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Intro

Prologue: The West Before 1300

Early Humans and Their Culture

The Earth is about 6 billion years old

Human-like beings walked on the Earth between 3 and 5 million years ago

Homo Sapians emerged around 200,000 years ago with the earliest full remains found

being 90,000 years old

Humans are cultural beings

The ways of living built up by a group and passed on from one generation to another

Includes behavior, material things, ideas, institutions, and beliefs

The Paleolithic Age

Lasted from the earliest use of stone tools about one million years ago to about 10,000

B.C.E.

People were hunters, gatherers and fishers, but not producers

Learned to make sophisticated tools of stone and wood, control and use fire, acquired a

language and the ability to pass it on

There was a division if labor by sex

Men engaged in hunting, fishing, making tools, and fighting against others

Women were less mobile because of child bearing

Women gathered nuts, berries, and wild grains, wove baskets, and made clothes

Women probably discovered how to use seeds for agriculture

The Neolithic Age

10,000 years ago, people in the Middle East began to shift away from hunter -gatherer

culture and to agricultural culture

Invention of pottery made it viable to store surplus foods and liquids

Cloth was made from flax and wool

Since crops required care, people built permanent structures near the best fields

4,000 years before Mesopotamia, urban centers popped up all over the world

There was a mastery of smelting and new ways to make metal and wooden tools

Writing was invented

These are characteristics of civilization

For the first time, humans learned to smelt tin and copper into bronze- called the

Bronze Age

Early Civilizations to About 1000 B.C.E

Mesopotamian Civilization

First civilization which arouse in the valley between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers

Called Mesopotamia

Rich alluvial plains made the production of food surpluses possible

Founded by the Sumerians

Controlled southern area

Fought with each other and their neighbors

A people to the North with a Semitic language established a capital and Akkad and

absorbed Sumerian culture

There was a Sumerian resurgence around 2100 B.C.E.



Internal dissensions and an invasion by a Semitic people called the Amorites put

an end to an identifiable Sumerian group

Amorites established capital at Babylon and controlled region around 1900 B.C.E

Babylonian Kingdom fell apart around 1600B.C.E.

There were invasions from the north by the Hittites and the east by the Kassites

Hittites raided and took what they wanted back to their homes in Asia minor

Kassites remained and ruled for five centuries

Egyptian Civilization

Nile River was the center of Egyptian civilization

Made life possible in lifeless desert of the Sahara

River flooded every year

When it receded, it left behind a fertile mud that was good for growing crops

Construction and maintenance of irrigation ditches kept river’s water and with

careful organization and planning, the Egyptians produced agricultural prosperity

that was unmatched at that time

Nile provided transportation and united the long country

Nature isolated the Egyptians

Seas, deserts, cataracts, and other natural things made it difficult for foreigners to

reach the Egyptians or conquer them

The Kingdoms of Egypt

The Old Kingdom

Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt

Central control in Egypt was very important because it needed irrigation for

survival

Lasted from 2700-2200 B.C.E.

Royal power was absolute

Pharaoh governed through his family and appointed and removed officials at

will

Peasants were regulated, their movement restricted and burdened by heavy

taxes

King lived and died in luxury and people raised pharaoh to exalted level

Egyptians worked for king because they believed he was a living god upon

whom they depended upon

Pharaoh was direct source of law and justice

Religion dominated Egyptian life and government was merely an aspect of

religion

By the time of the third dynasty (2125-2027), the pharaohs achieve total supremacy

and ruled over internal peace and prosperity

Capital at Memphis just above Nile River delta

Pharaoh was a living god People were his servants

Power of the Kings waned as nobles and priests gained influence and independence

Egyptian governors (nomes) gained control of large tracts of lands and they

began hereditary passing of their positions

Old Kingdom collapsed about 2200 and gave way to chaos in the First Intermediate

Period from 2200 to 2052



Governors (nomarchs) of Thebes gained control of Egypt and established the Middle

Kingdom

12th

dynasty reestablished pharaoh power, but not over nobles

Brought order, peace and prosperity to troubled land

Encouraged trade

Extended Egyptian power north to Palestine and South to Ethiopia

The Middle kingdom collapsed in the 13th

dynasty

Resurgence of local power

Started Second Intermediate Period

Egypt suffered an invasion in 1700

Hyksos people, Semitic people from the East invaded

Hyksos came from a region ranging from Palestine to the Eastern edge of the

Mediterranean

In 1575, Egypt saw great nationalism as Hyksos were overthrown and the 18th

dynasty

reunited Egypt

Began the New Kingdom

Pharaohs created absolute government based in a powerful army and an expanding

Egyptian empire because they had been humiliated in 2nd

Intermediate Period

Expanded to the south and took over Syria, Palestine, and beyond the upper

Euphrates River

Not checked until they got into a conflict with the Hittite empire of Asia Minor

Both powers were weakened, but Egypt survived

Was later conquered and re-conquered by different empires

Palestine and the Religion of the Israelites

People of all three major religions trace their origins to Palestine and people of it before

1200 B.C. E. and the Hebrew Bible

Israelites are rarely mentioned in the history of their neighbors and their history is

pieced together from sources and the Bible

Abraham of Ur in Mesopotamia wandered west around 1900 B.C.E. and came upon

the land of the Canaanites

Some settled there while other wandered into Egypt

They were led out of Egypt by the thirteenth century and wandered in the desert till

they reached Canaan

Established a united kingdom which peaked under David and Solomon around the

tenth century B.C.E.

Sons of Solomon split the kingdom into Israel in the north and Judah in the South

(capital is Jerusalem)

Northern Israel fell to the Assyrians in 722 and its people were lost and scattered

In 586, Judah was defeated by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II

Destroyed Temple of Solomon and took thousands of hostages to Babylonia

When Persians defeated Babylonia, the Jews were freed and returned to their

native land

Palestine was ruled by other kingdoms until 1948 when Israel was established

Israel would be of little interest if not for its religious achievements

Contributed monotheistic God who was creator and ruler of the universe

Dates back to the eighteenth century B.C.E. prophets

Jewish God is neither a human nor natural force



Those who believe in him cannot picture him in any form

God made a covenant with Abraham that his followers were God’s chosen people

and if they followed his laws given to Moses, they would be rewarded

Powerful ethical element included in Jewish thought

God is ever, but just and requires that people act righteously to achieve a good

after-life Prophetic tradition was a powerful ethical force who criticized falling away from the

laws and path to righteousness

Prophets placed God in history, saying that misfortunes occurred because Jews

were unrighteous and promised redemption in the form of a messiah

Christians believe messiah was Jesus Christ of Nazareth

Jewish religion and beliefs in a righteous god requiring human righteousness is key in

western culture

The Greeks

Western civilization began with the Greeks

Northern, Greek-speaking people settled the area surrounded by the Aegean Sea in the

second millennium B.C.E.

Established new ideas and culture that spread and influenced other region, like the

Roman Empire

The Greeks of the Classical Age

500-400 B.C.E.

