing truth; characterized by admiration of Gothic architecture, questioning of value of reason, belief that world is mysteriousPainting: Depicts power of nature, storms, internal turmoil18181819:Thodore Gricault (French, 17911824) portrays human tragedy in The Raft of the MedusaJohn Constable (English, 17761837) paints clouds, landscapes, rural scenes, as in The HaywainLiterature: Emphasis on imagination, interior character development, rebellion against Enlightenment thought1798:Samuel Taylor Coleridge (English, 17721834) and William Wordsworth (English, 17701850) explore the development of the poet in Lyrical BalladsGerman Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) movement includes Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (Sorrows of Young Werther, 1774; Faust Part I, 1808)Lord Byron (English, 17881824) writes rebellious and revolutionary poetry1831:Stendhal (French, 17831842) depicts antiheros journey through love, ambition in The Red and the BlackMusic: Belief that music should evoke an emotional responseLudwig van Beethoven (German, 17701827) bridges classicism and romanticism1738: English clergyman John Wesley founds Methodism, religious faith to come from within oneself, not from books, priests or tradition1802:Franois-Ren de Chateaubriand (French, 17681848) encourages post-revolutionary return to Catholicism in Genius of Christianity 19th-Century Political IdeasConservatism: Belief that stability should be maintained through alliance of hereditary monarchy, landed aristocracy, established church1790:Edmund Burke (English, 17291797) cautions against overthrowing national traditions in Reflections on the Revolution in FranceJoseph de Maistre (French, 17531821) believes social order stems from church; blames Voltaire for French RevolutionNationalism: Belief that the political boundaries of countries should coincide with the ethnicity of their inhabitants (for instance, a single Italian state for all Italian people) so each nation has its own ethnic identityNationalist ideal encourages some ethnic groups to try to create their own nations through revolution, unificationJohann Herder (German, 17441803) encourages study of folk culture; believes each nation has its own spiritG. W. F. Hegel (German, 17701831) promotes idea of strong state leading its people; believes ideas evolve through conflict with each otherNationalism often becomes aggressive, militaristicLiberalism: Belief in free press, expansion of electoral franchise, legal equality, religious toleration, unregulated economyNot necessarily democratic; liberals fear revolution by massesAssociated with the middle class1859:John Stuart Mill (English, 18061873) promotes freedom of conscience in On LibertyClassical economics: Promotion of free enterprise and capitalism regulated by the market, not the government (laissez-faire); inspired by Enlightenment economist Adam SmithJeremy Bentham (English, 17481832) promotes utilitarianism, belief that law and society should be organized to bring the most happiness to the greatest number of people1798:Thomas Malthus (English, 17661834) predicts that population growth will outstrip agricultural production1817:David Ricardo (English, 17721823) believes iron law of wages means wages will always stay lowSocialism: Desire for equal distribution of money, propertyUtopian socialists Henri de Saint-Simon (French, 17601825), Robert Owen (English, 17711858), Charles Fourier (French, 17721837) and Etienne Cabet (French, 17881856) advocate ideal communities based on equality, freedomMarxism: Revolutionary branch of socialism; claims overthrow of capitalism inevitable; urges workers in all countries to unite1848: German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist ManifestoAnarchism: Belief that society works best without government1840:Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (French, 18091865) declares that all property is theftRussian activists Mikhail Bakunin (18141876) and Peter Kropotkin (18421921) promote anarchism1880s1890s Some anarchists use violent terrorism to assassinate government leaders The 19th-Century Middle ClassIncreasing prominence of merchants, bankers, lawyers, doctors, clerks, shopkeepers, etc. known collectively as the middle class, or bourgeoisieSocial mobility (moving up and down from one class to another) both an ambition and a source of anxietySize and influence of bourgeoisie varies by country: larger and more powerful in Western Europe than in Eastern Europe and the Balkans; only 2% of population in RussiaEarn money through work but not manual laborNot noble, but would like to have privileges and political power; often support liberalismDesire for comfort, consumer goods to be enjoyed in privacyEmphasis on family: education, religion, advantageous marriages for childrenBelief