AN INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY

by

Milton Wainwright Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology

University of Sheffield Sheffield, England

~.

" SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wainwright, Milton. An introduction to environmental biotechnology I by Milton

Wainwright. p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4613-7394-0 ISBN 978-1-4615-5251-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-5251-2 1. Bioremediation. 1. Title.

TDI92.5.w35 1999 628.5--dc21 99-28474

CIP

Copyright © 1999 by Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1999 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover Ist edition 1999

An rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo­copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.

Printed on acid-free pa per.

For Chris, Anna and Rob

CONTENTS

FOREWORD xiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xv

1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The current bioremediation market 3 1.2 US environmental regulations and policies 3

REFERENCES 4

2 AN OVERVIEW OF MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATIONS 5 2.1 Ways in which microorganisms obtain a

living 5 2.2 The organisms 5 2.3 Factors influencing microbial growth in

the environment 7 2.4 Microbial nutrition 8 2.5 Bioavailability 8 2.6 Laboratory culture compared with microbial

growth in the environment 9 2.7 The complexity of natural environments 10

REFERENCES 10

3 THE CYCLING OF ELEMENTS IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 13 3.1 Biotransformations providing energy for

the growth of microorganisms 13 3.2 Degradation of aromatic compounds 14 3.3 Cellulose degradation 15 3.4 Lignin and wood decay 17 3.5 Biotechnological implications of wood

degradation 20 3.6 Transformations of nitrogen 21 3.7 Transformations of sulfur 22 3.8 Transformations of other elements 23

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3.9 Oligotrophy 23

REFERENCES 29

4 GENETIC EXCHANGE IN THE ENVIRONMENT 31 4.1 GEMS in the environment 33 4.2 Test cases involving the release of

GEMS 34 4.3 The use of ice minus bacteria 35 4.4 How can potential problems relating to

the release of GEMS be overcome? 35

REFERENCES 36

5 BIOREMEDIATION 37 5.1 Advantages and disadvantages of

bioremediation 38 5.2 In situ bioremediation 41 5.3 Creosote bioremediation 42 5.4 Ex situ bioremediation 43 5.5 Slurry bioremediation and compost piles 43 5.6 The importance of bioavailability 44 5.7 Use of fungi in bi.oremediation 45 5.8 Bioremediation using Phanerochaete

chrysosporium 46 5.9 Use of white rot fungi to decolorize dyes 52 5.10 Bioremediation of oil spills 53 5.11 Bioremediation of contaminated

groundwater 55 5.12 Phytoremediation of soil metals 56 5.13 Revegetation and stabilization of mine

dumps 57 5.14 Biological treatment of rubber wastes

including vehicle tires 57 5.15 Biological treatment of gypsum 58

REFERENCES 59

6 COMPOSTING AND SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 63 6.1 Landfill 63 6.2 Composting 64 6.3 Approaches to composting 65 6.4 Composting in Holland and Germany 66 6.5 The composting process 66 6.6 Pathogen destruction 68

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6.7 Starter inocula and enzymes 68 6.8 Improvements in composting 68 6.9 Centralized composting in the UK 69 6.10 Use of composted material 69 6.11 Microbial degradation of chicken

feathers 69 6.12 Biopolymer production in

microorganisms and plants-use in plastics 70

REFERENCES 71

7 SEWAGE AND WASTEWATER TREATMENT 73 7.1 Chemical measures of water pollution 73 7.2 Conventional biological treatment 74 7.3 Botanical approaches to waste water

treatment 78 7.4 The uses and application of sewage sludge 79 7.5 Sewage sludge disposal. The UK as an

example 79 7.6 Effect of agricultural disposal of sewage

sludge on microbial biomass 80 7.7 Interactions between soil microorganisms

and heavy metals 81 7.8 Eutrophication 82

REFERENCES 83

8 NOVEL TRENDS IN BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT 85 8.1 Enhanced biological phosphate removal 85 8.2 Recent advances in nitrogen removal 85 8.3 Microbial decolorization of dye-polluted

water 86 8.4 Use of microorganisms to remove

particulates from wastewaters 86 8.5 Biofilm bioreactors 87 8.6 Single cell protein and biomass from

waste water 89 8.7 Bio-de-emulsifiers 90 8.8 Use of protozoa to control algal blooms 91 8.9 Microalgae and waste water treatment 92

8.10 Use of immobilized cells in sewage treatment systems 92

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8.11 The mass culture of algae in open systems 93

REFERENCES 94

9 DETECTION METHODS FOR WATER-BORNE PATHOGENS 95 9.1 Recent improvements in the coliform

assay 96 9.2 Detection of viruses 96 9.3 Biosensors in waste water treatment 97

REFERENCES 99

10 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY OF FOSSIL FUELS 101 10.1 Microbial desulfurization of coal 101 10.2 Microbial desulfurization of oil shales 103 10.3 Microbial denitrogenation of fossil fuels 103 10.4 Microbial solubilization of coal 104 10.5 Microbial enhanced oil recovery 105

REFERENCES 106

11 BIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO SOLVING AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS 107 11.1 Biological techniques in use 107 11.2 Removal of chlorinated hydrocarbons

from air 108

REFERENCES 108

12 BIOFUELS 109 12.1 Plant-derived fuels 109 12.2 Biogas 109 12.3 Landfill gas 111 12.4 Bioethanol 111 12.5 Biohydrogen 112 12.6 Biofuels from algae 112 12.7 Short rotation coppices as a source of

fuel 113

REFERENCES 114

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13 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY OF MINERAL PROCESSING 115 13.1 Microorganisms involved in ore leaching 115 13.2 The use of fungi in metal leaching 118 13.3 Microbial recovery of metals from

solution 119 13.4 Products and processes for metal

bioremediation 120 13.5 Seaweeds as metal accumulators 121 13.6 Removal of metals using hard wood

barks, linseed straw and sludges 122 13.7 Microbial corrosion of metals 122 13.8 Bioflocculation of metals 123