The Minoan civilization on the island of Crete was literate and kept records that

reveal a king with extensive bureaucracy

The Minoans influenced the Mycenaeans who dominated land Greece in the Bronze

Age

When Mycenaean culture collapsed, Greece enter its Dark Ages

The Greeks found cities on all sides of the Mediterranean Sea, but their main focus

was the Aegean Sea and the lands around it

Cities on the Eastern part of the Mediterranean put Greece in touch with more

advanced Eastern civilizations

The Polis

This was the characteristic Greek institution

Began as agricultural villages and many stayed that way, making the term city-state

inaccurate

All were independent political units

The polis was thought of as a community of relatives

All citizens belonged to subgroups, clans and tribes even though they came from

common ancestors

Worshipped common gods in common ceremonies

Originally the polis refers to a high rock that was defensible, such as the Acropolis or

Acrocorinth of Athens and Corinth

High places and surrounding farms originally made up Polis

Farmland and availability determined location

Well inland and defensible from pirate

Later, the agora grew which was the center of Greek social life

Marketplace

Debate place



Conversations took place

The Polis in full flower between 750 and 700

True monarchy had disappeared

Kings survived as ceremonial figures only

Original polis was an aristocratic republic dominated by a king and nobles

Greece vastly expanded from the eighth to the sixth century Learned new techniques from Far East from Syrian trading post

Borrowed a writing system from Semitic people and added vowels to make the

first Alphabet

Colonization gave Greeks a sense of culture

Led to establishment of Greek religious ceremonies and festivals

Greek religion

Believed in many gods

Religion played an important role in Greek life

Connected to Greek art, literature and life of the polis

Greek pantheon consisted of 12 gods that lived on Mount Olympus (Olympians)

Each polis was guided by an Olympian and was worshipped specially, but all Greeksworshipped all Gods

Each polis has an athletic festival to honor its gods to which all Greeks were invited

Did little to attend to human fears, hopes and passions

Used other Gods to attend to these characteristics

Sparta

In 725, Sparta conquered Messenia and reduced the population to serfs or helots

A century later, the helots revolted

After the revolt, the Spartans were forced to reconsider their way of life

Spartans instituted reforms that turned the city into a military academy and camp

Reforms attributed to Lycurgus

New system exerted direct control over each Spartan from birth to old age Officials decided which infants were physically fit to survive

At 7, boys were turned over to instructors to be trained

At 20, young men were forced into the army where they lived in the barracks

until 30

He could marry, but rarely got to visit his wife

Became a full citizen at age 30

Military service was required until 60

Women in Sparta

Educated to subordinate themselves to the idea of service to Sparta

No military training, but they were required to give their children over for

service

Nothing could interfere with the ability to win glory and respect of his peers by

bravery in war

The Spartan constitution

Mix of monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy

Two kings with limited power

Council of elders with judicial powers



Board of five elected ephors who controlled foreign policy, oversaw generalship

of kings on campaigns, preside over the assembly, and guarded against helot

rebellion

Sparta was admired for its stability and its ability to mold people into a single

pattern, subordinate to an ideal

Athens

Athens was typical aristocratic polis in the seventh century

Aristocrats held power and had best land

Dominated religious and political life

Governed by a council of nobles called the Areopagus

Economic problems led to political issues in Athens

In 594, Solon was given drastic power to revise the constitution

Economic reforms that restructured debts and credits

Changes to the constitution

All male adults whose fathers were citizens were also citizens

All citizens were divided into four classes based on wealth

Established a Council of Four Hundred to check the power of the Areopagus

Established a popular assembly

This constitution was overthrown by Pisistratus who established his own rule

The idea of democratic polis had been created and would later be used

The government of Hippias, son of Pisistratus, was overthrown in 510 and further

reforms took place

Under taken by founder of Athenian Democracy Clisthenes

Made the deme or small towns in the country (the basic unit of civic life)

Replaced phratry as evidence of citizenship

Further extended the number of people who could become citizens

Established a Council of Five Hundred who dealt with foreign policy and finances

Final authority rested with the assembly composed of all adult male citizens

Debate was free and open Any adult male Athenian could offer legislation and amendments

Reforms fosters patriotism amongst people and freedom allowed them to achieve

economic prosperity

Where ever he lived, the Greek knew that his way of life was different from the

monarchs in the east

Determined to preserve the polis

Defeated King Darius of Persia who tried to put Hippias back in power at the

Battle of Marathon in 490 (led by Miltiades)

Secured freedom for Athens and gave Athenians confidence

Persia tried to reconquer Greece under Xerxes in 480

City states created a defensive league

Sparta led land forces and held off Persians at Battle of Thermopolyae

Athens led navy and won at Battle of Salamis

Under Pericles, the Athenian constitution became more democratic

All decisions had to be approved by the popular assembly (the people

themselves)

Officials decided regardless of class

No standing army, police force, and no way to coerce the people



Slaves, women and resident aliens could not participate

The Peloponnesian Wars

The Division of Greece into two sphere of influence

Sparta led a loose alliance

Athens led a tight alliance where financial payment replaced military service

Athens used money for defense and own purposes

Athens controlled alliance power and used it to increase its power, wealth and

glory

Intense rivalry and occasional conflict characterized the two alliances

Peloponnesian war erupted between the two and was recorded by Thucydides

Ended in 404 with the defeat of Athens

Greek prosperity and confidence never recovered

Undermined the polis

War, destruction of farmlands, crops, and houses, interruption of commerce,

and using up reserves made it impossible to recover to normal civil life

Civil strife, class conflict, pressure of want, disease, need for foreign armies and

poverty were the legacy

People abandoned patriotism, morality and family for factions

Democratic revolutions were characterized by confiscations of property,

executions, exiles, and atrocities

This left permanent scars and destroyed the community feeling necessary for

the polis

Greek Political Philosophy and the Crisis of Polis

Socrates (469-399)

Found that people of government had technical information and skill, but lacked an

understanding of human behavior

Held a contempt for democracy because it relied upon ignorant amateurs to make

important decisions

People held him in contempt Still believed that polis had legitimate claim on the loyalty an obedience of citizens

Realized difficulties of life in the polis and criticized short comings

Fought for and sought to put polis on sound foundation of reason

Plato (429-347)

Pupil of Socrates who became greater then Socrates

First to place political ideas in philosophical context

Used dialogues to present ideas and created The Academy as center of philosophical

research

Believed in the Polis and its value

Virtues were order, harmony, and justice

Main objective was to produce good people Accepted Socrates doctrine of identity of virtue and knowledge and made it

clear as to what real knowledge was

The episteme were fit to rule

People with a body of true and unchanging wisdom, open only a few

philosophers whose training, intellect and character allowed them to see

reality



These people would prefer life of contemplation, but would accept

responsibility to serve

Training of these people was outlined in Republic and required

specialization of function and a subordination of the individual to the

community

Justice meant that people should only do what their nature was fit to do

Saw that polis suffered from internal stress, class struggle, and factional division

Destroy casues of strife and create harmony

Private property

The family or anything that stood in the way of the citizen and loyalty to the

polis

Aristotle

Founded the Lyceum in Athens

Pupils were less concerned with math

Focused on gathering, ordering and analyzing all human knowledge

Had many subjects

Aristotle’s method

Began with empirical evidence

Applied reason to evidence to discover inconsistencies and difficulties

Introduced metaphysical principles to explain the problems or reconcile

inconsistencies

He and Plato recognized purposes apart from and greater than the will of

individual human beings in nature and social life

Believed the purpose of most things could be discovered through observations of

behavior whereas Plato believed that purposes lie in ideas

Moderate and had common sense

Metaphysics gave meaning and reality to the body and mind

Knowledge gave room for both reason and experience

Ethics aimed at good life while allowing decent wealth and comfort Less interested in the best state than in the best state practically possible