in appropriate roles, or spheres, for men and womenMen work, earn money, deal with the outside world, provide food and shelter for family; women raise children, maintain the home, and provide moral guidance for familyPoorer women, however, must work and earn wages to survive; often work as domestics for the middle classLong-reigning Queen Victoria (r. 18371901) embodies British middle-class values War & Revolution 1815189018151848: Several revolutions challenge Concert of Europe 1821:Greece revolts against Ottomans; independent in 1830 18041824:Latin American colonies overthrow Spanish, Portuguese, and French rule 1820: Liberal revolts in Spain and Portugal 1825:Russia sees failed Decembrist Revolution against new conservative Tsar Nicholas I 1830:Belgium becomes independent of Netherlands 1830:Serbia wins autonomy from Ottoman Empire 18301831:Polish uprising against Russian rule suppressed1848 Revolutions: In France, Austria, German states, and Italian states; have quick results but ultimately are crushed Students, urban workers, middle-class liberals participate Revolutionaries have different goals, which are not always compatible: national unification (German, Italian states); national independence (Hungarians, Czechs in Austria); social change; liberalization of law Counterrevolutionary armies defeat divided revolutionariesArmies modernize: conscription, rifles, rapid mobilization18531856:Crimean War: France, Britain fear Russian strength, join Ottoman Empire to defeat Russia; Concert of Europe brokenItalian unification Secret republican society (Carbonari) plots unification Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi promote romanticized republican nationalism 18591860: Prime minister of Piedmont-Sardinia Camillo Cavour uses arms, diplomacy, Garibaldis army to create Kingdom of Italy under King Victor Emmanuel II Italy adds Venetia (1866) and Papal States (1870) to kingdomGerman unification 18151848: Inspired by Johann Herder, German student clubs agitate for German unification 1834:Zollverein (free trade union) draws German states closer 18481849:Frankfurt Parliament tries to unite German states; disagreement over whether Austria or Prussia should dominate unified Germany; Prussian king Frederick William IV rejects plan for liberal, constitutional unified Germany Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck works to unify German states through iron and blood; conservative rather than liberal aim Prussia fights three wars to gain military, diplomatic power: defeats Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), France (18701871) 1871: German Empire declared under Emperor William IFrench revolutions 1830: Conservative Bourbon king overthrown in favor of constitutional monarchy under Orleanist king Louis-Philippe 1848: Revolution establishes Second Republic 1851: President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte overthrows republic, becomes Emperor Napoleon III 1860s: Napoleon III allows liberal reforms 1870: Napoleon III overthrown after defeat against Prussia; Third Republic declared 1871:Paris Commune: Leftist revolt against French government crushed 1889:General Boulanger threatens to overthrow republic Industrial ExpansionIndustrialization occurs at different times, at different paces; usually a long, slow process with the exception of: Germany: Industrializes quickly after unification (1871) Russia: Industrializes slowly at first, but rapidly in 1930sRural, non-mechanized production still very importantSmall factories bring workers under one roof, constant supervision Often long hours, unsafe conditions, low wages Entire families often work together in factories, with women and children paid less than men Single female industrial workers face poverty, exploitationDecline in wages for skilled workers (glassblowers, tailors, furniture makers, etc.) as machines allow semiskilled and unskilled workers to do the same jobWorkers (or proletariat ) form unions, go on strike, bargain for better pay, working conditions; often influenced by socialism1820s1830s:Steamboats first used to transport materials1840s1870s:Railway boom moves raw materials to factories and finished products to marketsForests cut down; coal mining accelerated to power factoriesUrbanization: Increasing percentage of population lives in cities Poor living quarters, lack of sewer systems make cities unhealthy Cities annex suburban areas as they grow Urban planners build wide streets, sewers to improve city lifeSecond Industrial Revolution (late 1800s) brings expansion of steel, heavy industry, chemical industry1881: First public electric plant opens, in Britain The Age of Reform1833:Slavery abolished in British colonies; Portuguese, Swedish, Danish, French, Dutch colonies follow 18361863British reformers call for greater