REFERENCES 124

14 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE PAPER INDUSTRY 125 14.1 Debarking 125 14.2 Chip and pulp biodelignification 125 14.3 Biobleaching 125 14.4 Pitch and anionic trash elimination 126 14.5 Paper effluent treatment 126

REFERENCES 126

15 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY IN AGRICULTURE 127 15.1 Biofertilizers and microbial inoculants 127 15.2 Decontamination of pesticides using

microorganisms 128 15.3 Microbial pesticides 130 15.4 Bacteria and viruses as biocontrol agents

and biopesticides 130 15.5 Biological control using fungi 131 15.6 Control of fungal plant pathogens using

mycofungicides 131 15.7 Fungi as bioinsecticides 132 15.8 Use of fungi to control nematodes 134 15.9 Fungi as herbicides 135 15.10 Fermentation wastes as biofertilizers 135 15.11 Chemical products produced by fungi as

pesticides and biofertilizers 136 15.12 Mycorrhizal fungi as inoculants for use in

improving crop growth 136 15.13 Microorganisms in silage production 137

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15.14 Probiotics in agriculture 139

REFERENCES 140

16 ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 143 16.1 Dealing with timber-rotting fungi 144 16.2 Fungal biodeterioration of wooden

distribution poles-treatment using fungal biocontrol agents 144

REFERENCES 146

17 POLLUTION-EFFECTS ON MICROORGANISMS AND MICROBIAL ACTIVITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 147 17.1 Accumulation of metals and radionuclides

by macrofungi 147 17.2 Acid rain 150 17.3 Effects of acidic deposition on soils 157 17.4 Effects of acid rain on the soil biota 158 17.5 Acid rain and aquatic ecosystems 159 17.6 Microorganisms and heavy metals 160 17.7 Effects of heavy metals on soil

microorganisms 163 17.8 Effects of pesticides on soil microbial

activity 163

REFERENCES 168

18 INDEX 169

FOREWORD

Every day, we read in the media doom stories about the imminent end of the planet; how we are about to destroy our world through over exploitation and industrialization. There is no doubt that, as a species, living on a planet with finite resources, we face many problems There are however, two ways of facing such problems, we can be downbeat and wait around for the end of the world, a self­fulfilling prophecy, or else we can be upbeat and face our problems full on. Every environmental problem we face on this planet could be readily solved. No science is. required, all we have to do is to change our ways, stop reproducing and stop consuming. However, since both these pastimes are pleasant, and therefore extremely popular, it is unlikely that we will develop the social or political will to change our ways. As a result, we have only one alternative and that is to use our technology to combat any problems that arise from its use. For example, since we currently pollute the atmosphere with car exhausts, the fruits of technology, we must use technology to produce the non-polluting car. In fact we currently have many solutions to this, and other environmental problems. Such solutions cost money, and we seem not to want to spend money on the environment.

This book is about how we can use a form of technology, called environmental biotechnology to help solve some of the world's environmental problems. Environmental biotechnology is the use for this purpose of living organisms and the products of their metabolism. In the main, we use microorganisms to achieve this aim, essentially because they posses a diverse metabolism. Increasingly however, higher plants are also being employed to solve environmental problems, a fact illustrated by a number of references to their use throughout this book

This book is an introduction to environmental biotechnology. and it covers most of the main areas where living systems are used to solve environmental problems. While the environmental biotechnology bas, in the past, been mainly devoted to waste technology, the subject is beginning to diversify; here amongst other things, I have included discussion of the use of living systems as alternative to pesticides and chemical based plastics.

The book is based on courses which I give to undergraduate students, many of whom are chemical engineers and have only a rudimentary knowledge of microbiology, or in some cases biology in general. Before I began writing I did a straw pole of what these students would want from a book like this. The answers were in some ways surprising, since they went against what authors and publishers tend to expect to include in a student text. Firstly, the students wanted an introductory text that was not too weighted down with chemical formulae, equations and mathematics; these the students felt could be found elsewhere, once the basics bad been taken on board Next, I asked-Within the confines of space limitation what would you prefer in a book like this, text, graphs, tables, diagrams or photographs? Surprisingly the students said they rarely looked at graphs or tables in their textbooks and often felt that they were included as space fillers. So I have tried here to give students what they seem to want and have devoted the space available to me largely to text and where appropriate have included photographs, although not graphs and tables. Doubtless reviewers of this

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book will complain about these omissions. You cannot please everyone! The reader will also note that I have varied the use of notations such as ppm and ~g mI-l . This is because toxicologists tend to use the fonner, while physiologists prefer the latter, similarly I have sometimes used molar notations where they are conventionally used, but not for example in reference to the concentration of ions in soil.

When this book was being commissioned, a reviewer candidly stated that, in the US at least, students were moving away from studying environmental science, and that the best amongst them were opting for courses in genetics or medicine, where the most lucrative careers were to be found I hope that if true this is only a passing fad, since if we are to solve are many environmental problems we will need people with good brains and commitment. In my experience employment prospects are good for students who opt to study environmental biotechnology, and this use of this technology can only expand in the future as more an more governments around the world enforce ever more stricter environmental regulations. We have the technology to solve all of our environmental problems, all we need now is the political-social will and resource to do so.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr Ian Singleton for Figs. 4-6, Dr Khaled Al-Wajeeh for all his help, and all those ex-postgraduate students whose work I have used.