Believed in best possible constitution, politeia

Moderate and gave power to middle class which should be large

Middle class lacked arrogance and malice

Combine practical analysis of political and economic realities with moral and

political reasoning of the defenders of the polis

The ablest defense of the polis came to its demise

The Empire of Alexander the Great

The conquest of the Greeks by the Macedon Empire in the north brought an end to the

polis

Ruled by a king who was approved by army and came from a line Under Phillip II, a powerful army was developed

Around 355, Phillip began his conquest of Greece with little resistance

The Battle of Chaeronea ended Greek autonomy and freedom

Phillip was assassinated in 336 and Alexander the Great replaced him

Alexander led the army across Asia and conquered Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine,

Egypt, Persia and Mesopotamia

Had plans for consolidation of the empire and building roads, cities and harbors



He died in 323, before his ideas could be utilized

His generals fought over the lands he had conquered and there was no real

successor

Alexander ended the polis as the center of Greek life, but spread Greek culture

Greek cities lost political freedom that they had as a foreign monarchy ruled them

Greek cities slowly changed from sovereign states to municipalities under militaryempires

Rome

The Republic and Expansion in the Mediterranean

From 753 to 509, Rome was ruled by kings

In 509, a revolt by nobles replaced the monarchy with a republic

Dominated by aristocratic Senate

By 265, the Romans had conquered most of southern and central Italy

Did not destroy Latin cities or kill people

Towns near Rome were given citizenship statue

Others became municipalities

Citizens retained the right to local self government and could become a citizen bymoving to Rome

Followed Rome in foreign policy and sent troops to fight in the Roman legion

Some became allied with Rome through treaty

Provided troops which served under Roman officers

Did not pay taxes to Rome

Romans placed colonies on some conquered lands

Veterans were placed there

Retained citizenship

Enjoyed home rule

Served as a garrison to suppress rebellion

Status of conquered lands was not permanent which made conquered lands hold

out for new status and gave them a stake in the future of Rome

Made most allies remain loyal even when put to the deepest test

The Punic Wars

Rome’s expansion brought it nose to nose with Carthage to the south

Rome and Carthage fought two Punic Wars (264-241 and 218-202)

Rome was victorious in both, but at great cost and ruled the entire western

Mediterranean

The Romans than turned to the east and Alexander’s Empire

By 168, the Romans governed Greece as a kingdom protectorate

Expansion was done unplanned

New territories were acquired as a result of wars that Romans felt were defensive or

preventive

Foreign policy was aimed at securing Rome and neighbors generally did not agree,

leading to conflict

Expansion led to various political problems

Romans made Sicily, Sardinia, Spain and Corsica provinces

Subjects were not Romans and simply paid tribute

Extending citizenship stopped at the borders of Italy



Roman expansion changed Roman culture and political life

Started close association with the Greeks

Romans admired Greek art, literature, and philosophy, but hated its politics

Roman religion was close to Greek religion from the start

Adopted Greek philosophy as well

Rome conquered Greece militarily while Greece conquered Rome culturally From Republic to Empire

New overseas political and economic problems undermined the Roman constitution

During the Punic Wars, farm lands were destroyed and bought up by wealthy nobles

Returning veterans did not have land and settled in urban areas

People of Rome became divided into poor and rich, haves and have nots and

privileged and deprived

By 133, political leaders realized something had to be done

Between 133 and 121, brother Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus tried to carry out limited

land redistribution

Met intense and violent opposition

Both were killed as land owners looked to protect their interests Political and military turmoil characterized the empire

Those who gained power had the backings of their armies

Marius (157-86) defeat roman enemies in North Africa

Sulla (138-78) established a dictatorship after military victories

One successful general served as example for other ambitious ones

Unequal distribution of wealth and land meant more people were willing to

serve in the army

The Roman Senate no longer truly controlled the army

By the middle of the first century, Gnaeus Pompey and Julius Caesar were struggling for

power

They tried to share political power, but all cooperation stopped by 49

Caesar defied the Roman Senate and led his army across the Rubicon River

He defeated the Senate and Pompey in a civil war

Caesar governed Rome alone until his assassination in 44

Caesar’s nephew Octavian took control after Caesar’s death and became the leader

of Rome after his naval victory at Actium

The Principate and the Empire

Octavian realized that he cannot hold complete power like his uncle

Created a political structure

Appeared to share power with the Senate and people of Rome

In reality, he was a monarch and his government was a monarchy

Senate called him the first citizen and heaped upon him important political

powers and honors

Gave him semi-religious title Augustus

Historians know refer to Rome’s first emperor as Augustus and his government

as the principate

Union of political and military power gave Rome the ability to install rational, efficient,

and stable government in the provinces

Augustus gave great prosperity



Brought in wealth by the conquest of Egypt during civil war

Increase in commerce and industry made peace possible and gave way to vast

public works projects

Return to successful small farming

The high point of Roman culture came under Augustus

Cicero gave orations in courts and in the Senate Wrote treatises on rhetoric, ethics, and politics which combine Greek

philosophy with Roman values

Believed in world government by divine and natural law that human reason

could perceive and human institutions reflect

Left important legacy for Middle Ages and the Renaissance

Last great Roman voice of the republic

Vergil was the most important Augustan poet

Aeneid was his greatest work

Glorified the civic greatness represented by Augustus and the peace and

prosperity that he brought to Rome

The problem of Augustus’s successors was the position of the ruler and his relation to

the everyday person

Augustus tried to hide his monarchy, but his successors abandoned pretenses

Rulers were called imperator and Caesar

Augustus could not legally name a successor because his power came from the

people and was voted to him by the Senate

Designating heirs by giving them shares in imperial powers and responsibilities

Augustus could enlist the active cooperation of the upper class and the Senate, which

made him successful

Election of magistrates was moved to the Senate

Senate became major center for legislation

Exercised important judicial powers

The Senate’s real power was illusionary and was a legislative and administrative

extension of emperor’s power

Provinces accepted Roman rule easily and flourished economically

In the East, emperor was considered a God and he was dedicated in Italy

Imperial policy combine was to unify the empire but still respect local customs and

differences

Roman citizenship spread and almost all people were citizens by 212 C.E.

Latin became the language in the west

The East spoke Greek and adopted Greek culture while still respecting and adopting

roman aspects of life

The army played an important role in the spread of Roman culture and religion

Legionnaires married local women and settled in that province when their term

was over

Administratively, Rome was a collection of small towns and cities with little to do with

the countryside

Roman policy was to raise urban centers to the status of municipalities with the

rights and privileges attached to them

Left responsibility in the hands of local councils and magistrates elected by the local

aristocracy



Romans enlisted the upper class of the provinces in their government

Spread roman law and culture

Won the loyalty of influential people

The first two centuries were the “Golden Age”

Difficult times were ahead though

Literary effort reveal flight from reality and the present to the past and romanticism Zeal of the upper class to serve their community as local officials disappeared

Emperor had to intervene to correct abuses and force nobles to serve

People did not want to serve because they had to collect the taxes and revenues

for the emperor

Magistrates even fled to avoid their offices

The wealth that was brought in during the civil war and from the east could not

sustain itself

There was a decline in population

Cost of government continued to increase

Emperors had to maintain a standing army

Subsidize food and entertainment to keep people of Rome happy

Pay for bureaucracy

To wage defensive wars against barbarians attacking borders

This caused the emperor to raise taxes, increase pressure on subjects, and bring

inflation by debasing Roman currency

Christianity

The Peace, stability and prosperity of Roman Empire made rise of Christianity possible

Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the time of Augustus in Judaea