participation in government; conservative governments permit reforms mainly to keep peace1819: Demonstrators for Parliamentary reform massacred at Peterloo1829: Catholics allowed to be elected to Parliament1832:First Reform Bill expands right to vote, but voting is still based on property1846:Corn Laws (tariffs favoring wealthy landowners) repealedPeaceful, working-class Chartist movement calls for democratization; rejected by Parliament in 1839 and 18421867:Second Reform Bill expands franchise further1884:Third Reform Bill gives vote to most male farm workers1861: Tsar Alexander II abolishes serfdom in Russia; former serfs owe payments for their freedomCensorship relaxes in some nations1881: France establishes freedom of the pressNational governments expand primary education1870: British government takes over elementary schools1880s: France makes education free, obligatory, nonreligiousWomens movements argue for female access to education, professional work, electoral franchiseWomen less educated, barred from owning property, subjected to husbands authority; change occurs slowly in late 1800s1869: British thinkers John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor argue for womens freedom in The Subjection of WomenBritish activists Millicent Fawcett (18471929) and Emmeline Pankhurst (18581928) lead branches of the womens suffrage movement; women receive the vote in 1918Womens movements outside of Britain much less activeJews given citizenship and nearly equal social status at different times in different countries throughout the 19th centuryStates provide a degree of workers protection against unemployment, injury, poor working conditions, long working hours1883: Germany passes Sickness Insurance LawBritains new Labour Party (founded 1900) accepts government responsibility to reformFirst laws imposing limits on working hours in France aimed at protecting women and childrenInternational agreements try to alleviate wartime suffering1864: First Geneva Convention protects wounded soldiers1899, 1907: International conferences held at The Hague, Netherlands, attempt to limit warfare1870s1910s: Britain divided over question of Irish Home RuleLate 1800s: Transportation, overcrowding, hope for better life encourage record emigration from Europe, despite reforms Art & Culture 18151914Photography: Allows rapid, easy production and reproduction of images1839:Louis Daguerre publicizes the daguerreotype, the first form of photography1890s:Half-tone printing makes it easy for newspapers, books to publish photographsRealism: Realistic portrayal of the world in literature, paintingmile Zola (French, 18401902) writes novels including Nana, about a prostitute, and Germinal, about a miners strikeHenrik Ibsen (Norwegian, 18281906) incorporates psychological, realistic drama in plays such as A Dolls House (1879)Playwright George Bernard Shaw (Irish, 18561950) causes riots with social critiques1849:Gustave Courbet (French, 18191877) paints bored funeral-goers in Burial at Ornans1857:Jean-Franois Millet (French, 18141875) portrays peasants at work in The GleanersImpressionism: Painting with small strokes of color, painting outdoors, to explore modern life and leisure activities1865:Edouard Manet (France) exhibits shocking nude Olympia18901891:Claude Monet (France) paints several paintings of haystacks in different seasons, types of lightExpressionism: Use of bold colors and odd juxtapositions to elicit emotional responses, exemplified in The Scream (1893) by Edvard Munch (Norwegian, 18631944)Cubism:Pablo Picasso (Spanish, 18811973) pioneers use of geometric forms in Les Demoiselles dAvignon (1907)Music: Russian composer Igor Stravinskys ballet Rite of Spring (1913) debuts in France, challenging rationality, convention18511900:Universal exhibitions in London, Paris impress tourists with displays of national industry, culture, imperial possessionsInnovations in transportation facilitate travel for work and leisure1830: First passenger railway opens, in Britain1863: London underground railway opens1880s1890s:Bicycles become popular and liberating mode of transportation, especially for women1880s: German engineers Carl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler build first automobileFaster communication improves access to news, cultureCheap printing processes, higher literacy, and liberal press laws make newspapers widely accessible1876: American Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone1890s: Italian Guglielmo Marconi sends radio communication1895: First silent films, in France, depict modern life in motion Multiethnic StatesAustria: Agrees to give Magyar (Hungarian) minority control over its own interior government; empire renamed Austria-HungarySlavic minorities (Czechs, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes) within