token economies chapter 25. some definitions conditioned reinforcers –not originally reinforcing...
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Token Economies
Chapter 25
Some Definitions
• Conditioned Reinforcers– Not originally reinforcing but becomes
reinforcer after being paired with other reinforcers
• Tokens– Conditioned reinforcers that endure,
can be accumulated and exchanged for backup reinforcers
• Token Economy– Behavior Modification program that
uses tokens
Advantages of Token Economies
• Can be given immediately• Paired with many different backup
reinforcers – Can be administered to large diverse
groups
Setting up a Token Economy
• Decide on target behavior– Define behaviors so that all involved can
identify instances of appropriate and inappropriate behavior
• Take baselines– Baseline data important to know what is
needed– Data can help with selecting backup reinforcers
• Select backup reinforcers– Identify backup consequences through direct
and indirect assessment– Use wide variety of backup reinforcers– Can use response-cost procedures to punish
inappropriate behavior
Setting up a Token Economy
• Select the type of tokens to use– Can take many forms, but should be:
• Durable• Easy to handle• Difficult to steal• Difficult to counterfeit
– Can gave graded value for tokens– Can associate different types of tokens
with different behaviors
Setting up a Token Economy
• Identify available help– Depending on the situation, different people may need
to help• Ex: teachers, volunteers, behaviorally advanced peers, etc.
• Choose the locations– Some locations are better than others, but often do not
have a choice of location• Managing Consequences
– Ensure backup reinforcers are on hand– Clearly describe criteria for earning and exchanging
tokens– Award tokens as immediately as possible– Use reinforcers such as praise with tokens– Keep accurate records – Provide bonuses for high-level performance– Train those administering tokens
Specific Implementation Procedures
• Must decide on procedures for:– Keeping data
• What kinds of sheets? • Who will record the data?• When will recording take place?
– The reinforcing agent• Who will administer the reinforcement and for
what behaviors?– Number or frequency of tokens to Pay
• More tokens to start• Gradually decrease number of tokens• Less pleasant activities might earn more
Specific Implementation Procedures Continued:
• Managing the Backup Reinforcers– How frequently will backup reinforcers be
made available?• Frequency high in the beginning
– How much will each reinforcer cost?• Should be related to monetary cost• High demand items should cost more• Low cost for backup reinforcers that have therapeutic
value
• Possible Punishment Contingencies– Can use tokens to administer punishment
through fines– May need to teach clients how to accept fines in
a nonaggressive, relatively nonemotional way
Specific Implementation Procedures Continued:
• Supervision of Staff– Duties must be clearly spelled out– Staff must be monitored closely– Reinforcement must be offered for appropriate
behavior• Handling Potential Problems
– Problems must be planned for in advance– Likely problems:
• Confusion• Staff shortages• Attempts by clients to get tokens they have not earned
or backup reinforcers for which they do not have enough tokens
• Clients playing with tokens in distracting ways• Failure to purchase backup reinforcers
Preparing a Manual
• Token Economy Manual– Written set of rules describing exactly
how the economy is to run– Includes:
• Definite procedures for evaluating whether or not the rules are being followed adequately and procedures for ensuring that they are
• Methods for arbitrating disputes about rules
– Should be detailed– Should be given to all staff members
Programming Generality to the Natural Environment
• Token economy should be designed so that social reinforcement gradually replaces tokens
• Weaning from tokens:– Eliminate tokens gradually
• Gradually make the schedule of token delivery more and more intermittent
– Decrease token value gradually• Gradually decrease amount of backup
reinforcement that a token can purchase• Or, gradually increase the delay between getting
tokens and purchase of backup reinforcements
– Gradually transfer control to the clients
Ethical Considerations
• Must take precusions to avoid abuse
• Making the system completely open to public scrutiny may ensure that no abuse happens
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