Effective teacher in the tradition of the Jewish prophets

Jesus had success and won a following which caused suspicion among upper class

Message of love, charity and humility along with criticism of the Jewish religious

practices angered religious community

Jesus was put to death around Jerusalem in C.E. 30

He rose on the third day

His religion was spread passed Palestine to the rest of the Mediterranean by

Paul of Tarsus

It was especially popular with poor and uneducated in inner cities

At first, the churches and organizations were not very well organized

By second century C.E. Christians accepted the authority and leadership of a bishop

Extended power over Christian communities in overlying towns

Further strengthened by the doctrine of Apostolic Succession which said power that

Jesus gave disciples was passed on to bishops

The religion did not have the trust of the pagan world or the imperial government

Little persecution occurred in the first two centuries

Division was the greatest threat

Majority haled to conservative, traditional beliefs

This became the Catholic Church

Its teachings were deemed orthodox and others were heretics

Canon had been created that included the Old Testament, the Gospel, and the

Epistles of Paul by the end of the second century



The church was the depository of Christian teaching and the bishops were the

receivers

Drew up creeds to which Christians should adhere

Orthodox Christians had to accept the creeds, cannons of holy writings, and

bishop authority

Rome became the most important center of Christianity

Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

By the time that Christianity was established, Rome had entered a period of instability

known as the “crisis of the third economy”

There were massive pressures on Rome’s frontiers

Persians pressed from the East

German endangered the north and the west

When the empire moved force to one area, it weakened another

The roman empire became composed of slaves, gladiators, barbarians and convicts

forced to fight

The emperor was dependant on the military for power

Military spending put massive economic pressure on Rome

There was no credit financing

Emperor compelled the people to provide food, supplies, money, and labor

Upper classmen were forced to serve and cover budget caps from their own

pockets

The changes in authority, army, and tax systems undermined the authority and

the morality of the ruling class

The Emperor Diocletian broke up the empire into four administrative units at the end of

the third century

Each had its own ruler and capital

It was not affective

Constantine temporarily reunited the empire

Established his capital at Constantinople in 330

Fracturing resulted in empire’s east and west halves acting as independent entities

East became the Byzantine empire and thrived in the 15th

century

The west became rural and subject to increasingly barbarian attacks at the same

time (this side was really where the decline happened)

The villa, a fortified country estate became the basic unit of life

Coloni were personal landowners who gave their service to local magnate in

return for economic assistance and protection

Cities shrank to tiny, walled fortresses ruled by military commanders and

bishops

Lack of roads and increase in crime from robbers led to a decline in trade and

communication, leading to greater self reliance and more primitive styles of life The Christian church was the only thing that provided unity

The new central position of the christen church was deeply rooted in political and

cultural turmoil

People turned to various kinds of religion, including Christianity

Traditional religious institutions collapsed

Christianity offered a rich and attractive philosophy

Had a God who had suffered, died, was resurrected, mystical,



Had sacred rites, a moral code, a strong sense of community, spiritual equality

amongst gender, wealth,

A promise of immortality

The church was efficient and its doctrines of man under a loving Gods were

attractive

The church prospered in the 3rd

century, but it was briefly persecuted as well

In 303, Diocletian persecuted the church

It backfired and generated sympathy for the Christians

Constantine began to look to the Christian God

He won at the Battle of Milvian Bridge

This resulted in his support of the Christian cause

He did not outlaw pagan worship, but he tolerated Christians and gave various

official privileges to the church

After him, only one emperor did not support Christians

Theodosius forbade the celebration of pagan cults and abolished pagan

calendars

After his death, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire

This establishment of the church aroused new problems

Favored position of the church attracted converts for the wrong reason

Problem of the relationship between church and state arose

Christianity might fall under the stat3

It had first been erected when government was crumbling

In 378, emperor Valens was defeated by German tribes at the Battle of Adrianople

The Romans passively permitted settlement after settlement of barbarians

In 410, Rome was sacked by Visigoths

In 476, Romulus Augustulus was replaced by barbarian Odoacer, marking the end of

the Roman Empire

Power passed from Rome to chieftains in different areas

Europe Enters the Middle Ages

The barbarians now controlled the west, but they were willing to learn

The Romans retained their culture

The German and Roman cultures were fused during German invasion, but Roman

culture was stronger

Collapse of the Roman Empire marked the beginning of the Middle Ages in the west

Early Middle Ages

476-1000

Birth of distinct western culture

Period of recovery from the collapse of the Roman empire

Force experimentation with new ideas and new institutions

Western European culture was a mix of surviving Graeco-Roman, new Germanic,

and evolving Christianity

Experimentation required because of invasions, local political and economic

turmoil, the replacement of paganism with Christianity, and the new threat of

militant Islam

The Byzantine Empire

Power shifted to the Eastern half of the roman empire centered in Constantinople



Between 324 and 1453, the empire expanded into splendor and then contracted

and collapsed

Between 324 and 632, the empire saw greatest territorial expansion and it political

and cultural golden age

Roman law was collated and revised under Justinian to aid the growth of central

government

Constantinople became the cultural crossroads of the East

Islamic Armies began to besiege the empire

Emperor Leo II repelled them, but made Christians upset by forbidding the use of

images in churches

Contributed to the schism between Western and Eastern Christianity

In 1071, the Seljuk Turks overran the eastern provinces of the empire

Western Christians sacked Constantinople in 1204

The Ottoman Turks took over Constantinople in 1453 and ended the empire

The Rise of Islam

Muhammad was the founder of Islam

Became prophet at 40

Religion was named Islam

Adherents are called Muslims

Use Quran as religious text

Islam recognizes Jesus, but believes him to be another prophet and not son of god

Monotheistic

Islam as a religion

Must pray 5 times a day

Generous almsgivings required

Fasting during the daylight hours during one month

Must make a pilgrimage to Mecca

Able to forge an Arab culture and imposed it by force making it a spiritual force thatunified the Arabs

By the middle of the eighth century, Muslims had conquered the southern and Eastern

Mediterranean as well as parts of Spain and had pushed into Mesopotamia, Persia, and

beyond

Caused Europeans to develop a lasting suspicion of Muslims

Army led by Charles Martel defeat Arabs at Poitiers

Prevented further Muslim incursion

Resulted in less trade and Muslim dominance of the Mediterranean

New Importance of the Christian Church

The control of the Mediterranean by the Muslims resulted in a distinctive western

cultural

Shipping in the Mediterranean and Mediterranean cities decreased

People who would be engaged in shipping moved into the inner region and farmed

on lands of great land owners

Domains of these landholders became the basic social, political and economic units

of society

The Christian church became more important

Local bishops and the church filled the vacuum caused by a lack of authority



Local cathedral became the center of urban life

Local bishop became the highest officials in cities

The church had the hierarchical structure and the educated people scattered

throughout the empire

Church strengthened itself through monasticism

Purest forms of religious practices in the Middle Ages

Evolved into the belief that clergy were superior to the state

Bishops also made a claim to power within the church itself

They were always opposed to intervention by the state

Took advantage of imperial weakness and distraction to develop papal primacy

Raised roman pontiff to supremacy in the church when defining orthodox

church doctrine and practice

Put Pope in position to make secular claims which conflicted with the state

Charlemagne

There was an absence of political leadership in the Middle Ages

There was a struggle between the king looking for loyalty from his local people and

the groups of magistrates to preserve local autonomy and local customs

There was only one person who achieved centralized power during this time period:

the Frankish King Charlemagne

Charlemagne

Kingdom included France, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, western Germany, Italy