Austria-Hungary also demand their own controlOttoman Empire: Splits apart despite efforts for reformIndependence/autonomy of Greece (1830), Serbia (1830), Romania (1862), Bulgaria (1878), Montenegro (1878), Albania (1913)18391876:Tanzimat (reorganization): Economic liberalization, equality for Muslims, Jews, Christians; difficult to put in practice1908:Young Turks, a group of reformist officers attempt modernization, become radically nationalist1915: Turkish genocide of Armenians during World War IRussia: Helps Balkan states win independence in 1878, gains more territory for itself south and east in Russo-Turkish War1878:Berlin Congress: Germany tries to limit Russian land gainsRussification: Policy attempt to make non-Russians speak Russian, adopt Russian culture, religionBalkan states: Fight each other for more territory; majority of population is rural, poor, illiterate1908: Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina, formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, causing tensions with Serbia1912:First Balkan War: Balkan states (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Montenegro) ally successfully against Ottoman Empire1913:Second Balkan War: Serbia, Greece, others defeat Bulgaria, angered by its acquisitions during First Balkan WarSerbs living in Austria-Hungary want to join Serbia 19th-Century ChristianityStates more tolerant of minority Christian faiths during 1800sStates and churches become separate1870s: Cultural struggle against Catholic Church in Germany1905:` French state no longer governs religionScholars begin to study the Bible as historical text, not literal truthEducation secularized as fewer students taught by churchPope loses temporal power in Italian unification but gains spiritual authority with 1870 decree of papal infallibility on faith, moralsWomen more likely than men to practice their religion Imperialism 18001914European nations gain territory or domination in Asia and Africa through piece-by-piece conquest1700s1800s: Britain slowly acquires India1830: France conquers Algeria1857:Sepoy mutiny: Indian soldiers revolt against British1869:Suez Canal connects Mediterranean Sea, Indian Ocean1870s1880s: Britain controls much of Africa1898: British, French armies meet in a standoff at Fashoda, Sudan; war averted when French back down18991902:Boer War: British defeat Boers (farmers of Dutch descent) in South Africa1900:Boxer Rebellion: Chinese revolt against European presence; China remains independent, but European powers carve it into different spheres of influenceReasons for imperialism:Economic: Colonies provide new markets, raw materials; colonies are rarely profitable, howeverReligious: Christian missionaries convert indigenous peoplesNationalistic: New territories bring glory to the nation; empire becomes part of national identityRacial: European powers view indigenous peoples as inferior, in need of civilizationEmpires inspire European cult of masculinity celebrating ruggedness, bravery, the outdoors; Boy Scouts founded in Britain to train young men to fulfill this ideal Alliances 187319141873: Germany, Austria, Russia form Three Emperors League1878:Berlin Congress puts Russia at odds with Germany, Austria1879: Germany and Austria form Dual Alliance1882: Italy joins Germany and Austria in Triple Alliance1890: German king William II dismisses Bismarck, architect of peace and alliances1894: France and Russia agree to defend each other, facing Germany with possibility of two-front war1890s1900s: German and British naval arms race1904: Britain and France sign agreements1907: Britain and Russia sign agreements Scientific Reason & Irrationality 18151914Scientists make great discoveries in the 1800s, but these are often applied to serve irrational, hostile purposesPositivism: Belief that world is improving through science; most associated with French philosopher Auguste Comte (17981857)1859:Charles Darwins (English, 18091882) On the Origin of Species argues that organisms fittest for a given environment surviveSocial Darwinism: Modification of Darwins theory to belief that individuals, societies, nations become dominant through struggle to be the fittest; argument against helping poor or weakScientific racism: Belief that races have biological, intellectual, moral characteristics that make white races superior to others; race also defined by nationality (e.g., French race vs. German race)1899: Englishman H. S. ChamberlainsFoundations of the 19th Century advocates racial purityAnti-Semitism: Belief that Jewish people are inferior due to race, not just religion (change from previous prejudice)18941899:Dreyfus Affair: French Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus wrongly jailed for treason; legal battle for retrial divides society1896: Austro-Hungarian Theodor Herzl publishes The Jewish State, launching Zionist movement for separate Jewish nation1905:Pogroms (violent attacks on Russian Jews) intensifyGerman philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche (18441900) praises irrationality, criticizes morality and scientists, awaits heroic OvermanAustrian theorist Sigmund Freud (18561939) probes dreams, childhood, and unconscious through psychoanalysisMany male scientists believe that new ideas about evolution and psychology confirm that women are inferior, irrational, domesticWomen often still excluded from scientific discussion1890s1900s: Scientists Pierre Curie (French) and Marie Curie (Polish-French) discover radioactivity and x-rays1900s: German physicist Max Planck describes quantum theory1905: German physicist Albert Einstein publishes special theory of relativity The Great War 19141918Assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists in 1914 triggers war between Serbia and Austria-Hungary; escalates to the Great War (World War I)War spreads rapidly due to aggressive nationalism, complicated alliance system, German desire to avoid strategic encirclement:Austria-Hungary, Germany, Ottoman Empire againstRussia (Serbian supporter), France, BritainWestern Front: French and British soldiers face Germans in unmoving line across northern France1914: Germany invades France through Belgium, following Schlieffen Plan; German attempt at quick victory failsFighting settles into muddy, demoralizing trench warfare1916: Battles at Verdun and the Somme but no decisive victoriesEastern Front: Germans and Austro-Hungarians fight Russians in moving war, devastating countrysideBalkans: British invasion of Ottoman Empire repelled at GallipoliWar technology: Gas, machine guns, barbed wire, artillery, submarines, airplanes; both sides use propaganda, industry, workers (including women) to bolster war effort, mobilize home front1917:Russia withdraws from war after losing ground and undergoing Russian Revolution; United States joins side of France and Britain, angered by Germanys unrestricted submarine warfare1918:Germany admits defeat due to domestic upheaval, dwindling supplies; war leaves Europe economically ruined, disillusionedTreaty of Versailles fails to resolve nationalist and ethnic problems in much of Europe, causes widespread discontentment; War Guilt Clause forces Germany to accept blame and payment for war Russian Revolution & USSR19041905: Japan defeats Russia in Russo-Japanese War First modern victory of Asian country over European power Major Japanese naval victory at Tsushima Straits1905 Revolution: Promises to reform absolutist government but makes no lasting changes Russians upset at loss to Japan Workers and peasants hungry, paid low wages Bloody Sunday: Soldiers shoot peaceful demonstrators Strikes, protests threaten revolution Tsar Nicholas II agrees to reforms in October Manifesto, but new legislative assembly (Duma) proves powerless Attempts at agricultural reform are slowFebruary Revolution (1917): Overthrows tsar, installs moderate provisional government under Aleksandr Kerensky World War I going poorly for Russia; food shortages rampant Nicholas II seen as inept, swayed by fraud Grigory Rasputin Provisional government stays in warOctober Revolution (1917): Sees Communist Bolsheviks overthrow provisional government Bolsheviks (majority) actually minority party Bolsheviks promote Marxist revolution led by a small vanguard party; state control of property; peasants, not workers, key to success Germany sends exiled Bolshevik leader V. I. Lenin to Russia Russian workers form organizations called soviets (councils), who initiate October Revolution 1918:Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: Bolshevik peace with GermanyCivil War (19181920): Pits Reds (Bolshevik Communists) against Whites (tsars supporters) U.S., Britain, France, Canada send soldiers against Reds Bolshevik Leon Trotsky organizes Red victory1921: New Economic Policy (NEP) allows some private property1922: Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) founded1924:Lenin dies with no clear successor1927:Joseph Stalin emerges as brutal new Bolshevik leader End of NEP; Five-Year Plans focus on building heavy industry Forced farm collectivization creates famine, targets kulaks (wealthy peasants) Stalins rivals exiled, put through rigged show trials, imprisoned, killed; millions suspected of opposition killed or sent to Siberia Women allowed to become political, economic leaders, but bear family responsibilities Interwar PoliticsPost-World War I treaties leave problems unsettled Four empires collapse: German, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, Ottoman; new countries established from old empires: Hungary, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland Creation of