and Corsica

Developed strong political ties with local nobles and the church

Was considered church’s protector

Crowned Emperor on Christmas 800 by Pope Leo III

This created a revival of Western Roman Empire called the Holy Roman Empire

He ruled through is counts

Strategically located within administrative districts

Counts were often local magnates who had guns and self-interest to enforce the

rules of the king

They were never completely loyal or completely controlled politically

Acquired great wealth through looting and conquered lands

Used it to attract scholars to capital of Aachen

Wanted them to use skills to upgrade skills of clerics and bureaucrats

Rebirth of antiquity occurred as scholars collected, studied, and preserved

ancient manuscripts

After the death of Charlemagne and his son, Louis the Pious, the kingdom was divided

into three equal parts by the Treaty of Verdun

The Middle section called Lotharingia which composed Belgium, Holland,

Switzerland, Alsace and Lorraine, and Italy

The Western Section was made of modern France

The Eastern Section was made of Germany

Long term loyalty to the monarch of various regions was unattainable

Monarchs fought each other and nobles looked out for their own interest

The papacy lost its power as it backed one king after another in an attempt to keep

political power



There were attacks from the Scandinavian Vikings to the north, the Magyars to the east,

and the Muslims in the South

Local populations became reliant on local strongmen for protection

Feudal and Manorial Society

Middle Ages were a time of fragmentation and decentralization in which the weak

sought protection from the strong Feudal Society refers to the social, political, military, and economic system that emerged

in response to these conditions

A regional prince or local lord is dominant

Mutual trust and fidelity are the highest virtues

People need assurance that they can rely on others in dire situations

The Vassalage and the Fief

Vassalage involved a promise to refrain from actions that may in any way threaten

the lord’s well-being and to perform for him when he please (usually military aid)

After this, a person was granted a fief

A fief is the physical and material wherewithal to meet the vassal’s obligations

Take the form of liquid wealth

More likely, it was a grant of land

This sometimes resulted in confusion

One vassal could be the vassal of multiple lords

Personal loyalty and service became secondary to acquiring land

The Manorial System

Became prominent where feudalism did not

Village farms owned by landlords were called manors

Peasants labored under a lord who gave them land and tenements in return for

their service and a portion of the crops

Some peasants were free and had their own and

They had certain rights despite giving land and service to a landlord

Those who entered without any land were unfree serfs

Serfs owed labor to their lord multiple days of the week

They had to pay certain dues as well

Serfs were discontent and escaped multiple times

Church and State in the High Middle Ages

The High Middle Ages (1000-1300)

Mark a period of political expansion and consolidation

Also saw intellectual flowering

The borders of Europe were secured against invaders

There was also the emergence oof monarchies in the major countries

Parliaments also appeared to secure the rights of the nobles, clergy, and

townspeople against the monarchy

There was a revival of commerce, the growth of towns, emergence of a rich

merchant class, and the ancestors of modern capitalists

The Pope and the church also established itself as the authority independent of secular

monarchs

Occurred during the Investiture Struggle

Church had internal reforms as well led by monastery of Cluny



Demanded higher moral standards of clergy

Required separation of church and state

Political officials had previously appointed bishops

Under Pope Gregory VII, the papacy declared its independence

Bishops were to be installed by ecclesiastical power in the church and

empowered by the pope

Concordat of Worms in 1122 found that the Pope would give bishops their

religious powers and politicians gave them their lands

The clergy became independent and the pope asserted itself as an

independent power

The Division of Christendom

From the start, there was a difference in language and culture between the western and

eastern church

Eastern patriarchs had a strong mystical orientation and submitted to the church

In the west, the pope refused to submit to secular monarchs

West required celibacy, whereas the east allowed priests, but not bishops to take

wives

East used leavened bread whereas the west used unleavened

East objected to the west’s description of the holy spirit and its use of icons

There was a more severe conflict though

East put more emphasis on the Bible and ecumenical council than the pope and

Roman primacy

Roman popes claimed they had power based on Bible stories

East would not accept this

East preferred local autonomy of the church

The Rise of Towns

Thanks to an improved climate, agricultural expansion and an end to invasion, the

population of Europe began to grow

Resulted in the rebirth and the creation of Roman towns

In the Middle Ages, the seaports of Italy had maintained trade and culture better

than others

This resulted in a new merchant class which achieve greatest success after the First

Crusade

Bourgeois first appeared as a negative term to describe the newly powerful

townspeople

New addition to the traditional social ranks of knight, cleric, and serf

First designated merchant groups who made prosperity around old Roman towns

and cities

They were condemned by the clergy because they were in banking and trade

Nobility was also threatened because merchants had found a new way to makemoney that threatened their political and social power

Common people admired the merchants and saw their success as making economic

opportunity for them

New towns became magnets for skilled and ambitious peasants

Gain freedom from serfdom

Found new vocations

Some peasants experienced new social mobility and became gentlemen



Merchants disliked the traditional laws and customs which gave clergy and nobility

special privilege

Notions of morality and work threatened urban life and further progress

Merchants lobbied for commercial freedom wherever they settled

They had support of the townspeople

Against tolls, tariffs, and petty regulation that restricted trade and commercialactivity

People wanted a government in which tradesmen and craftsmen determined policy

Policy made by overlords was exploiting towns and not nurturing growth

This brought towns into conflict with static agriculture

Merchant Guilds and protective associations sprang up to advance business

interests and the well-being of their members

Towns also allied with kings against the nobility and townspeople became a force to

break feudal system

The Crusades

In 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at Clermont in France

Liberate the Holy Land from the Muslims

Promised a release from mortal sin and suffering in purgatory should they die

Three great armies and tens of thousands from France, Italy and Germany gathered

and converged on the Middle East

They captured Jerusalem in 1099

Jerusalem again felt to Muslims by the Middle of the next century

Other Crusades were attempted, but never achieve success

Later crusades stimulated trade between east and west and merchants of Genoa,

Pisa, and Venice benefited

The Rise of New Monarchies

Monarchies began to establish their authorities againt the nobility

There were different degrees of authority in every country, but all had authority

over law, military affairs, and taxation

England

William, Duke of Normandy, conquered England in 1066 by defeating the Anglo-

Saxon Army at Hastings

William was crowned King of England by right and hereditary claims

He also remained Duke of Normandy, giving him extensive lands in France

He organized the new nation shrewdly

Subjected noble vassals to the crown, but consulted with them about questions

regarding the state

Balance between monarchial rule and noble elements in the political body

William’s successors pressed their authority more boldly against the church and the

nobility

Henry II aroused strong opposition to Thomas a Becket, archbishop of

Canterbury

Henry’s agents killed Becket in his cathedral

English resistance to monarchy turned into rebellion under the brother Richard

the Lion-Hearted and John

Crusades to the Holy Land put high taxation on the nation



John’s conflicts with the Pope led to his excommunication and English

exclusion from the church which resulted in a lack of services

Rebellion led to the Magna Carta in 1215

The Magna Carta

Victory of the English noblemen, clergy, and towns over the monarchy

Restored the internal political balance

The monarchy remained intact with power as well

France

English conquests in Normandy roused the French and made it possible for the

Capetian Dynasty to make a true monarchy after the Frank Dynasty ended

William of Normandy was a vassal of the French king when he took England

French Kings were concerned about their power

Louis VI made an alliance with Flanders

Louis VII found allies in Northern cities and amassed huge wealth to build a

royal army

Philip II Augustus inherited resources and bureaucracy from his

predecessors

Resisted French nobility

Focused upon retaking French land from the English

He defeated the English in the first great battle of Europe at Bouvines

on June 27, 1214

Victory unified France around the monarchy and laid foundations for

future French political and military ascendancy

Louis IX’s piety lent moral authority to the monarchy

Bureaucracy shifted from a tool of exploitation to an instrument of order

and justice in France

French associated the king with justice and grew national pride and close to

him

Holy Roman Empire The empire consisted of Germany, Burgundy, and Northern Italy

Two centuries of feuding and disunity resulted in German fragmented until modern

times

Fredrick I Barbarossa established the Hohenstaufen Dynasty, succeeding the

Ottonians

He set out to reestablish power of the emperors after a long conflict

between the church and state called the investiture controversy

Led to fierce feuds between church and state

Popes excommunicated Fredrick II four times and the feud became deadly

before he was removed and defeated by German princes

After, Germany was politically primitive to other European countries The church launched a new invasion into power in Europe