Yugoslavia combines Serbia with former Austro-Hungarian territories of Croatia, Slovenia, and others Border wars continue in Eastern Europe New countries supposedly created along ethnic lines, but many contain discontented ethnic minorities Eastern European countries try to modernize, educate, collect taxes, but are hampered by political division 1920s1930s: Poland, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania become dictatorships; Czechoslovakia remains democraticEconomic problems make capitalism appear weak Industry, productivity, and consumption down due to war 1923: France occupies Ruhr region of Germany demanding reparations payments; causes rampant inflation 1929:Great Depression beginsLeague of Nations: International organization meant to arbitrate between nations to prevent future war Given no military power to enforce decisions Germany initially not allowed to participate 1922: Germany and USSR meet at Rapallo, make economic and strategic agreements 1925:Locarno Agreements: Spirit of reconciliation among Germany, Britain, France; all want fresh start 1928:Kellogg-Briand Pact: European powers, Japan, and U.S. renounce warFrance: Conservatism in 1920s, political instability in 1930s 1934: Right-wing anti-parliamentary riots 1936: Leftist Popular Front government under Lon Blum gives first paid vacationsBritain: Class tension and troubled victory 1916: Irish nationalist uprising 1921: Creation of Irish Free State leads to two-year civil war 1924: First Labour Party government forms 1926: Two-week general strike fails 1931:National Government, a coalition of parties, tries to deal with economic depression FascismFascism encompasses anti-democratic, anti-communist, anti-parliamentary, nationalistic political movements Use propaganda, rallies, intimidation, beatings, paramilitary groups to gain power and popular support Cult of personality around charismatic leader Promise better times, national glory Blame outsider groups for problems Encourage traditional roles for women, family led by father Nazism (National Socialism): German variant of fascism; violently anti-Semitic and racist; blamed Jews, liberals for WWI lossItaly: Fascist Benito Mussolini takes control 1922: Mussolini takes power after fascist march on Rome 1929: Vatican and Italy make peace in Lateran Accord 1935: Italy invades Ethiopia; France, Britain do not actGermany:Adolf Hitler leads Nazi Party into power 1919:Weimar Republic is liberal but weak 1925: Hitlers Mein Kampf (My Struggle) outlines Nazi plans 1933: Hitler becomes chancellor S.S. (protective force) police surveillance expands 1935:Nuremberg Laws revoke Jewish citizenship 1938:Kristallnacht: Nazis destroy Jewish stores, synagoguesSpain:Fascist Francisco Franco conquers Spain 19361939:Spanish Civil War between fascists and republicans (supported by Communists); USSR aids republicans; Germany and Italy aid fascists; Britain, France remain neutralFrance and Britain hope appeasement will avoid another war despite fascist aggression; believe Hitlers goals to be limited World War II 19391945Germany acquires territory, claims right to Germanic ethnic lands1935: Hitler rearms, rejecting Treaty of Versailles1938:Anschluss (connection): Germany incorporates Austria1938:Munich Conference: Britain, France allow German occupation of part of Czechoslovakia, hope to prevent war1939:Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: Surprise Germany-USSR alliance1939: Germany invades Poland; USSR invades Poland soon afterward, beginning World War II in Europe1939: Britain and France declare war on Germany but do not fight immediately; so-called Phony War1940: Germany invades Norway, Denmark; USSR invades Finland1940: Germany invades France through Low CountriesFrance falls quickly, is split in two parts: northern occupied zone, southern unoccupied zone under Vichy governmentVichy government collaborates with Germans, sends Jews to concentration camps1940:Battle of Britain: Germany bombs U.K. but does not invade1941: Germany invades Greece, YugoslaviaGerman allies include Italy, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Japan1941: Germany breaks pact with USSR, invades by surpriseFighting especially brutal as Germany tries to kill, capture, or force out Slavic people to make room for GermansResistance movements in occupied countries hampered by supply shortages, internal rivalry, German retaliation against civilians; most successful in Yugoslavia under Communist Josip TitoHolocaust: Nazis kill millions of Jews in concentration camps and in mass slaughter; Nazis aim to exterminate all JewsNazis also target gays, Romanies (Gypsies), Slavs, dissentersMany occupied nations help Germany gather Jews to be killedConcentration camps at Auschwitz, Dachau, Bergen-Belsen1941: Japan bombs Pearl Harbor, Hawaii; U.S. enters