Occurred especially under Pope Innocent IV

Church became criticized for political self-aggrandizement

The Emerging Contours of Europe

The political contours of Europe that would exist from 1300 to 1500 were about set

France and England had stable monarchies which competed economically and

politically



Holy Roman emperors preside over the princes instead of ruling

The papacy still exuded almost monarchial power

In Italy, there were independent city-states that were the chief political units

There was strong Arab presence and influence in the Mediterranean

The Byzantine Empire remained intact

Europe was experiencing strong political stability Universities and Scholasticism

An important intellectual flowering occurred from 1100 to 1300

Thanks to Spanish Muslims, the works of Aristotle, the writings of Euclid and

Ptolemy, basic works of Greek physicians, works of Arab mathematicians, and large

texts of Roman law were available to western scholars

Muslims preserved, translated and interpreted these documents

This led to the rise of universities in Europe

The first important university was founded at Bologna in 1158, specializing in

law

University of Paris was founded in 1200 and focused on theology

Oxford, Cambridge and Heidelberg were founded later

Universities required foundation in liberal arts for further study

Trivium consisted of grammar, rhetoric and logic

Quadrivium consisted of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music

Aristotle’s works deeply influenced Europe

Logic and dialectic tools triumphed over liberal arts

Scholars read the teachings of those in their field, summarized and drew their own

conclusions

Critics feared that logic threatened biblical and other church authority

Chapter 9: The Late Middle Ages

The Black Death

Preconditions and Causes of the Plague

Popular Remedies

Social and Economic Consequences New Conflicts and Opportunities

The Hundred Years’ War and the Rise of National Sentiment

The Causes of the War

Progress of the War

Ecclesiastical Breakdown and Revival: The Late Medieval Church

The Thirteenth Century Papacy

Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair



The Avignon Papacy (1309-1377)

John Wycliffe and john Huss

The Great Schism (1378-1417) and the Conciliar Movement to 1449

Medieval Russia

Politics and Society

Mongol Rule (1243-1480)

In Perspective

Chapter 10: Renaissance and Discovery

The Renaissance in Italy

The Italian City-State

Humanism

Renaissance Art

Slavery in the Renaissance

Italy’s Political Decline: The French Invasions (1494-1527)

Charles VIII’s March Through Italy

Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family

Pope Julius II

Niccolò Machiavelli The Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe

France

Spain

England

The Holy Roman Empire

The northern Renaissance

The Printing Press

Erasmus

Humanism and Reform

Voyages of Discoveries and the New Empires in the West and East

The Portuguese Chart the Course

The Spanish Voyages of Columbus

The Spanish Empire in the New World

The Church in Spanish America

The Economy of Exploitation

The Impact on Europe

In Perspective

Chapter 11: The Age of Reformation

Society and Religion

Social and Political Conflict

Popular Religious Movements and Criticism of the Church

Martin Luther and the German Reformation to 1525

Justification by Faith Alone

The Attack on Indulgences

Election of Charles V

Luther’s Excommunication and the Diet of Worms

Imperial Distractions: War with France and the Turks

How the Reformation Spread

The Peasant’s Revolt

The Reformation Elsewhere



Zwingli and the Swiss Reformation

Anabaptists and Radical Protestants

John Calvin and the Genevan Reformation

Political Consolidation of the Lutheran Reformation

The Diet of Augsburg

The Expansion of the Reformation

Reaction Against Protestants

The Peace of Augsburg

The English Reformation to 1553

The Preconditions of Reform

The King’s Affair

The “Reformation Parliament”

Wives of Henry VIII

The King’s Religious Conservatism

The Protestant Reformation under Edward VI

Catholic Reform and the Counter-Reformation

Sources of Catholic Reform

Ignatius of Loyola and the Jesuits The Council of Trent (1545-1563)

The Social Significance of the Reformation in Western Europe

The Revolution in religious Practices and Institutions

The Reformation and Education

The Reformation and the Changing Role of Women

Family Life in Early Modern Europe

Later Marriages

Arranged Marriages

Family Size

Birth Control

Wet Nursing

Loving Families?

Literary Imagination in Translation

Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra: Rejection of Idealism

William Shakespeare: Dramatist of the Age

In Perspective

Chapter 12: The Age of Religious Wars

Renewed Religious Struggles

The French Wars of Religion (1562-1598)

Appeal of Calvinism

Catherine de Médicis and the Guises

The Rise to Power of Henry of Navarre

The Edict of Nantes

Imperial Spain and Philip II (R. 1556-1598)

Pillars of Spanish Power

The Revolt in the Netherlands

England and Spain (1553-1603)

Mary I (r. 1553-1558)

Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603)

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)



Preconditions for War

Four Periods of War

The Treaty of Westphalia

In Perspective

Chapter 13: European State Consolidation in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries

The Netherlands: Golden Age to Decline

Urban Prosperity

Economic Decline

Two Models of European Political Development

Constitutional Crisis and Settlement in Stuart England

James I

Charles I

The Long Parliament and Civil War

Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Republic

Charles II and Restoration of the Monarchy

The “Glorious Revolution”

The Age of Walpole

Rise of absolute Monarchy in France: The World of Louis XIV Years of Personal Rule

Versailles

King by Divine Right

Louis’s Early Wars

Louis’s Repressive Religious Policies

Louis’s Later Years

France After Louis XIV

Central and Eastern Europe

Poland: Absence of Strong Authority

The Habsburg Empire and the Pragmatic Sanction

Prussia and the Hohenzollerns

Russia Enters the European Political Arena

The Romanov Dynasty

Peter the Great

The Ottoman Empire

Religious Toleration and Ottoman Government

The End of Ottoman Expansion

In Perspective

Chapter 14: New Directions in Thought and Culture in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

The Scientific Revolution

Nicolaus Copernicus Rejects an Earth-Centered Universe

Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler Make New Scientific Discoveries

Galileo Galilei Argues for a Universe of Mathematical Laws

Isaac Newton Discovers the Laws of Gravitation

Philosophy Responds to Changing Science

Nature as Mechanism

Francis Bacon: The Empirical Method

René Descartes: The Method of Rational Deduction

Thomas Hobbes: Apologist for absolute Government

John Locke: Defender of Moderate Liberty and Toleration



The New Institutions of Expanding Natural Knowledge

Women in the World of the Scientific Revolution

The New Science and Religious Faith

The Case of Galileo

Blaise Pascal: Reason and Faith

The English Approach to Science and Religion

Continuing Superstition

Witch-Hunts and Panic

Village Origins

Influence of the Clergy

Who Were the Witches?