warAllied leaders: U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt, U.K. prime minister Winston Churchill, unequal partner French general Charles de Gaulle work uneasily with USSRs Stalin 1942: Allies (U.K., U.S.) land in North Africa, Italy1943: Mussolini falls in Italy19421943: Russians win Battle of Stalingrad; Germans retreat1943: Allies begin strategic bombing of Germany1944:D-Day: Allies invade France via Normandy beaches; Germans retreat east1945: Germany surrenders after Soviet army captures Berlin; Japan surrenders after U.S. drops two atomic bombsResults of war: Cities leveled, millions killed, millions of displaced people seek new homes, new fear of atomic war Cold War in EuropeCold War between U.S. and USSR creates iron curtain between Eastern, Western Europe, heightens fear of nuclear war but does not lead to combat in EuropeU.S. policy of containment aims to stop spread of communism; USSR wants buffer states to protect against invasion1945:United Nations founded to settle international problems and watch over human rights, using military force if necessary1947: U.S. Marshall Plan aids postwar recovery in Western Europe19481949: USSR blocks roads through East Germany; U.S. sends aid to West Berlin in Berlin airlift1949:North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) formed: U.S., Canada, U.K., France, Italy, Portugal, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark, Norway, Iceland1949: Germany split into Communist German Democratic Republic (east), capitalist German Federal Republic (west); Berlin (located in East Germany) also split into eastern, western zones1953: Stalin dies; new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev denounces Stalins crimes three years later1955:Warsaw Pact (Communist Easts counterpart to NATO): USSR, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria; communist Yugoslavia and Albania stay independentCommunist countries experience unrest as economies stagnate, political expression is limited, and West continues to prosper; USSR sends army to keep Eastern bloc under control1956: USSR crushes Hungarian reform movement1961: Concrete Berlin Wall divides city in two1968: USSR suppresses Alexander Dubceks Prague Spring reform movement in CzechoslovakiaUSSR proclaims right to intervene under Brezhnev Doctrine DecolonizationDecline of imperialism due to nationalism, anger against oppression, military withdrawal during World War II, weakness of European nations after World War II1947: Peaceful demonstrations led by Mohandas Gandhi lead to independence of India and Pakistan from U.K.19471954: France fights in vain to prevent independence of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia1948: Jews who had left Europe for British-controlled Palestine create Israel as Jewish homeland, excluding Arab Palestinians1949: Dutch leave East Indies, now independent Indonesia19541962: French war to hold onto Algeria fails1950s1970s: Countries in sub-Saharan Africa independentImmigrants from former colonies face racial, religious prejudice in Europe Art, Ideas, & Culture 1914PresentModernism: Writers challenge expectations, explore stream of consciousness, change forms of novels:19131927:In Search of Lost Time by Marcel Proust (French, 18711922)1922:Ulysses by James Joyce (Irish, 18821941)1927:To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf (English, 18821941)State-controlled socialist realism in USSR promotes CommunismTelevision provides news, sports, entertainmentAir travel for business and leisure increases1957: USSR launches first satellite,SputnikFilmmakers challenge audiences with innovation: Italian Federico Fellini (La Dolce Vita, 1959), Swedish Ingmar Bergman (The Seventh Seal, 1956), French Franois Truffaut (400 Blows, 1959)Existentialism: Writers Jean-Paul Sartre (Nausea, 1938), Albert Camus (The Stranger, 1942) explore absurdity of existenceFeminist and existentialist Simone de BeauvoirsThe Second Sex (1949) questions the way gender shapes peoples livesEuropeans import, create their own jazz, rock-and-roll, rap music, creating common European culture, use music to criticize societySports, especially soccer, become international passion for players and spectatorsAmerican influence in film, music, clothing, commercialism, fast-food, soda companies, language causes cultural tensionAfrican, Asian cultures influence dress, food, music, literatureParticipation in organized religion, traditional faith drop sharply, but churches continue to influence society19591965:Vatican II calls for more non-European, nonNorth American bishops, Mass in vernacular rather than Latin1978: Election of first Polish pope, John Paul IIPostmodernism: Intellectuals like French Claude Lvi-Strauss argue that language and culture shape society1990s2000s:Personal computers and Internet access hasten information revolution Society & Economy 1945Present19461964:Baby boom after World War II; life expectancy rises1964: Birth rate starts to fall, due partly to birth control pill19451970s:Welfare state in U.K. provides health care, social security, better housingAgricultural production doubles due to mechanization, new fertilizer; peasants nearly disappear1950s1960s:Mass production and industrial productivity rise all over Europe, especially in GermanyStandard of living rises with sharp increase in indoor plumbing, automobiles, refrigeratorsMore Europeans use credit, banks to manage money, purchases1970s: Economic growth slows; inflation, stagnation, unemployment, hurt by Arab oil embargo (1973)Global economy spreads: International companies, outsourcing jobs, international economic cooperation and competitionEurope tightens immigration policies after 9/11 attacks in U.S. European UnionAfter World War II, Europeans aim for economic power, common defense, diplomatic leverage against U.S. and USSR through cooperation via European Union1951: European Coal and Steel Community begins economic cooperation among Western European nations1957: France, Italy, West Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg, Netherlands form European Economic Community (EEC) EEC member nations end tariffs and trade restrictions 19731986: U.K., Ireland, Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Greece join1993:Maastricht Treaty plans for common currency, the Euro; EEC renamed European Union (EU)1995: Austria, Finland, Sweden join EU1999: Euro unites EU economies; goes into circulation in 20022002: EU begins work on constitution; member nations cooperate in economic planning and open border crossing but retain their boundaries, languages, culture, laws2003: EU has no united foreign policy; U.K. joins U.S. in invasion of Iraq against protests of France, Germany, Russia2004:Ten nations join EU, including Poland, Czech Republic New Political MovementsChristian Democratic parties promote social reform, democracy, anti-communism1968: Students worldwide protest against Vietnam War, overcrowded schools, so-called authoritarianism of older generation French students, workers cooperate briefly in 1968, causing general strike, national standstill, leading to fall of de Gaulle1968: Revived feminism encourages women to take control of lives, fight for equal pay, equal opportunities, reproductive rights1970spresent: Separatists use terrorism in Northern Ireland (U.K.), Basque country (Spain), Chechnya (Russia)1975: Franco dies; King Juan Carlos I commits to democracy1979: Conservative Margaret Thatcher, first female prime minister of U.K., cuts government spending1980spresent:Green Parties promote environmental causes1980spresent:Far-right nationalistic parties gain support by blaming immigrants for economic downturn 1999: Nazi sympathizer Jorg Heider elected Austrian P.M. 2002: Anti-Muslim National Front party candidate Jean-Marie Le Pen finishes second in French presidential election1990spresent: Protests against globalization (corporations, banks, environmental threats, unregulated labor) gain support End of the Cold War19791989:Invasion of Afghanistan demoralizes Soviet army19801981: Polish trade union Solidarity, under Lech Walesa, becomes first non-Communist union; Communist Party allows candidate choice in elections, but martial law ends experiment1980s: Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev pushes reform through glasnost (openness), perestroika (economic restructuring)Nationalist movements, economic crisis, calls for democracy, arms race with U.S. contribute to fall of Communism1989: Solidarity gains support in Poland, wins elections; first non-Communist prime minister since 19451989: Thousands of East Germans emigrate, leading to fall of Berlin Wall; Germany reunifies in 1990Communist governments topple in Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Albania; USSR does not intervene1990:Lithuania declares independence from USSR1991: Attempted conservative coup in USSR fails; USSR breaks up; Gorbachev resigns; Boris Yeltsin becomes president of Russia1993:Velvet Revolution: Czechoslovakia splits peacefully into Czech Republic, led by playwright Vclav Havel, and SlovakiaYugoslavia splits, falls into chaotic civil war, ethnic cleansing 1991:Slovenia, Croatia, Macedonia declare independence 19921995:Bosnia-Herzegovina declares independence; civil war follows; belated NATO intervention ends conflict 1998: Yugoslavian Serb majority forces ethnic Albanians from Kosovo province; NATO bombs Serb targets in 1999 2000: Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic overthrown, turned over to International War Crimes Tribunal at The Hague 2003: Remaining Yugoslavian provinces renamed Serbia-Montenegro