End of the Witch-Hunts

Baroque Art

In Perspective

Chapter15: Society and Economy Under the Old Regime in the Eighteenth Century

Major Feature of Life in the Old Regime

Maintenance of Tradition

Hierarchy and Privilege The Aristocracy

Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege

Aristocratic Resurgence

The Land and Its Tillers

Peasants and Serfs

Aristocratic Domination of the Countryside: The English Game Laws

Family Structure and the Family Economy

Households

The Family Economy

Women and the Family Economy

Children and the World of the Family Economy

The Revolution in Agriculture

New Crops and New Methods

Expansion of the Population

The Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century

A Revolution in Consumption

Industrial Leadership in Great Britain

New Methods of Textile Production

The Steam Engine

Iron Production

The Impact of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions on Working Women

The Growth of Cities

Patterns of Preindustrial Urbanization

Urban Classes

The Urban Riot

The Jewish People: The Age of the ghetto

In Perspective

Chapter 16: The Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars, and Colonial Rebellion

Periods of European Overseas Empires

Mercantile Empires



Mercantilist Goals

French-British Rivalry

The Spanish Colonial System

Colonial Government

Trade Regulation

Colonial Reform Under the Spanish Bourbon Monarchs

Black African Slavery, the Plantation System, and the Atlantic Economy

The African Presence in the Americas

Slavery and the Transatlantic Economy

The Experience of Slavery

Mid-Eighteenth Century Wars

The War of Jenkins’s Ear

The War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

The “Diplomatic Revolution” of 1756

The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)

The American Revolution and Europe

Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue

The Crisis and Independence American Political Ideas

Events in Great Britain

Broader Impact of the American Revolution

In Perspective

Chapter 17: The Age of Enlightenment

Formative Influences on the Enlightenment

Ideas of Newton and Locke

The Example of British Toleration and Political Stability

The Emergence of a Print Culture

The Philosophes

Voltaire-First Among the Philosophes

The Enlightenment and Religion

Deism

Toleration

Radical Enlightenment Criticism of Christianity

Jewish Thinkers in the Age of Enlightenment

Islam in Enlightenment Thought

The Enlightenment and Society

The Encyclopedia: Freedom and Economic Improvement

Beccaria and Reform of Criminal Law

The Physiocrats and Economic Freedom

Adam Smith on Economic Growth and Social Progress

Political Thoughts of the Philosophes

Montesquieu and Spirit of the Laws

Rousseau: A Radical Critique of Modern Society

Enlightened Critics of European Empires

Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment

Rococo and Neoclassical Styles in Eighteenth-Century Art

Enlightened Absolutism

Fredrick the Great of Prussia



Joseph II of Austria

Catherine the Great of Russia

The Partition of Poland

The End of the Eighteenth Century in Central and Eastern Europe

In Perspective

Chapter 18: The French Revolution

The Crisis of the French Monarchy

The Monarchy Seeks New Taxes

Necker’s Report

Calonne’s Reform Plan and the Assembly of Notables

Deadlock and the Calling of the Estates General

The Revolution of 1789

The Estates General Becomes the National Assembly

Fall of the Bastille

The “Great Fear” and the night of August 4

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

The Parisian Women’s March on Versailles

The Reconstruction of France Political Reorganization

Economic Policy

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Counterrevolutionary Activities

The End of the Monarchy: A Second Revolution

Emergence of the Jacobins

The Convention and the Role of the Sans-culottes

Europe at War with the Revolution

Edmund Burke Attacks the Revolution

Suppression of Reform in Britain

The Second and Third Partitions of Poland, 1793, 1795

The Reign of Terror

War with Europe

The Republic Defended

The “Republic of Virtue” and Robespierre’s Justification of Terror

Repression of the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women

De-Christianization

Revolutionary Tribunals

The End of the Terror

The Thermidorian Reaction

Establishment of the Directory

Removal of the Sans-culottes from Political Life

In Perspective

Chapter 19: The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism

The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

Early Military Victories

The Constitution of the Year VIII

The Consulate in France (1799-1804)

Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Opposition

Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church



The Napoleonic Code

Establishing a Dynasty

Napoleon’s Empire (1804-1814)

Conquering an Empire

The Continental System

European Response to the Empire

German Nationalism and Prussian Reform

The Wars of Liberation

The Invasion of Russia

European Coalition

The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement

Territorial Adjustments

The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance

The Romantic Movement

Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy of Reason

Rousseau and Education

Kant and Reason

Romantic Literature The English Romantic Writers

The German Romantic Writers

Romantic Art

The Cult of the Middle Ages and Neo-Gothicism

Nature and the Sublime

Religion in the Romantic Period

Methodism

New Directions in Continental Religion

Romantic Views of Nationalism and History

Herder and Culture

Hegel and History

Islam, the Middle East, and romanticism

In Perspective

Chapter 20: The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform (1815-1832)

The Challenges of Nationalism and Liberalism

The Emergence of Nationalism

Early-Nineteenth-Century Political Liberalism

Conservative Governments: the Domestic Political Order

Conservative Outlooks

Liberalism and Nationalism Resisted in Austria and the Germanies

Postwar Repression in Great Britain

Bourbon Restoration in France

The Conservative International Order

The Congress System

The Spanish Revolution of 1820

Revolt Against Ottoman Rule in the Balkans

The War of Independence in Latin America

Revolution in Haiti

Wars of Independence on the South American Continent

Independence in New Spain



Brazilian Independence

The Conservative Order Shaken in Europe

Russia: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825

Revolution in France(1830)

Belgium Becomes Independent (1830)

The Great Reform Bill in Britain (1832)

In Perspective

Chapter 21: Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1820-1850)

Towards an Industrial Society

Population and Migration

Railways

The Labor Force

The Emergence of a Wage-Labor Force

Working-Class Political Action: The Example of British Chartism

Family Structure and the industrial Revolution

The Family in the Early Factory System

Women in the Early Industrial Revolution

Opportunities and Exploitation in Employment Changing Expectations in the Working-Class Marriage

Problems of Crime and Order

New Police Forces

Prison Reform

Classical Economics

Malthus on Population

Ricardo on Wages

Government Policies Based on Classical Economics

Early Socialism

Utopian Socialism

Anarchism

Marxism

1848: Year of Revolutions

France: The Second Republic and Louis Napoleon

The Hapsburg Empire: Nationalism Resisted

Italy: Republicanism Defeated

Germany: Liberalism Frustrated

In Perspective

Chapter 22: The Age of Nation States

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Peace Settlement and Long-Term Results

Reforms in the Ottoman Empire

Italian Unification

Romantic Republicans

Cavour’s policy

The New Italian State

German Unification

Bismarck

The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871)

France: From Liberal Empire to the Third Republic



The Paris Commune

The Third Republic

The Dreyfus Affair

The Hapsburg Empire

Formation of the Dual Monarchy

Unrest of Nationalities

Russia: Emancipation and Revolutionary Stirrings

Reforms of Alexander II

Revolutionaries

Great Britain: Towards Democracy

The Second Reform Act (1867)

Gladstone’s Great Ministry (1868-1874)

Disraeli in Office (1874-1880)

The Irish Question

In Perspective

Chapter 23: The Building of European Supremacy: Society and Politics to World War I

Population Trends and Migration

The Second Industrial Revolution New Industries

Economic Difficulties

The Middle Class in Ascendancy

Social Distinctions Within the Middle Classes

Late-Nineteenth Century Urban Life

The Redesign of Cities

Urban Sanitation

Housing Reform and Middle-Class Value

Varieties of Late-Nineteenth-Century Women’s Experiences

Women Social Disabilities

New Employment Patterns for Women

Working-Class Women

Poverty and Prostitution

Women of the Middle Class

The Rise of Political Feminism

Jewish Emancipation

Differing Degrees of Citizenship

Broadened Opportunities

Labor, Socialism, and Politics to World War I

Trade Unionism

Democracy and Political Parties

Karl Marx and the First International

Great Britain: Fabianism and Early Welfare Programs

France: “Opportunism” Rejected

Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism

Russia: Industrial Development and the Birth of Bolshevism

In Perspective

Chapter 24: The Birth of Modern European Thought

The New Reading Public

Advances in Primary Education



Reading Material for the Mass Audience

Science at Midcentury

Comte, Positivism, and the Prestige of Science

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

Science and Ethics

Christianity and the Church Under Siege

Intellectual Skepticism

Conflict Between Church and State

Areas of Religious Revival

The Roman Catholic Church and the Modern World

Islam and the Late-Nineteenth-Century European Thought

Toward a Twentieth-Century Frame of Mind

Science: The Revolution in Physics

Literature: Realism and Naturalism

Modernism in Literature

The Coming of Modern Art

Friedrich Nietzsche and the Revolt Against Reason

The Birth of Psychoanalysis Retreat from Rationalism in Politics

Racism

Anti-Semitism and the Birth of Zionism

Women and Modern Thought

Antifeminism in Late-Century Thought

New Directions in Feminism

In Perspective

Chapter 25: Imperialism, Alliances and Wars

Expansion of European Power and the New Nationalism

The New Imperialism

Motives for the New Imperialism

The “Scramble for Africa”

Asia

Emergence of the German Empire and the Alliance System (1873-1890)

Bismarck’s Leadership

Forging the Triple Entente (1890-1907)

World War I

The Road to War (1908-1914)

Sarajevo and the Outbreak of War (June-August 1914)

Strategies and Stalemate: 1914-1917

The Russian Revolution

The Provisional Government

Lenin and the Bolsheviks

The Communist Dictatorship

The End of World War I

Germany’s Last Offensive

The Armistice

The End of the Ottoman Empire

The Settlement at Paris

Obstacles the Peacemakers Faced



The Peace

Evaluating the Peace

In Perspective

Chapter 26: Political Experiments in the 1920’s

Political and Economic Factors after the Paris Settlement

Demands for Revision of the Paris Settlement

Postwar Economic Problems

New Roles for Government and Labor

The Soviet Experiment Begins

War Communism

The new Economic Policy

Stalin Versus Trotsky

The Third International

Women and the Family in the Early Soviet Union

The Fascist Experiment in Italy

The Rise of Mussolini

The Fascists in Power

Motherhood for the Nation in Fascist Italy Joyless Victory

France: The Search for Security

Great Britain: Economic Confusion

Trials of the Successor States in Eastern Europe

Economic and Ethnic Pressures

Poland: Democracy to Military Rule

Czechoslovakia: A Viable Democratic Experiment

Hungary: Turn to Authoritarianism

Austria: Political Turmoil and Nazi Occupation

Southeastern Europe: Royal Dictatorships

The Weimar Republic in Germany Constitutional Flaws

Lack of Broad Popular Support

Invasion of the Ruhr and Inflation

Hitler’s Early Career

The Stresemann Years

Locarno

In Perspective

Chapter 27: Europe and the Great Depression of the 1930’s

Toward the Great Depression

The Financial Tailspin

Problems in Agricultural Commodities

Depression and Government Policy

Confronting the Great Depression in the Democracies

Great Britain: The National Government

France: The Popular Front

Germany: The Nazi Seizure of Power

Depression and Political Deadlock

Hitler Comes to Power

Hitler’s Consolidation of Power



The Police State and Anti-Semitism

Racial Ideology and the Lives of Women

Nazi Economic Policy

Italy Fascist Economics

Syndicates

Corporations

Stalin’s Soviet Union: Central Economic Planning, Collectivization, and Party Purges

The Decision for Rapid Industrialization

The Collectivization of Agriculture

Flight to the Soviet Cities

Urban Consumer Shortages

Foreign Reactions and Repercussions

The Purges

In Perspective

Chapter 28: World War II

Again the Road to War (1933-1939)

Hitler’s Goals

Italy Attacks Ethiopia Remilitarization of the Rhineland

The Spanish Civil War

Austria and Czechoslovakia

Munich

The Nazi-Soviet Pact

World War II (1939-1945)

The German Conquest of Europe

The Battle of Britain

The German Attack on Russia

Hitler’s Plans for Europe

Japan and the United States Enter the War

The Tide Turns

The Defeat of Nazi Germany

Fall of the Japanese Empire

The Cost of War

Racism and the Holocaust

The Destruction of the Polish Jewish Community

Polish Anti-Semitism Between the Wars

The Nazi Assault on Jews in Poland

Explanations of the Holocaust

The Domestic Fronts

Germany: From Apparent Victory to Defeat

France: Defeat, Collaboration, and Resistance

Great Britain: Organization for Victory

The Soviet Union: “The Great Patriotic War”

Preparations for Peace

The Atlantic Charter

Tehran: Agreement on a Second Front

Yalta

Potsdam



In Perspective

Chapter 29: The Cold War Era and the Emergence of a New Europe

The Emergence of the Cold War

Containment in American Foreign Policy

Soviet Domination of Eastern Europe

The Postwar Division of Germany

NATO and the Warsaw Pact

The Creation of the State of Israel

The Korean War

The Khrushchev Era in the Soviet Union

Khrushchev’s Domestic Policies

The Three Crises of 1956

Later Cold War Confrontations

The Berlin Wall

The Cuban Missile Crisis

The Brezhnev Era

1968: The Invasion of Czechoslovakia

The United States and Détente The Invasion of Afghanistan

Communism and Solidarity in Poland

Relations with the Reagan Administration

Decolonization: The European Retreat from Empire

Major Areas of Colonial Withdrawal

India

Further British Retreat from Empire

The Turmoil of French Decolonization

France and Algeria

France and Vietnam

Vietnam Drawn into the Cold War

Direct United States Involvement

The Collapse of European Communism

Gorbachev Attempts to Reform the Soviet Union

1989: Revolution in Eastern Europe

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

The Yeltsin Decade and Putin

The Collapse of Yugoslavia and Civil War

The Rise of Radical Political Islamism

Arab Nationalism

The Iranian Revolution

Afghanistan and Radical Islamism

A Transformed West

In Perspective

Chapter 30: The West at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century

The Twentieth-Century Movement of People

Displacement Through War

External and Internal Migration

The New Muslim Population

European Population Trends



Toward a Welfare State Society

Christian Democratic Parties

The Creation of Welfare States

Resistance to Expansion of the Welfare State

New Patterns in Work and Expectations of Women

Feminism

More Married Women in the Work Force

New Work Patterns

Women in the New Eastern Europe

Transformations in Knowledge and Culture

Communism and Western Europe

Existentialism

Expansion of the University Population and Student Rebellion

The Americanization of Europe

A Consumer Society

Environmentalism

Art Since World War II

Cultural Divisions and the Cold War Memory of the Holocaust

The Christian Heritage

Neo-Orthodoxy

Liberal Theology

Roman Catholic Reform

Late Twentieth-Century Technology: The Arrival of the Computer

The Demand for Calculating Machines

Early Computer Technology

The Development of Desktop Computers

The Challenges of European Unification

Postwar Cooperation

The European Economic Community

The European Union

Discord Over the Union

In Perspective

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